UPSC CSE

STUDY NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Indian Geography
 Indian Geography- Indian Physiography (Himalayas, Plateaus, Plains, Coastal
plains, Deserts, Islands) and Rock System

GEOLOGICAL DIVISIONS

The Peninsular Block  The northern boundary stretches from Rann of Kuchchh – western
flank of Aravali mountain – Delhi ridge – Parallel to Yamuna and
Ganges – Rajmahal hills.
 Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya plateau are part of the peninsular
block, separated by the Malda fault from the Chota Nagpur plateau.
 It also includes Rajasthan in the west, where desert and desert-like
features overlay this block, which has undergone metamorphic
processes.
 Includes very ancient gneisses and granite.
 It’s a rigid block since Cambrian times, except for some changes like
the submergence of the western coast.
 Subject to various vertical movements and block faulting, e.g.,
Narmada, Tapi, and Mahanadi flow through rift valleys.
Consists of relict and residual mountains, e.g., Aravali.
The Himalayan and  Young, weak, and flexible in their geological structure as compared to
Peninsular Mountain the peninsular block.
 Subjected to both exogenic and endogenic forces, leading to the
development of faults, folds, and thrust plains.
 Tectonic in origin.
 Dissected by fast-flowing rivers.
Indo – Ganga –  Formed by rivers Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
Brahmaputra basin  Originally it was a geo-synclinal depression.
 Later got filled with Himalayan and peninsular rivers.
 Average depth is 1000 – 2000 meters.
 PHYSIOGRAPHY

North and North-eastern Mountains

The North and North-Eastern Mountains

• Consists of Himalayas and north-eastern hills.

• Himalayas are geologically young and structurally fold mountains.
• General orientation:
o Northwest to southwest in the northwest region, e.g., Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh.
o Eastward in Darjeeling and Sikkim.
o Southwest to northeast in Arunachal Pradesh.
o North to south in Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.

 Himalayas are series of mountains:

o Greater Himalayan Range/ Himadri
 Length: Nearly 2500 km from west to east and width ranges from 160 to 400
km from north to south (wider in the west than the east).
 Includes Great Himalayas and Trans-Himalayan ranges.
 Most continuous with an average height of 6000 meters.
 Consists of asymmetric folds.
 The core of this range includes granite.
 Perennially snow-bound.
 All major peaks are situated here.
 o Himachal or lesser Himalaya:
• Located to the south of the Great Himalayas.
• Major ranges include:
 Pir Panjal in Kashmir
 Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh
 Nagtibhat in Uttarakhand
 Mahabharata range in Nepal
 Composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
 Altitude: 3700 to 4500 meters, width: 50 km.
 Major famous valleys like Kashmir, Kangra, and Kullu are located in this range.

o Shiwaliks:
• Width: 10 to 50 km and altitude: 900 to 1000 meters.
Composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers.
• The valleys between the Shiwalik and Lesser Himalaya are longitudinal and are
known as Duns, e.g.:
 Dehra Dun
 Kotli Dun
 Patli Dun
 Chandigarh-Kalka Dun
 Nalagarh Dun
 Harike Dun

Along with above classification, these are classified region-wise:

Kashmir or  Consists of ranges: Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Pir Panjal.

Northwestern North-western part is a cold desert between the Great Himalayas
Himalayas and Karakoram, e.g., Ladakh.
 Kashmir valley lies between the Great Himalayas and Pir Panjal.
 Famous for Karewa formation, known for Zafran (saffron)
cultivation.
 Important passes in this region:
 Zoji La in Great Himalayas
 Banihal in Pir Panjal
 Photu La on Zaskar
 Khardung La on Ladakh
 Important lakes: Dal and Wular
 Saltwater lakes: Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
 Important rivers: Indus, Chenab, Jhelum.

The Himachal and  Located between Ravi and Kali rivers.

Uttarakhand  Drained by both Indus (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) and Ganges (Yamuna and
Himalayas Ghaghara) river systems.
 Cold desert present in the Lahaul and Spiti region in the
northernmost part of this Himalaya.
 All the three Himalayan ranges are present here.
  The British established many hill stations in the Lesser Himalayan
region.
 Valleys in the Great Himalaya are inhabited by Bhotias, who migrate
to bugyals (summer grasslands) in summer and return to valleys in
winter.
 Places of pilgrimage:
 Kedarnath
 Badrinath
 Yamunotri
 Hemkund Sahib
 Gangotri
Darjeeling and Sikkim  In between Nepal and Bhutan Himalayas, known for fast-flowing
Himalayas rivers like Teesta.
 Mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga present here.
 Inhabited by the Lepcha tribe, this region is famous for tea
cultivation.
 The Duar formation is present here, while Shiwalik is absent.
 Additionally, it is very well known for orchids.
Arunachal Himalayas  From Bhutan to Dipu Pass.
 Important rivers – Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang.
 Tribes – Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi, and Nagas
 Duar region is used for communication along the Assam-Arunachal
border
Eastern Hills and  From north to south
Mountains  Composed of strong sandstones and sedimentary rocks
/Purvanchal  In north known as Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills
 In south known as Mizo or LUSHAI Hills
 Important rivers – Barak in Manipur and Mizoram is tributary of
Meghna
 Loktak lake in Manipur surrounded by hills
 Mizoram is known as ‘MOLASSIS basin’ made of soft
unconsolidated deposits
 Most of the
rivers here are
tributaries of
Barak
Rivers.
 The Northern Plains

 From interplay of three river system i.e. Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra Of alluvial soil
 Spread over 7 lakhs [Link]., 2400km long and 240 to 320 km broad
 Broadly divided into 4 sections
 The Plains of Rajasthan
 The Punjab Haryana Plains
 The Ganga Plains
 The Brahmaputra Plains

Rajasthan Plains:
 This plain is formed by the river system of the Indus.
 It lies to the west of Aravallis.
 It includes the Marusthali (Desert) and Bagar of Rajasthan.
 This plain has a general slope from North – East to South – West.
 In Rajasthan Luni is the most important river, draining the land.
 The details will be discussed in ‘The deserts’ separately.

Punjab Haryana Plains:

 The general slope of these plains is from North East to South West.
 It is drained by the Tributaries of Indus – Satluj, Beas and Ravi.
 Because of the presence of so many rivers, it is full with Khadar soil which is highly
productive and well irrigated.
 It is separated from the Ganga plains by Delhi Ridge.

The Ganga Plains:

 The Ganga plain lies between Yamuna catchment in the west to Bangladesh border in the
east.
 It is about 1400 km from West to East and has an average width of 300 km from North to
South.
 The Ganga plain is subdivided into the following sub-regions:
o The upper Ganga Plain:
 It includes the Ganga – Yamuna doab, Rohilkhand division, and parts of the Agra
Division.
 The general slope is from North to South.
 It is one of the most productive parts of India, where the Green Revolution was
a big success.
o The Middle Ganga Plain:
 It includes central and eastern UP and the plain of Bihar up to Muzaffarpur.
 It has thick alluvial deposits with less Kankar formations.
 Being a low gradient plain, rivers often change their course.
o The Lower Ganga Plain:
 It extends from Patna to the Bay of Bengal. Moving eastward, the river suddenly
changes its course towards the south and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
 It is prone to flooding and is full of new sediments.
 The region is under intensive rice farming and aquaculture.
The Brahmaputra Plains:
 It is the easternmost part of the Great plains of India.
 It is about 720 km long and 80 km wide.
 It receives its deposits from the large Brahmaputra River.
 Due to very low gradient, Brahmaputra is highly braided and has many riverine islands.
 Majauli is the largest riverine island of the world.
 Rice and jute are the main crops of this region.

 Northern Plain can also be divided into 4 regions:

1. Bhabar – Deposition of pebbles in a narrow stretch of 8 to 16 km, where rivers descend
from hills parallel to the slopes of Shiwalik. All streams disappear here.
2. Terai – Located just south of Bhabar, rivers re-emerge, creating a swampy, wet, and
marshy region.
3. Bhangar – The largest part of the northern plain, lying above the flood plain and presenting
terrace-like features. It is composed of old alluvium and contains calcareous deposits
known as kankar.
4. Khadar – Renewed every year, making it highly fertile.

 Significance of the Great Plains of India:

o The plains are often termed as the ‘Granary of India’. The soils of the plains are among the
most fertile soils of India, devoted to both cereal and non-cereal crops.
o They have a rich underground water table. The underground water is utilized with the
help of wells and tube wells for irrigation, industrial, and domestic needs.
o The rivers of the plains have a very gentle gradient, making them navigable for long
distances.
o Development of infrastructure is easy in plains.
o The sedimentary rocks of plains contain petroleum and natural gas deposits.
 o The plains are densely populated, occupying less than one-third of the area but supporting
over 40% of India’s population.

