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The IB MYP Chemistry Study Guide covers atomic models, subatomic particles, bonding types, electronic configurations, chemical equations, changes in matter, types of chemical reactions, the pH scale, conductivity in substances, and household detergents. It explains the evolution of atomic theory, the nature of chemical bonds, and the classification of reactions while emphasizing the periodic table's organization and trends. Key concepts include the distinction between physical and chemical changes, the behavior of acids and bases, and the role of detergents in cleaning processes.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
29 views18 pagesChem Notes
The IB MYP Chemistry Study Guide covers atomic models, subatomic particles, bonding types, electronic configurations, chemical equations, changes in matter, types of chemical reactions, the pH scale, conductivity in substances, and household detergents. It explains the evolution of atomic theory, the nature of chemical bonds, and the classification of reactions while emphasizing the periodic table's organization and trends. Key concepts include the distinction between physical and chemical changes, the behavior of acids and bases, and the role of detergents in cleaning processes.
Uploaded by
snis0568Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
11125, 133 PM CChalGPT - Shared Content
© chatapt
IB MYP Chemistry Study Guide
Atomic Models
The concept of the atom evolved through several models. Dalton’s model (1803) viewed
atoms as indivisible particles; he proposed that all atoms of an element are identical in
mass and combine in fixed ratios to form compounds entirexsow . Thomson's “plum
pudding” model (1904) pictured a diffuse sphere of positive charge with embedded
electrons, but later experiments showed this was incorrect staniacm . Rutherford’s
model (1911) came from his gold-foil experiment: he found that most alpha particles
passed through foil (atoms are mostly empty space) but some deflected sharply,
implying a tiny, dense positive nucleus ssmiacm trsmiacon . Bohr’s model (1913) built
on Rutherford: electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels or shells, and can jump
between them by absorbing/emitting energy =ruteesoy , Modern atomic theory treats
electrons as a cloud of probability (quantum model) with orbitals instead of fixed orbits,
but retains the nucleus-and-electrons structure.
Subatomic Particles
Atoms contain three primary particles: protons (positive charge, ~1 amu) and neutrons
(no charge, ~1 amu) in the nucleus, and electrons (negative charge, ~5.4x10™ amu)
orbiting outside chnttwiog crnttresiog , The atomic number of an element equals its
number of protons (and in a neutral atom, electrons). The mass number is the total
protons+neutrons in the nucleus. Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same
protons) with different neutron counts, altering their mass number but not chemical
behavior. For example, carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-14 has 8 neutrons. Protons
(+1) and neutrons (~0) reside in the dense nucleus, while electrons (-1) form a cloud
Around it sentirtestsog chem firtentsorg
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Bonding
* lonic Bonding: Occurs between metals and nonmetals. One atom (usually a metal)
loses valence electrons to become a positive ion, while another (a nonmetal) gains
those electrons to become a negative ion. The resulting cations and anions attract
each other by electrostatic force, forming a crystal lattice. For example, Na (metal)
gives up one electron to CI (nonmetal) to form Na* and Cl, which bind as NaCl.
lonic compounds are usually hard, have high melting/boiling points, and conduct
electricity only when molten or dissolved (because ions become mobile) tawiecm
* Covalent Bonding: Occurs between nonmetals, Atoms share pairs of electrons to fill
their valence shells, Each shared pair constitutes a covalent bond. For example, two
H atoms share electrons to make H,; one O atom shares with two H to make HzO. In
covalent compounds, electrons are localized between atoms, so molecules form.
These substances often have lower melting/boiling points than ionic compounds
and do not conduct electricity in any state (no free ions) chemimetesory —chemlbretertsorg
Covalent bonds can be nonpolar (equal sharing, as in N2) or polar (unequal sharing,
as in HCl) depending on electronegativity differences.
* Metallic Bonding: Metals bond by pooling their valence electrons into a "sea" of
delocalized electrons around a lattice of positive metal ions. This electron sea allows
electrical conductivity in solid metals (electrons flow freely) and gives metals
characteristic properties: they are malleable and ductile (layers of atoms can slide
without breaking bonds) and typically have high melting points sbentiwronion
H20. A chemical (symbol) equation represents the same
reaction as the word equation but in a concise symbolic form wklem . For instance,
"C + Op + CO," is a symbol equation corresponding to the word equation "carbon +
oxygen ~ carbon dioxide” winston
* Balancing Equations: To satisfy the law of conservation of mass, a chemical
equation must have the same number of each type of atom on both sides. One
adjusts coefficients (whole numbers in front of formulas) until atoms balance. For
example, to balance \ceAl + O2— > Al203, we note Al has 2 in the product
and O has 2 per O2. The balanced equation is 4 Al + 3.02 ~ 2 AlzOs, giving 4 Al
atoms and 6 O atoms on each side sionbcon . In general, balancing ensures mass
and atoms are conserved syawiscom —sysruncom
Changes in Matter
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* Physical Changes: These alter the form or state of a substance without changing its
chemical identity. Examples include melting, freezing, dissolving, and cutting,
Physical changes may change appearance (shape, phase, size) but not composition
umtowintso . A key indicator is that the substance can often be returned to its
original form (e.g., liquid water freezing to ice and melting back).