The Peninsular Plateau

 Area –Delhi ridge in northwest – RAJMAHAL hill in the east – Gir range in the west –
cardamom hills in south. Extension also in Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya plateau
 Composed of old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks
 Made of series of pat-land plateaus like Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore,
Karnataka
 General elevation from west to east
 North-western part is reliefs of ravines and gorges of Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three fold division of the plateau as shown below

The Deccan Plateau  Area: Bounded by the Western Ghats in

the west, Eastern Ghats in the east, and
Satpura, Maikal, and Mahadeo ranges in
the north.
 Locally known by various names like
Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri Hills in
Karnataka, and Cardamom Hills in
Kerala.
Western Ghats:
 Higher in elevation and more continuous
compared to the Eastern Ghats.
 Average height: 1500 meters, with height
increasing from north to south.
 Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 meters) in
the Anaimalai Hills, followed by
Dodabetta in Nilgiri Hills (2637 meters).
Eastern Ghats:
 Discontinuous and consist of low hills
eroded by rivers.
 Important ranges include Javadi,
Palconda, Nallamalla, and Mahendragiri.
 Extend from the Mahanadi Valley to the
Nilgiri Hills.
 Highest peak: Mahendragiri (1501
meters).
 The Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats
meet at the Nilgiri Hills.
Central Highlands  Area: Bounded by the Aravali in the west
and Satpura in the south.
 General elevation: 700 to 1000 meters,
sloping towards the north and
northeastern direction.
 Shape: Wider in the west and narrower
in the east.
 The eastward extensions are locally
known as Bundelkhand and
Baghelkhand.
 The Chotanagpur Plateau is a further
eastward extension and is drained by the
Damodar River.
 Most tributaries of Chambal originate
here.
 Major rivers in this region: Chambal,
Sind, Betwa, Ken, and Son.
The north-eastern plateau  Consists of Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya
Plateau.
 The Meghalaya Plateau is divided into
Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills.
 The Meghalaya Plateau is rich in mineral
resources such as coal, iron ore,
sillimanite, limestone, and uranium.
 It is an extension of the main Peninsular
Plateau.
 Separated from the mainland by the
Malda Fault, created during the
northwestern movement of the Indian
Plate.

Bundelkhand: • It stretches over the districts of Banda,

Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, and Lalitpur in
Uttar Pradesh, and Datia, Chhatarpur,
and Panna in Madhya Pradesh.
• The rivers like Betwa, Dhasan, and Ken
have carved out steep gorges, rapids,
cataracts, and waterfalls.
Baghelkhand • It includes the plateaus of Satna and
Rewa in Madhya Pradesh and Mirzapur
in Uttar Pradesh.
• Its elevation varies from 150–1200
meters with uneven relief. The region is
drained by the Narmada and Son rivers.
Chotanagpur Plateau: • The Chotanagpur Plateau sprawls over
parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand,
 Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and the northern
part of Telangana.
• It is one of the resource-rich regions of
India, containing good quality iron ore,
mica, bituminous coal, etc.
Meghalaya Plateau • It consists of the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia
Hills, along with the outlying Mikir and
Rengma Hills.
• It is detached from the Indian Peninsular
by the Malda Gap.
• The Shillong Peak is the highest elevation
(1823 m) in the Meghalaya Plateau.

The Indian Desert

• Area – to the northwest of Aravali

• Also known as Marusthali
• It is believed that it was under sea during the Mesozoic era
• Underlying rock structure is an extension of the peninsular plateau
• Can be divided into two parts on the basis of orientation
o Northern part sloping towards Sindh
o Southern part towards Rann of Kachchh

 Most rivers are ephemeral (e.g., Luni) and there is the presence of inland drainage.
 It is the ninth largest desert in the world.
 It spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
 This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives less than 150 mm of rainfall
per year.
 The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes.
 Luni is the main river in this area. All other streams appear only at the time of rainfall;
otherwise, they disappear into the sand.
 The western side of the Thar Desert contains large sand dunes and Seifs.
 It is believed that a large part of the Indian desert is formed by the recession of the sea.
 Many saline regions are found in this region, as well as saline lakes. The most important saline
lake in India is Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan.

Coastal Plains

 To the east and west of the peninsular plateau, two narrow strips of plain lands are found,
which are respectively called the Eastern Coastal Plain and Western Coastal Plain.
 The Eastern Coastal Plain and Western Coastal Plain are formed by the erosional and
depositional activities of the sea waves and from the sediments brought by the peninsular
rivers.
 The Eastern Coastal Plains

 The Eastern Coastal Plains refers to a wide stretch of landmass of India, lying between the
Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
 It is wider and leveled than the Western Coastal Plains and stretches from Tamil Nadu in the
south to West Bengal in the north through Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
 Chilka Lake, a brackish water lake, lies along the eastern coastal plain in the state of Odisha,
stretching to the south of the Mahanadi Delta.
 Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains.
 The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains.
 The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains, with annual rainfall
averaging between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in).
 The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 to 80 miles).
 It is locally known as Northern Circars in the northern part (between the Mahanadi and
Krishna rivers) and Coromandel Coast in the southern part (between the Krishna and Kaveri
rivers). Together, these are known as the Eastern Coastal Plains.
 The Eastern Coastal Plain receives comparatively low rainfall, while the Western Coastal Plain
receives heavy rainfall.

The Western Coastal Plains

 Konkan Coast (West Coast):

 The Western Coastal Plains is a strip of coastal plain 50 kilometres in width between the
west coast of India and the Western Ghats hills, starting near the south of the Tapi River.
  The plains are located between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The plains begin
at Gujarat in the north and end at Kerala in the south, including the states of Maharashtra,
Goa, and Karnataka.
 The region consists of three sections: the northern part of the coast is called the Konkan
(Mumbai-Goa), the central stretch is called the Kanara, while the southern stretch is
referred to as the Malabar Coast.
 On its northern side, there are two gulfs: the Gulf of Khambat and the Gulf of Kutch.
 The rivers along the coast form estuaries and provide ideal conditions for pisciculture.
 The northern portion of the west coast is called Konkan, and the southern portion is called
Malabar. The south Malabar or Kerala coast is broken and contains lagoons, while the
north Malabar Coast is known as the Karnataka coast. Here, the Saraswati River forms the
Gersoppa Falls, descending down a 275 m high cliff.
 The Western Coastal Plains extend 1,500 km from Cape Comorin in the south to Surat in
the north, with the width ranging from 10 to 25 km. It includes the Gujarat Plains, the
Konkan plains (Daman to Goa, 500 km), the Karnataka coastal plains (225 km south from
Goa), and the Kerala coastal plains (from Cannanore to Cape Comorin, 500 km).
 The West Continental Shelf is widest (350 km) off the coast of Bombay, where the oil-rich
Bombay High is located.
 The Western Coastal Plain is an example of a submerged coastal plain (not emergent) and
provides natural conditions for the development of ports.

The Islands

 India has a total of 615 islands, of which 572 lie in the Bay of Bengal, and the remaining 43 are
in the Arabian Sea.
 Out of the 572 islands of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, only 36 are inhabited.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands archipelago consists of approximately 265 small and large
islands.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• The Andaman Islands are divided into three main

islands: North, Middle, and South.
• The Duncan Passage separates Little Andaman from
South Andaman.
• Port Blair, the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, lies in the South Andaman.
• The Andaman group of islands in the north is separated
by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in
the south (Prelims 2014).
• Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is the
largest and the southernmost island, located close to
Sumatra Island of Indonesia, while the Car Nicobar is
the northernmost.
• Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone,
limestone, and shale, resting on basic and ultrabasic
volcanoes (similar to the Himalayas).
• The Barren and Narcondam Islands, north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands (Note: Barren
Island is the only active volcano in India).
• Some islands are fringed with coral reefs, covered with thick forests, and are mountainous.
• Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.

Lakshadweep Islands

• Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three

reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about
thirty-nine islands and islets.
• The reefs are, in fact, atolls, mostly submerged, with
only small un-vegetated sand cays above the high-
water mark. The submerged banks are sunken atolls.
• Almost all the atolls have a northeast-southwest
orientation, with the islands lying on the eastern rim
and a mostly submerged reef on the western rim,
enclosing a lagoon.
• It has 10 inhabited islands, 17 uninhabited islands,
attached islets, 4 newly formed islets, and 5 submerged
reefs.
• The main islands are Kavaratti, Agatti, Minicoy, and
Amini.
• Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise
more than five metres above sea level (extremely
vulnerable to sea level change).
• Their topography is flat, and relief features such as hills,
streams, and valleys are absent.

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

• Lakshadweep and Minicoy:  Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
o Scattered between 8 to 12 o 572 islands
degrees north o Located between 6 to 14 degrees
o The entire island group is made North
of coral deposits o Two principal islet groups:
o Nearly 36 islands o Ritchie's Archipelago
o Minicoy is the largest o Labyrinth Island
o The entire group is divided by o Entire group is divided into two,
the 11 Degree Channel separated by the 10 Degree Channel:
 North – Amini  Andaman group in the north
 South – Canannore  Nicobar group in the south
 INDIAN ROCK SYSTEM

India's Geographical land area can be classified as below

Rock system Features

Archaean System  Result of the hot-molten earth becoming cold. These are the oldest and
primary rocks.
 Their original form has been destroyed because of too much
metamorphosis.
 There are no fossils found in them.
 Gneiss is formed because of the metamorphosis of the igneous rocks. The
Bundelkhand gneiss is the oldest one.
 Found mainly in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand and the southern-
eastern part of Rajasthan
Dharwar System  Result of the erosion and sedimentation of the rocks of the Archaean
system.
 Oldest sedimentary rocks.
 The Aravali mountain range, which is the oldest fold mountain of the
world, has been made with these rocks.
 Found in the districts of Dharwar and Shimoga in Karnataka, the southern
Deccan region from Karnataka to the Kaveri valley, districts of Bellary,
Sasar mountain range in Jabalpur and Nagpur, and the Champaner
mountain range in Gujarat.
 In north India, the rocks of this system are found in the Himalayan ranges
of Ladakh, Zaskar, Garhwal and Kumaon, and the long range of the Assam
plateau.
 The rocks of this system are economically very important. All prominent
metallic minerals (iron, gold, manganese, etc.) are found in these rocks.
 No fossil is found here. It is so because either there was no origin of
species during their formation or the forms of the fossils got destroyed
with the passage of time.
Cuddapah System  Formed as a result of erosion and sedimentation of the rocks of the
Dharwar system. These are also sedimentary rocks.
 Named after the district of Cuddapah in Andhra Pradesh where these
are semi-circular in expansion.
 Famous for sandstone, limestone, marble, and asbestos.
 The Cuddapah rocks are also found in Rajasthan.

Vindhyan System  Formed after the Cuddapah rocks by the deposition of silt of river valleys
and shallow oceans.
 These rocks are also sedimentary rocks.
 The evidences of fossils of micro-organisms.
 Found in the Vindhyas, e.g., the Malwa plateau, the Semari range in the
Son valley, Bundelkhand, etc.
 Famous for house-building rocks.
  The Sanchi Stupa, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, etc., are built with the
red sandstone of this structure. Besides, limestone, china clay, dolomite,
etc., are also found in this structure.
 The diamond mines of Golconda in Telangana and Panna in Madhya
Pradesh are found in this structure.
Gondwana System  The word Gondwana has originated from the Gond region of Madhya
Pradesh.
 98% of coal in India is found in this structure.
 Formed between the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods.
 Several cracks were formed in the peninsular India during the
Carboniferous period.
 Basin-like depressions were made because of the sinking of land among
these cracks.
 Coal was formed by the burying down of the vegetation of that period.
 This coal is now found mainly in the river valleys of the Damodar, the
Son, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, and the Wardha etc.
Deccan Trap  The volcanic action in the peninsular India began in the last period
(Cretaceous period) of the Mesozoic era
 the Deccan trap has been formed as a result of fissure eruption.
 Made up of basalt and dolerite rocks.
 These rocks are very hard and their weathering has resulted in the
formation of the black soil.
 This structure is found in the most parts of Maharashtra and some parts
of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The Tertiary  These rocks have been formed between the Eocene and Pliocene
System periods.
 The Himalayan mountain range has developed as discussed below:
o The Great Himalayas were formed during the Oligocene period'
o The Lesser Himalayas were formed during the Miocene period
o Shiwaliks were formed during the Pliocene and Upper Pliocene
periods.
 Mineral oil in Assam, Rajasthan and Gujarat is found in the structures of
the Eocene and Oligocene period.
 The Tertiary epoch has been divided chronologically into four parts- (a)
Eocene (b) Oligocene (c) Miocene (d) Pliocene
The Quaternary  These rocks are found in the plains of the Indus and the Ganga.
System  The Quaternary epoch is divided chronologically into two parts:
Pleistocene and Holocene periods.
 During the Upper and Middle Pleistocene periods, old alluvial soil was
formed, which is known as 'bangar'.
 The formation of the alluvial soil began at the end of the Pleistocene
period and is still going on in the present Holocene period. It is known as
'khadar'.
 The Kashmir valley was formed during the Pleistocene period.
 This valley was a lake in the beginning.
 The continuous deposition of soil gave rise to the present form (valley),
which is known as 'Kareva'.
 Deposition of the Pleistocene period is found in the Thar Desert.
 The 'Rann of Kachchh' was previously a part of the ocean. It was filled by
the sedimentary deposits during the Pleistocene and Holocene period.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY: Drainage System, Soils, Climate and Natural Vegetation

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Basic concepts:
• Drainage: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’.
• Drainage system: The network of such channels is called a ‘drainage system’.
• Catchment area: A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called
its ‘catchment area’.
• Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage
basin.
• Watershed - The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known
as the watershed.
• The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and
rills are often referred to as watersheds. There is, however, a slight difference
between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area while the basins
cover larger areas.
• River basins and watersheds are marked by unity. What happens in one part of the
basin or watershed directly affects the other parts and the unit as a whole. That is
why, they are accepted as the most appropriate micro, meso or macro planning
regions.

TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERN:

• Dendritic patterns: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known
as “dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers of northern plain. It develop in
areas where the rock (or unconsolidated material) beneath the stream has no
particular fabric or structure and can be eroded equally easily in all directions.
 • Trellis drainage patterns: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each
other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles, the pattern is known as
‘trellis’. It typically develops where sedimentary rocks have been folded or tilted and
then eroded to varying degrees depending on their strength.
• Rectangular patterns: Here streams consist mainly of straight line segments with right
angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles. It develop in areas that
have very little topography and a system of bedding planes, fractures, or faults that
form a rectangular network. This pattern can be found with the Arun River in Nepal.
• Parallel drainage system: Pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with some relief.
Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very few
tributaries, and all flow in the same direction.
• Radial drainage system: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions,
the drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak
range present a good example of it.
• Centripetal drainage system: When the rivers discharge their waters from all
directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is know as ‘centripetal’.
• Deranged drainage system: In this drainage system there is no coherent pattern to
the rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been much geological
disruption.
• Angular drainage patterns: form where bedrock joints and faults intersect at more
acute angles than rectangular drainage patterns. Angles are both more and less than
90 degrees.

ABOUT INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

 Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases. On the basis of discharge of
water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into:
o Arabian Sea drainage (23% drainage) – Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, west
flowing small rivers.
o Bay of Bengal drainage (77% drainage) – all major east flowing rivers
• They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the
Sahyadris.

On the basis of the size of the watershed:

• Major river basins with more than [Link]. –it includes 14 major rivers
• Medium river basins with 2000 to [Link]. – includes 44 rivers
• Minor river basins with less than 2000 [Link]
On the basis of mode of origin:

• Himalayan drainage
• Peninsular drainage
HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

Evolution of the Himalayan drainage:

 There exists a belief that there was a mighty river known as Shiwalik or Indo– Brahma
traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and
onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during
the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
 The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial
deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this
viewpoint.
 Later on, this got divided into three river systems of Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra.

Two factors responsible for the break:

 Upheaval in western Himalayas including upliftment of Potwar plateau (Delhi Ridge)
leading to separation of Ganges and Indus.
 Downtrusting of Malda gap area between Rajmahal hills and Meghalaya plateau
diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

The River Systems of the Himalayan drainage:

Indus River System: Area 11,65,000 [Link]. (In India – 321,289 [Link]). Total length of 2,880
km (in India 1,114 km)
  Length: 2880 km (in India -1114 km)
 Origin: Bokhar Chu glacier (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E
longitude), in Kailas range in Tibet at 4164 mtrs altitude.
 In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth
 After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh
and Zaskar ranges, it passes through Ladakh and Baltistan.
 It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge
near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
 It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region.
 Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit, the
Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the
Dras.
Indus (also known
 It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it
as Sindhu)
receives the Kabul river on its right bank.
 The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the
Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Viboa and
the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
 The river flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little
above Mithankot.
 The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab,
namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the
Jhelum
 It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
 The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in
Ladakh
 Rises from a spring at Veriang situated at the foothills of Pir
Panjal
Jhelum (in Sanskrit  Flows through Srinagar and Wular lake before entering
– Vitasta) Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge
 It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
 Meander formation in Kashmir
 Tributaries – neelam river
 Largest tributary of Indus
 Source: Near Baralacha la
Chenab (in Sanskrit
 Formed from two streams Chandra and Bhaga hence it is also
– Asikni)
known as chandrabhaga
 Length – 1180 kms.
 Dams: Baglihar, Ratle
 Rises from west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of
Himachal Pradesh & flows through the Chamba valley of the
state.
Ravi (Sanskrit -
 Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai
Parushni)
Sidhu, it drains the area lying between the southeastern part
of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
 Tributaries – Budhil,nai, Seul, tantgiri
 Dams on Ravi – Ranjit sagar dam
  Religious places - Manimahesh kailash peak and
Manimahesh lake
• Originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an
elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level.
• Flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and
Beas
Largi in the Dhaoladhar range.
• It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near
Harike.
• Dams – Pong
• Originates in the ‘Raksastal’ near Mansarovar at an altitude
of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab.
• It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before
entering India, and comes out of a gorge at Rupar.
Sutlej • It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and
enters the Punjab plains.
• It is an antecedent river.
• It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of
the Bhakra Nangal project.
• Ecosystem related – Roper wetland

Ganges River System:

 It is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km)
and West Bengal (520 km).
 Basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone.
 The largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating
in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south, respectively.