* Chemical Changes (Reactions): These produce one or more new substances (new
chemical identities) by rearranging atoms. Evidence of a chemical change can
include color change, gas formation (bubbling), precipitate formation, temperature
change, or odor change sientixetos . For instance, burning wood (carbon
combusting with oxygen) is a chemical change, forming ash (new substances) and
releasing heat and gas. In a chemical change, bonds break and form, altering
composition centissos , whereas physical changes do not involve breaking
chemical bonds [Link]
Types of Chemical Reactions
Chemists categorize reactions by general patterns:
* Synthesis (Combination): Two or more reactants combine to form a single product
(A + B + AB). Example: \ce2H2 + O2— > 2H20 (hydrogen and oxygen form
water) shemienteers
* Decomposition: A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler
substances (AB ~ A + B), Example: \ce2H20— > 2H2 + O2 (water decomposes
into hydrogen and oxygen) sbensiyakory
* Single (Displacement): One element replaces another in a compound:
\ceA + BC— > AC + B. Example: \ceZn + CuSO4— > ZnSO4+ Cu
(Zinc displaces copper in copper sulfate). In notation: A replaces B in BC.
* Double (Displacement/Metathesis): Exchange of ions between two compounds:
\ceAB + CD-— > AD + CB. Often forms a precipitate or new compound.
Example: \ceAgNO3 + NaCl— > AgCl(s) + NaNO3 Gilver chloride
precipitates) enseyako denityakoy . Acid-base neutralization is a special case (e.g.
\ceHCl + NaOH > NaCl + H20).
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* Combustion: A substance (often hydrocarbon fuel) reacts with O2 to produce COz
and H20, releasing heat: e.g. \eeC8H18 + 12.502— > 8CO2 + 9H20
(octane combustion) erisiyster . Combustion always involves oxygen and is
exothermic,
Each type follows conservation of mass, and reactions are balanced as above. For each
example, atomic and charge balance is maintained
PH Scale and Indicators
The pH scale (0-14) measures acidity/basicity of aqueous solutions as -log{H’]. pH 7 is
neutral (pure water); pH < 7 indicates an acid, and pH > 7 a base. Low pH (1-3)
corresponds to very acidic (e.g. hydrochloric acid), high pH (12-14) to very alkaline
(strong bases like NaOH) bissmniacom . A pH indicator is a substance that changes color
depending on pH: for example, litmus paper turns red in acids and blue in bases
sssbroesiacon ; phenolphthalein is colorless in acids and pink in bases. Universal indicator
shows a range of colors across the scale. Universal pH charts (see below) illustrate typical
substances at various pH values
Illustration: A universal pH scale with examples of common
substances (acidic to basic) to visualize acidity vs alkalinity. Low
numbers (red) are acidic, high numbers (blue/purple) are basic,
and 7 is neutral kdstersrncacom — anbrtanicacom
For instance, vinegar (pH ~2-3) is acidic, so it turns blue litmus red, whereas soapy water
(pH ~10-12) is basic (alkaline) and turns red litmus blue. The concentration of hydrogen
ions [H’] determines pH: higher [H*] means lower pH (more acidic) sedsbitanncacom
ids tain com
Conductivity in Substances
Electrical conductivity depends on the presence of charged particles:
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+ Metals: Conduct electricity in solid form because of delocalized electrons. The
metallic bond’s “sea of electrons" allows charge to flow even when solid
* Ionic Compounds: As solids, they do not conduct (ions fixed in place). When melted
or dissolved in water, ions become free-moving charge carriers, and the substance
conducts electricity.
* Molecular (Covalent) Compounds: Generally do not conduct in any state because
they have no free ions or electrons. (Exceptions: acids/bases partially ionize in water
to allow some conductivity). For example, sugar water (covalent) is a poor
conductor, whereas salt water (ionic) conducts Well ctentortatsor
Concentrated, Diluted, Strong and Weak Acids/Bases
* Concentrated vs Dilute: “Concentrated” and “dilute” refer to the amount of solute
per volume of solution wan . A concentrated acid has a large amount of acid per
litre; a dilute acid has much less acid in the same volume. (This is independent of
how completely the acid dissociates.)