 Length - 2,525 km
 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m)
in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known
as the Bhagirathi.
 It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in
narrow gorges.
 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda;
hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
Ganges
 The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier
above Badrinath.
 The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu
Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
 The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar
joins it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga
meets it at Rudra Prayag.
 Five Prayags of Ganga: A shortcut J(K) RD based on the
name of JRD Tata to identify prayags
 o J – joshimath/vishnuprayag, K – karnprayag, R –
Rudraprayag , D – Devprayag

 Enters the plains at Haridwar.

 Gets divided into two distributaries: Padma (enters into
Bangladesh) and Bhagirathi
 Tributaries:
o Right bank tributories – Yamuna, Son, Damodar
o Left bank tributories– Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda
 The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal
near the Sagar Island.
 Dams: Tehri on Bhagirathi, Farakka barrage
  Western most and longest tributary of Ganga
 It has its source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western
slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km).
 It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad now Prayagraj).
 Right bank tributaries - Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the
Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular
plateau
 Left bank tributaries - the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the
Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.

Yamuna River

 Rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh

 Flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan,
where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
Chambal  From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and
Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
 The Chambal is famous for its Badlands topography called the
Chambal ravines.
 Comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
 Rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount
Gandak Everest and drains the central part of Nepal.
 It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins
the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
 Originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
Ghaghara  After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri,
it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
  The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before
itfinally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
 The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of
Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises.
Kosi  It is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the Tamur Kosi from
the east.
 It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.
 Rises in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
 It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the
Ramganga
Shiwalik
 Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
 Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur
Plateau where it flows through a rift valley and finally joins the
Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary.
Damodar
 Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’ the Damodar has been
now tamed by the Damodar Valley corporation, a multipurpose
project.
 The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal
Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.
Sarda/Saryu
 Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it
joins the Ghaghara.
 Rises in the Darjiling hills.
Mahananda
 It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
 The Son is a large right bank tributary of the Ganga.
 Originates in the Amarkantak plateau.
Son
 After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it
reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga.
Brahmaputra River:

 Origin is in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar
lake.
 From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a
dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which means
‘the purifier.’
 The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
 It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the
Central Himalayas near NamchaBarwa (7,755 m).
 The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India
west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it receives its main
left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the
Brahmaputra.
 Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South)
 Important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.
 The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river.
 The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
 In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as
the Jamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
 The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is
due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of
sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.

PENINSULAR RIVER DRAINAGE:

 The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one, which is evident
from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
 The Western Ghats act as the water divide between the major Peninsular rivers,
discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Arabian
Sea.
  Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to east.
 The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part
of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system.
 Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence of meanders and non-
perennial flow of water.

Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage System:

Three major geological events important:

 Leading to its submergence below the sea during
Subsidence of the western flank the early tertiary period.
of the Peninsula  Disturbance of the symmetrical plan of the river
on either side of the original watershed
 When the northern flank of the Peninsular block
was subjected to subsidence and the consequent
trough faulting.
Upheaval of the Himalayas  The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults
and fill the original cracks with their detritus
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and
deltaic deposits in these rivers.
 From northwest to the south-eastern direction
Slight tilting of the Peninsular
gave orientation to the entire drainage system
block
towards the Bay of Bengal during the same
period.

River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage:

 Rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs
through Odisha
 It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh
sq. km.
Mahanadi
 Fifty-three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in
Odisha.
 Some navigation is carried on in the lower course of this river.
 Largest Peninsular river system and also called the Dakshin
Ganga.
 It rises near Trambakeshwar in the Nasik district of
Maharashtra & discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.
 Its tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya
Godavari Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
 It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading over
3.13lakh sq. km 49 per cent of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per
cent in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the rest in
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh (with Karnataka accounting for
1.4%).
  Tributaries: The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the
Manjra,Purna , wainganga, Wardha.
 Subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches to the south of
Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge.
 Navigable only in the deltaic stretch.
 The river after Rajamundri (Andhra Pradesh) splits into several
branches forming a large delta.
 The second largest east-flowing Peninsular river which rises
near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri.
 Its total length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra,
Krishna Ghataprabha and the Bhima are its major tributaries.
 Of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in
Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
 Rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in
Karnataka.
 Its length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.
 Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the
southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during
Kaveri the northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water
throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than
the other Peninsular rivers
 About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent
in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Nadu.
 Tributaries: Kabini, the Bhavani, Hemavati and the Amravati.
 Originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at
a height of about 1,057 m.
 Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and
the Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a picturesque gorge
in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur
Narmada
(Madhya Pradesh)
 After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian
sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary.
 Its catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km.
 The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.
 Another important westward flowing river.
 It originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya
Pradesh.
Tapi
 It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
 Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent
in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
 Largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali.
 Originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and
Luni
the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From
here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as Luni.
  It flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a
southwest direction to join the Rann of Kuchchh. The entire
river system is ephemeral (land locked).

Smaller Rivers flowing to the West:

• The rivers flowing towards the Arabian sea have short courses.
• The Shetruniji rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district of Gujrat.
• The Bhadra originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district of Gujrat.
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district of Gujrat.
• Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat.
• The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district of Maharashtra at an
elevation of 670 m.
• The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district of Karnataka and falls in the Karwar Bay.
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar of Karnataka and traverses a course of
161 km.
• The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka flowing towards the west. The
Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of
2,209 sq. km.
• Goa has two important rivers which can be mentioned here. One is Mandovi (water
sharing issue with Karnataka) and the other is Juari.
• The longest river of Kerala, Bharathapuzha rises near Annamalai hills. It is also known
as Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km.
• The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km.
• Another river of Kerala is the Pamba river which falls in the Vemobanad lake after
traversing a course of 177 km.

Small Rivers Flowing towards the East:

• Subarnrekha -Also called the Swarnarekha River, it flows through the Indian states of
Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
• Baitarni - A major portion of the river basin lies within the state of Odisha, while a
small patch of the upper reach lies in Jharkhand state.
• Brahmani - Major river in the Odisha. Formed by the confluence of the Sankh and
South Koel rivers. Together with the river Baitarani, it forms a large delta before
emptying into the Bay of Bengal at Dhamra.
• Vamsadhara –Also known as river Banshadhara, it is an important east flowing river
between Rushikulya and Godavari, in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh states in India.
• Penner - The Penna rises in Nandi Hills in Chikballapur District of Karnataka state, and
runs north and east through the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh to empty
into the Bay of Bengal.
• Palar - It rises in the Nandi Hills in Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka state, and
flows 93 kilometres in Karnataka, 33 kilometres in Andhra Pradesh and 222 kilometres
in Tamil Nadu before reaching its confluence into the Bay of Bengal
• Vaigai - The Vaigai is a river in the Tamil Nadu state of southern India; it passes through
the towns of Theni, Andipatti and Madura
River Regime:

• The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is known as its regime.
• North Indian rivers are perennial in nature as they are fed by glaciers through snow
melt and also receive rainfall water during rainy season.
• The rivers of South India do not originate from glaciers and their flow pattern
witnesses fluctuations. The flow increases considerably during monsoon rains.
• Thus, the regime of the rivers of South India is controlled by rainfall which also varies
from one part of the Peninsular plateau to the other.

Centre and State Powers over Water Resources:

Who has the jurisdiction over Water in India?

 Article 246 grants the Centre the exclusive power to make laws on the following
subjects under List I of the Seventh Schedule:
o Decide on shipping and navigation on inland and tidal (sea) waterways and on
national waterways for vessels
o Regulate training and education of mercantile marines by states and other
agencies
o Decide on goods, passengers by sea or national waterways via mechanically
propelled vessels
o Regulate and develop interstate rivers and river valleys
o Decide on fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters
 Similarly, States are empowered to:
o Develop roads, bridges, ferries, municipal tramways, ropeways and other
means of communication on inland waterways in the State
o Decide on water supply, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments,
water storage and water power
o Taxes on goods and passengers carried by road or on inland waterways
o Decide on shipping and navigation on inland waterways via mechanically
propelled vessels and carriage of passengers and goods on such waters
 On comparing the two lists, there appears to be an overlap in the powers of the Centre
and State as far as shipping and navigation on inland waterways is concerned.
  Moreover, the development of water supplies, canals and riverbanks is also an area
of conflict between States.
 One of the major water-related issues tasked to the Centre, inter-State river disputes
in India are governed bythe Inter-State River Water Dispute Act, 1956.
o An amendment to the Act was passed by the Lok Sabha in 2019 but is yet to
get the Upper House’s nod.

How are river disputes resolved?

 Under the Inter-State River Water Dispute Act, 1956, any State may request the
Centre to refer an inter-State river dispute to a tribunal for adjudication.
 If the Centre feels that negotiations cannot settle the dispute, it may setup such a
Water Disputes Tribunal within one year of the complaint.
 The tribunal must decide on the dispute within three years, which may be extended
by two years.
 However, if the matter is again referred to the Tribunal for further consideration, it
must submit a report to the Centre within one year, which may be extended if deemed
necessary.
 All decisions of the Tribunal are final and binding . After its publication in the Official
Gazette, a decision has the same force as an order of the Supreme Court.
 The Centre may create a scheme to give effect to the decision of such a tribunal. It is
also tasked with maintaining a data bank of each river basin in the country.
In News: Mahadayi water dispute:
 Mahadayi or Mhadei, the west-flowing
river, originates in Bhimgad Wildlife
Sanctuary (Western Ghats), Belagavi
district of Karnataka.
 It is essentially a rain-fed river also called
Mandovi in Goa.
 It is joined by a number of streams to form
the Mandovi which is one of two major
rivers (the other one is Zuari river) that
flows through Goa.
 The river travels 35 km in Karnataka; 82 km
in Goa before joining the Arabian Sea.
 Kalasa-Banduri Nala Project
 It is undertaken by the Government of Karnataka to improve drinking water supply
to the three districts of Belagavi, Dharwad, and Gadag.
 It involves building across Kalasa and Banduri, two tributaries of the Mahadayi river
to divert water to the Malaprabha river.
 Kalasa-Banduri project was planned in 1989; Goa raised an objection to it.

Interlinking of Rivers:

In News: The Centre Government is contemplating creation of the National Interlinking of

Rivers Authority (NIRA).
 NIRA is supposed to be an independent autonomous body for planning, investigation,
financing and the implementation of the river interlinking projects in the country.
 It will replace the existing National Water Development Agency (NWDA).
 It will coordinate with neighbouring countries and concerned states and departments
and will also have powers on issues related to environment, wildlife and forest
clearances under river linking projects and their legal aspects.
 NIRA will have the power to raise funds and act as a repository of borrowed funds or
money received on deposit or loan given on interest.
 It will also have the power to set up a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for individual link
projects.

Inter-Linking of Rivers Programme:

 The idea was first mooted during the British Raj when Sir Arthur Cotton, a British
general and irrigation engineer suggested linking the Ganga and the Cauvery for
navigational purposes.
 It is aimed at linking different surplus rivers of the country with deficient rivers so that
the excess water from surplus regions could be diverted to deficient regions.
 Need for such projects:
 Reducing Water Distress
 Reducing Regional Imbalance
 Irrigation for Agriculture
 Hydropower generation
 Associated Challenges:
  Environmental Costs
 Socio-Economic Impact
 Economic Costs
 Federal Challenges

Ken Betwa Link Project (KBLP):

In News: Prime Minister on 25th Dec 2024 laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa river-
linking project in Madhya Pradesh’s Khajuraho, aimed at solving the water woes of the
Bundelkhand region, spread across parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The project
is estimated to cost around ₹45,000 crore.

o Ken and Betwa rivers originate in MP and are the tributaries of Yamuna. Ken meets
with Yamuna in Banda district of UP and with Betwa in Hamirpur district of UP.
o The Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) is the River interlinking project that aims to transfer
surplus water from the Ken river in MP to Betwa in UP to irrigate the drought-prone
Bundelkhand region.
 o The region spread across the districts of two states mainly Jhansi, Banda,
Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur
districts of MP.
o The project involves building a 77-metre tall and a 2-km wide Dhaudhan dam and a
230-km canal.
o The project will provide an annual irrigation of 11 lakh ha (to at least 10 districts of MP
and various districts of UP), drinking water supply to a population of about 62 lakhs
and also generate 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW solar power.
o Hazard: The Project involves deforesting a portion of the Panna Tiger reserve
(approximately 10%) in MP
o Fun Fact: Madhya Pradesh become the first State in the country with two river-linking
projects under way at the moment. In 2024, PM Modi had also launched the Parbati-
Kalisindh-Chambal river-linking project that spreads between Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh.
SOILS:
 Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s
surface. Layers of soil (also known as horizons).
o ‘Horizon A’ - topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated
with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the
growth of plants.
o ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and
contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic
matter in it, although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered.
o ‘Horizon C’ is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first
stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.
 This arrangement of layers is known as the soil profile. Underneath these three
horizons is the rock which is also known as the parent rock or the bedrock.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOIL:

 In ancient times, soils used to be classified
into two main groups – Urvara (fertile)
and Usara (sterile).
 Based on texture, main soil types were
identified as sandy, clayey, silty and loam,
etc. On the basis of colour, they were red,
yellow, black, etc.
 Soil Survey of India, established in 1956,
made comprehensive studies of soils in
selected areas like in the Damodar Valley.
 The ‘National Bureau of Soil Survey’ and
the ‘Land Use Planning’ an Institute under
the control of the Indian Council of
 Agricultural Research (ICAR) in their effort to study soil and to make it comparable at
the international level, the ICAR has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their
nature and character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil
Taxonomy.
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India
have been classified into:
Alluvial Soils  Area
o Widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys.
o Cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country.
o Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the
plains of Gujarat.
o In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east
coast and in the river valleys.
 Transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
 Vary in nature from sandy loam to clay.
 Chemical characteristics:
o Rich – in Potash
o Poor – Phosphorous
 In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial
soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.

o Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods

annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.
o Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited
away from the flood plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar
soils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
o These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower and
middle Ganga plain and the Brahamaputra valley.
o sand content decreases from the west to east.
 o colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash
grey.
o Its shades depend on the depth of the deposition, the
texture of the materials, and the time taken for attaining
maturity.
Black soil  Area:
o Covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
 Features:
o Also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
o Generally clayey, deep and impermeable
o They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when
dried. So, during the dry season, these soils develop wide
cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’.
o Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of
moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long
time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to
sustain even during the dry season.
 Chemical composition:
o Rich - lime, iron, magnesia and alumina
o Weak - Phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
Red and  Area:
Yellow Soil o On crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern
and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
o Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats, long stretch of
area is occupied by red loamy soil.
o Also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the
southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
 Features:
o Develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
o It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
o The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor
in fertility.
o Poor - nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.

Laterite Soil  Area:

o In areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
o developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau.
o Commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
 Features:
o Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which
means brick.
 o Result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime
and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and
aluminium compound are left behind.
o Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that
thrives well in high temperature.
 Chemical composition:
o Poor - organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium
o Excess - Iron oxide and potash.
o Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however,
application of manures and fertilisers are required for making
the soils fertile for cultivation.
o Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are
more suitable for tree crops like cashewnut.
o Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house
construction.
o These soils have mainly Arid Soils.
Arid soils  Range from red to brown in colour.
 Generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
 In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained
by evaporating the saline water.
 Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of
the increasing calcium content downwards.
 The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the
infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the
soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth.
 These soils are poor and due to the dry climate, high temperature and
accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture, organic matter and humus.
 Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
Saline Soils  Area:
o They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged
and swampy areas.
o In western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in
Sunderban areas of West Bengal.
 Features:
o They are also known as Usara soils.
o They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor
drainage.
o Structure ranges from sandy to loamy.
 Chemical composition:
o Poor - nitrogen and calcium.
o Contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and
magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any
vegetative growth.
o In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt
particles and deposits there as a crust.
o Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of
saline soils.
 o In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of
irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile
alluvial soils are becoming saline.
o Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes
capillary action, which results in the deposition of salt on the top
layer of the soil.
o Adding gypsum can solve the problem of salinity in the soil.
Peaty Soils  Area:
o Occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of
Uttarakhand and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha and
Tamil Nadu.
 Features:
o In the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is
a good growth of vegetation.
o Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these
areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic content to the soil.
o Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent.
o They are normally heavy and black in colour. At many places,
they are alkaline also.
Forest Soils  Area:
o As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the forest areas
where sufficient rainfall is available.
 Features:
o The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the
mountain environment where they are formed.
o They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in
the upper slopes.
o In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience
denudation, and are acidic with low humus content.
o The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
SOIL DEGRADATION:
 Decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes
down due to erosion and misuse.
 Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.
 The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place according to the
topography, wind velocity and amount of the rainfall.