* Strong vs Weak Acids/Bases: “Strong” and “weak” describe degree of ionization. A
strong acid (e.g. HCl, [Link],) dissociates essentially 100% in water, producing many
Ht ions. A weak acid (e.g. acetic acid) ionizes only partially cenibeiesoxg viscon
Similarly, a strong base (e.g. NaOH) fully dissociates into OH", whereas a weak base
(e.g. NHs in water) produces fewer OH” ctemitrtensorg chemibretersorg . Note: a
concentrated weak acid still has low % ionization, and a dilute strong acid still fully
ionizes but has fewer total H*
Household Detergents and Their Chemistry
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Detergents are surfactants - molecules with a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a
hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail snwiiessoy . This amphiphilic structure allows detergents
to reduce water's surface tension and emulsify oils and grease. In water, detergent
molecules form micelles: their hydrophobic tails cluster inward, trapping oils, while the
hydrophilic heads face outward into the water ewkssay . This encapsulation of grease
by micelles makes it washable. Unlike plain soap, many detergents are synthetic
sulfonates or other ionic compounds, so they remain effective even in hard water.
Detergents generally work best under alkaline conditions; many laundry detergents are
basic, which helps dissolve organic stains and enhance cleaning snwkesssoy . In summary,
common detergents are amphiphilic salts that solubilize dirt in water and often include
mild alkalis or bleaches to improve cleaning performance.
The Pet
dic Table (Periods and Groups)
iod is a
The periodic table arranges all elements by increasing atomic number. A ps
horizontal row cenibrwsoy ; when you move left-to-right across a period, a new proton
and electron are added each time. The group (column) is a vertical set of elements
ctemttrtexsory ; elements in the same group have similar outer electron configurations. For
main-group elements, the group number corresponds to the number of valence
electrons (e.g. Group 1 elements have 1 valence electron, Group 17 have 7). For example,
hydrogen and helium begin Period 1. Group trends are notable: Group 1 (alkali metals)
are very reactive metals, Group 17 (halogens) are reactive nonmetals, and Group 18
(noble gases) are inert (full valence shell). Each period ends with a noble gas. The table's
layout reflects recurring chemical properties: elements in the same group behave
similarly chemically.
Periodic Trends
Several atomic properties vary predictably across the table:
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Atomic Radius: Defined roughly as half the distance between two bonded nuclei
Atomic radius increases down a group because each row adds a new electron shell
(higher principal quantum number) sentucesas . It decreases across a period (left
to right) because nuclear charge increases (more protons) pulling electrons in
tighter centeeeeso . In summary, atoms get larger moving down, and smaller
moving right across a period.
lonic Radius: For ions, cations (positive ions) are smaller than their parent atoms
(since they lose an electron shell or reduce electron-electron repulsion), while anions
(negative ions) are larger (adding electrons increases repulsion) entsmietsory . For
example, Na’ is smaller than neutral Na; Cl is larger than neutral Cl. lonic radii
follow the same top-to-bottom trend as atomic radii (increase downwards)
lonization Energy (IE): The energy required to remove the outermost electron. IE
increases across a period from left to right, because higher nuclear charge holds
electrons more tightly centoeesog chentowecson . IE decreases down a group
because the outer electrons are farther from the nucleus and more shielded by inner
electrons, making them easier to remove semiacatiory ctenitxeensor . Hence, fluorine
has a very high IE, while alkali metals have low IE
Electronegativity: A measure of an atom’s tendency to attract electrons in a bond
Electronegativity generally increases across a period (atoms on the right more
strongly attract electrons) cxmuteesoy and decreases down a group. Thus, fluorine
(top right) is the most electronegative element, while francium (bottom left) is very
low. Electronegativity patterns help predict bond polarity: for example, H-F is highly
polar due to F's high electronegativity.
Quantitative Chemistry (Stoichiometry)
The Mole and Molar Mass: The mole is a counting unit for atoms/molecules. One
mole is Avogadro’s number (6.022 10%) of particles. The molar mass of a substance
{in g/mol) is the mass of one mole, numerically equal to its formula mass in atomic
mass Units sensinexsoy . For example, 1 mol of carbon-12 atoms (6.02210 atoms)
has mass 12.0 g. To convert mass to moles: moles = mass (g) + molar mass (g/mol).
E.g,, 24 g of O2 (molar mass 32 g/mol) is 0.75 mol.
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Concentration: Molar concentration (molarity, M) is defined as moles of solute per
liter of solution. oentwexsog . For instance, a 1.0 M solution of NaCl contains 1.0 mol
NaCl per 1 L. To prepare or dilute solutions: My Vi = MzV5 (initial and final
molarity/volumes relation).