SOIL EROSION:
 The destruction of the soil cover is soil erosion.
 Wind and water are powerful agents of soil erosion
 Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
 In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more
significant. Water erosion which is more serious and occurs extensively in different
parts of India, takes place mainly in the form of sheet and gully erosion.
o Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil
removal is not easily noticeable. But it is harmful since it removes the finer and
more fertile top soil.
o Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
agricultural lands into small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation.
 A region with a large number of deep gullies or ravines is called a badland
topography.
 Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal basin. Besides this, they are also found in
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The country is losing about 8,000 hectares of land to
ravines every year.
 Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion.
 Plants keep soils bound in locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion. They also add
humus to the soil by shedding leaves and twigs.
 Forests have been denuded practically in most parts of India but their effect on soil
erosion are more in hilly parts of the country.
 Salinity issues:
o A fairly large area of arable land in the irrigated zones of India is becoming
saline because of over irrigation.
o The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the surface and
destroys its fertility.
o Chemical fertilisers in the absence of organic manures are also harmful to the
soil.
o Unless the soil gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and reduce its fertility
in the long run.
o This problem is common in all the command areas of the river valley projects,
which were the first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution.
SOIL CONSERVATION:
 Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and
exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.
 Some solutions for this are:
o Check open cultivable lands on slopes from farming. Lands with a slope for
cultivation. If at all the land is to be used for agriculture, terraces should
carefully be made.
o Over-grazing and shifting cultivation in many parts of India have affected the
natural cover of land and given rise to extensive erosion. It should be regulated
and controlled by educating villagers about the consequences.
o Contour bunding, Contour terracing, regulated forestry, controlled grazing,
cover cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation are some of the remedial
measures which are often adopted to reduce soil erosion.
o To prevent gully erosion and control their formation.
 Finger gullies can be eliminated by terracing.
 The erosive velocity of water may be reduced by constructing a series
of check dams.
 Special attention should be made to control headward extension of
gullies. This can be done by gully plugging, terracing or by planting
cover vegetation.
o In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts should be made to protect cultivable lands
from encroachment by sand dunes through developing shelter belts of trees
and agro-forestry.
o Lands not suitable for cultivation should be converted into pastures for
grazing.
 INDIAN CLIMATE

Indian Monsoons
● The term monsoon has been derived from the Urdu word ‘mausin’ or from the Malayan word
‘monsin’ meaning ‘season’.
● Monsoons are seasonal winds (Periodic Winds or Secondary winds) which reverse their
direction with the change of season. The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds –
They flow from sea to land during the summer and from land to sea during winter.
● Monsoons are peculiar to the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central Western
Africa etc. but they are more pronounced in the Indian Subcontinent compared to any other
region.
● India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the annual rainfall during south-
west monsoon season whereas South East China, Japan etc., during north-east rainfall
season.
● South-west monsoons are formed due to intense low-pressure systems formed over the
Tibetan plateau whereas North-east monsoons are associated with high-pressure cells over
Tibetan and Siberian plateaus.

Factors Affecting Climate Of India:

1. Latitude:
● Tropical Location: India lies largely in the tropical and subtropical zones, which results
in high temperatures throughout most of the year.
● Equatorial Influence: Proximity to the equator affects the southern parts of India,
leading to relatively stable and high temperatures year-round.
2. Altitude:
● Himalayan Influence: The Himalayas in the north act as a climatic barrier, preventing
cold Central Asian winds from entering India, which keeps northern India warmer in
winter.
● Varied Elevation: Different elevations across the country result in diverse climates,
from the alpine conditions in the Himalayas to the tropical conditions in the coastal
plains.
3. Distance from the Sea:
● Maritime Influence: Coastal regions experience moderate and stable climates due to
the influence of the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal.
● Continental Effect: Inland areas, especially in northern and central India, exhibit more
extreme temperatures with hot summers and cold winters due to the lack of maritime
influence.
4. Monsoon Winds:
● Southwest Monsoon: These winds bring heavy rainfall from June to September,
particularly affecting the western coast and northeastern India.
● Northeast Monsoon: These winds bring rainfall to the southeastern coast, especially
Tamil Nadu, from October to December.
5. Western Disturbances:
● Winter Rainfall: Western disturbances are extratropical storms originating in the
Mediterranean region, causing winter rainfall and snowfall in the northwestern plains
and the Himalayas.
6. Topography:
● Mountain Ranges: The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats influence rainfall
patterns by blocking moist monsoon winds, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward
side and creating a rain shadow effect on the leeward side.
● Deccan Plateau: Its elevation affects the climate, making it relatively drier compared
to coastal regions.
7. Pressure and Wind Systems:
● Cyclones and Anticyclones: Tropical cyclones from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea can bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surges to coastal areas.
● Pressure Patterns: Seasonal changes in pressure patterns influence the direction and
intensity of monsoon winds.
8. Ocean Currents:
● Warm Currents: Warm ocean currents, such as the Indian Ocean Dipole, can influence
the intensity and onset of the monsoon.
● El Niño and La Niña: These phenomena in the Pacific Ocean can have significant
impacts on the Indian monsoon, with El Niño generally causing weaker monsoon rains
and La Niña causing stronger monsoon rains.
9. Jet Streams:
● Subtropical Jet Stream: This high-altitude wind current influences the onset and
withdrawal of the monsoon and the formation of western disturbances.
● Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: Influences the southwest monsoon, playing a role in the
distribution and intensity of monsoon rains.
10. Human Activities:
● Urbanization and Industrialization: These activities lead to the urban heat island
effect, altering local climates and increasing temperatures in urban areas.
● Deforestation and Land Use Changes: These changes can affect local weather
patterns and contribute to changes in rainfall distribution and intensity.
11. Climate Change
● Global Warming: Rising global temperatures affect the monsoon patterns, leading to
more erratic and intense weather events, such as heavier rainfall and more severe
droughts.
The climate of India is a result of the intricate interplay of these factors. Understanding these
influences is crucial for predicting weather patterns, planning agricultural activities, and
preparing for extreme weather events.
Pressure belts with Respect to India:
● Global Pressure Belts significantly influence India's climate through their impact on
wind patterns and precipitation.
● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt:
○ Draws southwest monsoon winds towards India.
○ Leads to essential rainfall for agriculture and water resources.
● Subtropical High-Pressure Belt:
○ Causes dry conditions in the Thar Desert.
○ Influences northeastern monsoon winds, bringing winter rains to parts of
South India.
● Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts:
○ Contribute to winter precipitation in northern India through western
disturbances.
● Formation of Pressure Belts:
○ Driven by differential heating of Earth's surface.
○ Essential for global and regional climate patterns.
● Impact on India:
○ Determine monsoonal rains, dry seasons, and winter precipitation.
○ Crucial for predicting and managing climate-related challenges in the
country.
JET STREAMS
● Jet Streams: Fast-flowing, narrow air currents found in the upper atmosphere near
the tropopause.
● Formation: Driven by temperature differences between polar and equatorial
regions.
● Characteristics:
○ High-speed winds that can reach up to 300 km/h.
○ Located at an altitude of 9-16 km in the atmosphere.
○ Move from west to east due to Earth's rotation.
● Impact on Global Weather & Climate:
○ Influence weather systems, storm tracks, and seasonal climate variations.

Impact on Indian Climate:

Jet streams significantly influence the weather and climate patterns in India. Here’s how:
1. Western Disturbances:
● Formation: Western disturbances are extratropical storms originating in the
Mediterranean region and are carried into India by the polar jet stream.
● Impact: They bring winter rainfall and snowfall to the northwestern plains and
the Himalayan region, which is crucial for the Rabi crop and replenishing water
sources.
 2. Onset and Withdrawal of Monsoon:
● Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ): The position and intensity of the subtropical jet
stream play a crucial role in the onset of the Indian summer monsoon. The
weakening and northward shift of the STJ is associated with the onset of the
southwest monsoon.
● Easterly Jet Stream: During the monsoon season, the easterly jet stream
(Tropical Easterly Jet) forms over the Indian subcontinent, enhancing the
monsoonal rainfall.
3. Monsoon Breaks:
o Mechanism: Changes in the position and strength of the subtropical jet stream
can lead to breaks in the monsoon. These are periods of reduced rainfall
activity over the Indian subcontinent, which can impact agriculture and water
resources.
4. Temperature Regulation:
o Influence: Jet streams help in moderating temperatures by influencing the
movement of air masses. For instance, they can bring cold air from the polar
regions or warm air from the tropics, affecting temperature patterns in India.
5. Extreme Weather Events:
o Cyclones and Storms: The interaction between jet streams and tropical
systems can enhance the development and intensity of cyclones and storms,
affecting coastal regions of India.
Jet Streams with Respect to India:
● Play a pivotal role in shaping weather patterns and seasonal changes.
● Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ):
○ Its northward shift marks the onset of the southwest monsoon.
○ Brings crucial rainfall that supports agriculture and water resources.
● Polar Jet Stream (PJS):
○ Carries western disturbances, bringing winter precipitation to northern India.
○ Essential for Rabi crops such as wheat and barley.
● Influence on Extreme Weather:
○ Affects temperature patterns across India.
○ Can lead to cyclones, monsoon breaks, and other extreme weather events.
● Overall Impact:
○ Determines seasonal rainfall, agricultural productivity, and climate
variability.
○ Highlights the importance of understanding jet streams for weather
forecasting and disaster management.
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD)
● A climate phenomenon driven by sea surface temperature (SST) differences in the
Indian Ocean.
● Influences weather patterns, including the Indian monsoon.