Percentage Yield: In reactions, the theoretical yield is the maximum product
amount calculated from stoichiometry. The actual yield is what's obtained
experimentally. Percent yield = (actual yield = theoretical yield) x 100%
cemtertexsors . For example, if stoichiometry predicts 10 g product but only 8 g is
collected, percent yield = (8/10)x100% = 80%. Yields below 100% are common due
to losses; above 100% usually indicate impurities or measurement error
hemlet org
Rates of Reaction
The rate of a reaction measures how quickly reactants are consumed or products formed
{often as change in concentration per time). Key factors affect rate cremtixeetsorg +
Concentration: Higher reactant concentration increases collision frequency,
generally increasing rate. deniteexsor
‘Surface Area: Finely divided solids (greater surface area) react faster than large
chunks, since more particles are exposed stemortesong
Temperature: Raising temperature makes molecules move faster, causing more
frequent and energetic collisions. Typically, a 10°C increase roughly doubles reaction
rate, Cold slows rates (e.g. food spoils slower ina fridge) eemtsrtetiorg
Catalysts: Substances that speed up a reaction by providing an alternate pathway
with lower activation energy, but are not consumed. For example, enzymes in
biology or platinum in catalytic converters. Catalysts allow more particles to react at
lower energies.
Chemical Nature: Different bonds and molecular structures react at different rates;
some substances simply react more readily (e.g. Na reacts with water explosively vs.
Ca moderately) semiorenor
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These factors change the speed but not the final equilibrium composition (unless a
catalyst changes a side reaction)
Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
A chemical equilibrium occurs in a closed system when the forward and reverse reaction
rates are equal, so concentrations of all species remain constant swmtiveexsiom . For
example, in \ceN2 + 3H2 <=> 2NH3, when equilibrium is reached, NHs is
produced and decomposed at equal rates, so its concentration stays steady.
Le Chatelier’s Principle describes how an equilibrium responds to a disturbance: If a
system at equilibrium is stressed (by changing concentration, pressure, or temperature), it
shifts in the direction that counteracts that stress. deotnipecstegeess . Examples:
* Concentration Change: Adding more reactant drives the equilibrium toward
products to reduce the added concentration; removing product shifts equilibrium
toward product side.
* Pressure (gases): Increasing pressure (by reducing volume) favors the side with
fewer moles of gas. Decreasing pressure favors the side with more gas moles. (E.9.
for N2+3H2 @ 2NH,, increasing pressure shifts right to produce fewer gas
molecules)
«Temperature: Raising T in an exothermic equilibrium shifts toward reactants
(absorbing heat), while lowering T shifts toward products. For endothermic
reactions, the opposite shift occurs. Changing temperature effectively changes the
equilibrium constant.
* Catalysts do not affect the position of equilibrium; they only help the system reach
equilibrium faster.
In practice, these principles allow chemists to maximize yield of desired products (e..
industrial ammonia synthesis uses high pressure to favor ammonia formation).
Redox Reactions (Oxidation and Reduc'
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Redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions involve electron transfer. Oxidation is defined as
the loss of electrons (OIL = Oxidation Is Loss) and corresponds to an increase in
oxidation number. Reduction is gain of electrons (RIG = Reduction Is Gain) and a
decrease in oxidation number asozmussies esozenuteaseas . For example, in
\ceZn + Cu?+— > Zn?+ + Cu, Zn goes from 0 to +2 (loses 2e", oxidized) and Cu*
goes to Cu(0) (gains 2e, reduced). The substance oxidized is the reducing agent (it
donates electrons), and the one reduced is the oxidizing agent (it accepts electrons)
catenuteaseas . Every redox process has both: you cannot have oxidation without
reduction. Mnemonics: LEO says GER (Lose Electrons = Oxidation, Gain Electrons =
Reduction) «mzzcmsnsess . Identifying redox in equations often uses oxidation numbers
or electron-half-reactions.
Electrolysis (Anode, Cathode, Applications)
Electrolysis uses electrical energy (from a power supply) to drive non-spontaneous redox
reactions. An electrolytic cell has two electrodes: the anode and cathode. By convention
in electrolysis, the anode is positive and the cathode is negative. Oxidation occurs at the
anode and reduction at the cathode seniowesog éentintmtsoa . Electrons flow from the
external circuit into the cathode (reducing site) and leave through the anode (oxidizing
site) centintetsors
Examples:
* Molten NaCl electrolysis (Downs cell): Na* ions are reduced at the cathode to liquid
Na (not cited here), while CI ions oxidize at the anode to produce Cl, gas
tentowtetiay . Reaction: \ce2NaCl(I)— > 2Na(I) + Cl2(g)
© Electrolysis of water (acidic): Produces H, at the cathode and 0, at the anode.
* Electroplating: A metal cation in solution is reduced and plates onto the cathode
metal.
© Industrial: Hall-Héroult process for Al(OH); molten electrolysis to Al metal and O2;
extraction of metals (e.g. Cu from Cu* solutions); chlorine and caustic soda from
brine, ete.
In all cases, remember Anode Oxidation, Cathode Reduction