Phases of IOD:
1. Positive IOD:
○ Formation:
■ Warmer than average SST in the western Indian Ocean.
■ Cooler than average SST in the eastern Indian Ocean (near Indonesia).
○ Characteristics:
■ Enhanced convection and increased rainfall in the western Indian
Ocean.
■ Suppressed convection and less rainfall in the eastern Indian Ocean
(Indonesia).
■ Strengthens Indian monsoon, bringing above-average rainfall.
2. Negative IOD:
○ Formation:
■ Cooler than average SST in the western Indian Ocean.
■ Warmer than average SST in the eastern Indian Ocean.
○ Characteristics:
■ Increased rainfall in the eastern Indian Ocean (Indonesia).
■ Reduced rainfall in the western Indian Ocean, weakening the Indian
monsoon.
■ Can contribute to droughts in India.
3. Neutral IOD:
○ Formation:
■ Minimal SST differences between the western and eastern Indian
Ocean.
○ Characteristics:
■ Stable weather patterns with average convection and rainfall in both
regions.
■ No major impact on monsoon strength.

Impact on Indian Climate:

● Positive IOD: Enhances monsoon rains, reducing drought risk and benefiting
agriculture.
● Negative IOD: Weakens monsoon, causing dry spells and crop failures.
● Neutral IOD: Maintains normal weather conditions.
● Affects cyclone formation and temperature variations in the Indian subcontinent.

Significance:
● Plays a crucial role in monsoon forecasting.
● Helps in climate predictions, disaster preparedness, and agriculture planning.
Impact of IOD on Indian Climate:
The IOD has a profound impact on the Indian monsoon and overall climate patterns in India:
1. Effect on Monsoon Rainfall:
o Positive IOD: During a positive IOD phase, the warming of the western Indian
Ocean enhances the southwest monsoon winds, bringing more moisture and
increasing rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. This can lead to a stronger and
more widespread monsoon season, benefiting agriculture and water
resources.
 o Negative IOD: Conversely, a negative IOD phase weakens the monsoon winds
due to the cooling of the western Indian Ocean, leading to reduced moisture
transport and less rainfall over India. This can result in weaker monsoon
seasons, droughts, and adverse effects on agriculture.
2. Temperature Patterns:
o Positive IOD: The increased rainfall during a positive IOD phase can lead to
cooler temperatures over India due to enhanced cloud cover and precipitation.
o Negative IOD: Reduced rainfall during a negative IOD phase can result in higher
temperatures, as clear skies and lower humidity levels prevail.
3. Extreme Weather Events:
o Positive IOD: The increased convection and rainfall can sometimes lead to
flooding and other extreme weather events, particularly in western and central
India.
o Negative IOD: The decreased rainfall can exacerbate drought conditions,
leading to water scarcity, reduced crop yields, and increased vulnerability to
heatwaves.
4. Impact on Agriculture:
o Positive IOD: A positive IOD phase generally supports better crop yields due to
sufficient monsoon rainfall, which is crucial for rain-fed agriculture in India.
o Negative IOD: A negative IOD phase can severely impact agricultural
productivity by reducing rainfall, leading to drought conditions and affecting
the livelihoods of millions of farmers.
5. Impact on Fisheries:
o Positive IOD: The warmer waters in the western Indian Ocean during a positive
IOD phase can benefit marine life and fisheries in the region, enhancing fish
stocks and supporting the fishing industry.
o Negative IOD: Cooler waters during a negative IOD phase can adversely affect
marine ecosystems and reduce fish catches, impacting the fishing
communities.

EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA, WALKER CIRCULATION

El Niño and La Niña are the warm and cool phases of a recurring climate pattern across the
tropical Pacific—the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). They have significant impacts on
global weather, including the Indian monsoon.
EL NIÑO:
● Formation:
○ El Niño is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the central
and eastern equatorial Pacific.
○ It occurs due to the weakening of the trade winds, which usually push warm
water westward towards Indonesia and Australia.
 ● Characteristics:
○ Warmer sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific.
○ Reduced upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water off the coast of South America.
● Impact on Indian Climate:
○ Monsoon Rainfall: El Niño is generally associated with weaker monsoon winds,
leading to reduced rainfall over India. This can result in drought conditions,
adversely affecting agriculture and water supply.
○ Temperature: Higher temperatures are often recorded during El Niño years,
exacerbating heatwaves.
○ Extreme Weather: El Niño can lead to an increase in cyclonic activity in the
Indian Ocean, affecting coastal areas.
LA NIÑA:
● Formation:
○ La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the central
and eastern equatorial Pacific.
○ It occurs due to the strengthening of the trade winds, which push warm water
further westward.
● Characteristics:
○ Cooler sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific.
○ Increased upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water off the coast of South America.
● Impact on Indian Climate:
○ Monsoon Rainfall: La Niña is typically associated with stronger monsoon
winds, leading to increased rainfall over India. This can enhance agricultural
productivity but also cause flooding.
○ Temperature: Lower temperatures are often recorded during La Niña years,
which can mitigate heatwaves.
○ Extreme Weather: La Niña can lead to a decrease in cyclonic activity in the
Indian Ocean but increase rainfall variability.

WALKER CIRCULATION
● Walker Circulation is the large-scale atmospheric circulation in the tropical Pacific,
characterized by the movement of air between the western and eastern Pacific.
● Formation:
○ The Walker Circulation is driven by the temperature difference between the
warm waters of the western Pacific and the cooler waters of the eastern
Pacific.
 ○ Under normal conditions, warm water and low pressure in the western Pacific
lead to rising air and convection, while cooler water and high pressure in the
eastern Pacific result in sinking air.
● Characteristics:
○ The trade winds blow from east to west along the equator, bringing warm
surface water westward and contributing to the upwelling of cold water in the
eastern Pacific.
○ The rising air in the western Pacific moves eastward at high altitudes and
descends in the eastern Pacific, creating a loop.
● Impact on Indian Climate:
○ Normal Walker Circulation: Supports the normal monsoon pattern with
adequate rainfall over India.
○ El Niño: The Walker Circulation weakens or reverses, disrupting the normal
monsoon pattern and leading to reduced rainfall in India.
○ La Niña: The Walker Circulation strengthens, enhancing the monsoon winds
and increasing rainfall over India.

El Niño, La Niña, and the Walker Circulation are interconnected climatic phenomena that have
profound impacts on the Indian climate. El Niño typically leads to weaker monsoons and
drought conditions in India, while La Niña tends to bring stronger monsoons and increased
rainfall.

Seasons In India And Influencing Factors:

India experiences four main seasons: Winter, Summer, Monsoon, and Post-Monsoon. Each
season is influenced by various climatic factors including pressure belts, the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), jet streams, and phenomena like El Niño and La Niña.

1. Winter (January To February)

● Characteristics:
○ Temperature: Cool temperatures, particularly in northern India. Southern
India remains relatively warmer.
○ Weather: Clear skies, low humidity, and little to no rainfall except in regions
affected by western disturbances.
● Influencing Factors:
○ Subtropical High-Pressure Belt: Dominates during winter, contributing to
stable and dry weather.
○ Western Disturbances: These are extratropical storms originating in the
Mediterranean and carried into India by the polar jet stream. They bring winter
rainfall and snowfall to the northwestern plains and the Himalayan region.
○ Jet Streams: The subtropical jet stream influences the weather patterns by
steering western disturbances into northern India.

● Impact of El Niño and La Niña:

○ El Niño: Can lead to warmer than average winter temperatures and reduced
snowfall.
○ La Niña: Typically results in cooler and wetter conditions, enhancing snowfall
in the Himalayas.
2. SUMMER (MARCH TO MAY)
● Characteristics:
○ Temperature: High temperatures, often exceeding 40°C in northern and
central India. Southern India experiences relatively moderate heat.
○ Weather: Dry conditions prevail, with occasional pre-monsoon thunderstorms
in some regions.
● Influencing Factors:
○ Pressure Belts: The subtropical high-pressure belt retreats northward,
reducing its influence on India.
○ Heat Low: Intense heating over the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure
area, particularly over northwest India, leading to the development of the
monsoon trough.
○ Jet Streams: The weakening and northward shift of the subtropical jet stream
marks the pre-monsoon period.
Some distinctive features seen in north India in summer reason are:
o Loo:
o Strong, dry, hot winds blowing over north and northwest India.
o Form due to a steep temperature gradient in May and June.
o Speed: 30-40 km/hr, persisting for 3 to 10 days.
o Andhis (Blinding Storms):
o Dust storms caused by convection.
o Appear as a solid wall of dust and sand.
o Wind speed: 50-60 km/hr, reducing visibility to near zero.
o Provide temporary relief from heat.
o Originate in Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, and Madhya
Pradesh.

Norwesters (Severe Thunderstorms in East & Northeast India):

● Formation:
○ Result of strong convectional movements combined with western
disturbances in the upper troposphere.
● Characteristics:
○ Bring thunderstorms, violent winds, hailstones, and heavy showers.
○ Originate over Chhota Nagpur Plateau and move towards West Bengal,
Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha, Tripura, Meghalaya, and Nagaland.
○ Cause damage to crops, property, and human lives.
○ Beneficial for tea, jute, and rice cultivation.
● Regional Names & Impact:
○ In Assam: Called "Barodoli Chheerha" (Tea Showers) – Beneficial for tea
plantations.
○ In West Bengal: Known as "Kalbaisakhis" – Bring intense thunderstorms.
○ In South India:
■ Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu – Occur in evenings and are called
"Cherry Blossoms" or "Blossom Showers" (Beneficial for coffee
plantations).
■ Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh – Called "Mango Showers", as
they aid mango ripening.
3. MONSOON (JUNE TO SEPTEMBER)
Characteristics:
● Temperature: Moderate temperatures due to cloud cover and rainfall.
● Weather: Heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent thunderstorms. The southwest
monsoon winds bring moisture-laden air from the Indian Ocean.

Mechanism of Monsoon in India:

The Indian monsoon is a complex system influenced by atmospheric and oceanic factors.
Below are the key mechanisms that govern the monsoon:

● Differential Heating of Land and Sea:

○ During summer, land heats up faster than the surrounding oceans.
○ Creates a low-pressure zone over Thar Desert and northern plains.
○ The Indian Ocean remains cooler, forming a high-pressure zone.
○ This pressure difference drives moist winds from the ocean towards land,
initiating the monsoon.
● Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
○ A low-pressure belt where trade winds converge.
○ Shifts northward over India during summer, triggering monsoon rains.
 ○ Causes intense convection and heavy rainfall over the subcontinent.
● Development of Monsoon Trough:
○ A low-pressure trough forms from Thar Desert to the Bay of Bengal.
○ Acts as a pathway for southwest monsoon winds to move inland.
○ Enhances convergence of moist winds, leading to cloud formation and
rainfall.
● Role of Jet Streams:
○ Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) weakens and shifts northward, aiding monsoon
onset.
○ Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) strengthens, enhancing moisture transport and
rainfall.
● Mascarene High:
○ A high-pressure system over the southern Indian Ocean.
○ Strengthens in monsoon season, pushing southwest monsoon winds towards
India.
○ Creates a pressure gradient, accelerating monsoon winds inland.
● Southwest Monsoon Winds:
○ Carry moisture from the Indian Ocean towards India.
○ Split into two branches:
■ Arabian Sea Branch
■ Bay of Bengal Branch
○ Cause orographic rainfall over Western Ghats and the Himalayan foothills.
● Rainfall Distribution:
○ Arabian Sea Branch:
■ Hits the Western Ghats, causing heavy rainfall in Kerala, Karnataka,
Goa, Maharashtra.
■ Moves northeastward, bringing rain to Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and
Rajasthan.
■ Merges with the Bay of Bengal branch over northern India.
○ Bay of Bengal Branch:
■ Travels northeastward, hitting Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
and West Bengal.
■ Causes heavy rainfall in northeastern states and Himalayan foothills
(Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal).
■ Curves northwestward, merging with Arabian Sea branch, bringing
widespread rain to Indo-Gangetic plains.
● Break in Monsoon:
○ Periods when rainfall significantly reduces or stops temporarily.
○ Caused by shifts in monsoon trough and changes in jet streams.
○ Can lead to dry spells, affecting agriculture and water availability.
● Retreat of Monsoon:
○ Begins from northwest India in September, withdrawing completely by early
December.
○ Marked by weakening low-pressure areas and re-establishment of high
pressure.
○ Leads to clear skies, lower humidity, and decreasing rainfall.
○ Transition phase to the northeast monsoon, which affects southeastern India.
Summary Table
Season Characteristics Influencing Factors Impact of El Niño and
La Niña

Winter Cool, dry, clear skies Subtropical high-pressure El Niño: Warmer

belt, western disturbances, winters, reduced
jet streams snowfall
La Niña: Cooler,
wetter conditions,
enhanced snowfall

Summer Hot, dry, occasional Heat low, pressure belts, jet El Niño: Prolonged
thunderstorms streams heatwaves
La Niña: Cooler, early
pre-monsoon rains

Monsoon Moderate Southwest monsoon, ITCZ, El Niño: Weaker

temperatures, heavy tropical easterly jet, pressure monsoon, reduced
rainfall belts, orographic uplift rainfall, droughts
La Niña: Stronger
monsoon, increased
rainfall, flooding

Post- Gradual cooling, Northeast monsoon, ITCZ, El Niño: Delayed

Monsoon retreating rains pressure belts retreat, reduced
northeast rains
La Niña: Early retreat,
enhanced northeast
rains

CYCLONES IN INDIA
Cyclones are intense circular storms that originate over warm tropical oceans and are
characterized by low atmospheric pressure, strong winds, and heavy rain. In India, cyclones
mainly form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.

Formation of Cyclones
1. Warm Ocean Waters:
o Cyclones require sea surface temperatures of at least 27°C to form. Warm
waters provide the necessary heat and moisture to fuel the storm.
2. Low Pressure Area:
o Cyclones begin as a low-pressure area or tropical depression. The warm, moist
air rises, creating a low-pressure zone at the surface.
3. Coriolis Effect:
o The Coriolis effect, due to Earth's rotation, causes the winds to spiral around
the low-pressure center, giving the cyclone its characteristic circular motion.
In the Northern Hemisphere, cyclones rotate counterclockwise.
4. Eye Formation:
o Development: As the cyclone intensifies, the rising warm air in the storm's
center creates a strong updraft, causing air to rise rapidly.
o Eye Formation: This rising air cools and condenses, releasing latent heat, which
fuels further updrafts. The intense rising air in the center eventually reaches
the upper troposphere, where it spreads outwards, creating a high-pressure
region aloft. This divergence aloft causes more air to be drawn up from below,
reinforcing the low-pressure area at the surface.
o Calm Center: The strong updrafts and the centrifugal force caused by the
rotation of the storm create a calm, clear area at the center, known as the
"eye." The eye is typically 20-40 kilometers in diameter and is surrounded by
the eye wall, where the most severe weather occurs.
Direction of Movement
● Bay of Bengal Cyclones: Generally, move northwestwards initially and then recurve
northeastwards towards the Indian coast due to the influence of the easterly winds
and the Coriolis effect.
● Arabian Sea Cyclones: Often move northwestwards, affecting the western coast of
India, Pakistan, and the Arabian Peninsula.
Naming of Cyclones
● World Meteorological Organization (WMO): Cyclones in the Indian Ocean are named
by a regional committee comprising members from countries in the region.
● Rotating Lists: Names are chosen from pre-determined lists submitted by member
countries. Each name is used only once and then retired.

Comparison between Arabian Sea And Bay Of Bengal Cyclones:

Feature Arabian Sea Cyclones Bay of Bengal Cyclones

Frequency Less frequent More frequent

Intensity Generally, less intense Generally, more intense

Direction of Typically move northwestwards Move northwestwards initially,

Movement then recurve northeastwards

Affected Regions Western coast of India, Pakistan, Eastern coast of India, Bangladesh,
Arabian Peninsula Myanmar
Sea Surface Lower compared to Bay of Higher, providing more energy for
Temperature Bengal cyclone formation

Destruction Moderate destruction due to Higher destruction potential due to

Potential lower frequency and intensity higher frequency and intensity
 NATURAL VEGETATION
Natural Vegetation refers to a plant community that has grown naturally without human aid and has
been left undisturbed by humans for a long time.

Factors Influencing Natural Vegetation In India

India's natural vegetation is shaped by a variety of factors that contribute to its diversity and
distribution. These factors include climate, soil type, topography, and human activities.
Understanding these influences is crucial for managing and conserving the country's rich flora.
1. Climate:
A. TEMPERATURE:
● Impact: Temperature significantly affects the types of vegetation found in different
regions. For instance, tropical regions with high temperatures support dense forests,
while cooler regions in the Himalayas support alpine vegetation.
● Examples: Tropical rainforests in the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, alpine meadows in the Himalayas.
B. PRECIPITATION:
● Impact: The amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall are critical determinants of
vegetation. Areas with heavy rainfall support lush forests, while arid regions have
sparse, thorny vegetation.
● Examples: Evergreen forests in areas with high rainfall like Assam and Meghalaya,
desert vegetation in Rajasthan.
C. HUMIDITY:
● Impact: Humidity influences the density and type of vegetation. High humidity areas
support luxuriant plant growth, whereas low humidity areas have sparse vegetation.
● Examples: Humid regions like Kerala support tropical rainforests, whereas dry regions
like the Thar Desert have xerophytic vegetation.
2. Soil Type:
A. FERTILITY:
● Impact: The nutrient content and fertility of the soil determine the type of vegetation
that can thrive. Rich, fertile soils support dense forests, while poor soils support sparse
vegetation.
● Examples: Alluvial soils in the Indo-Gangetic plains support deciduous forests, while
sandy soils in Rajasthan support thorny bushes.
B. SOIL COMPOSITION:
● Impact: Different soil types, such as clayey, sandy, or loamy, influence the types of
plants that can grow.
● Examples: Black soil regions like Deccan plateau support cotton and other specific
vegetation, while red soils support deciduous forests.
3. TOPOGRAPHY
A. ALTITUDE:
● Impact: Altitude affects temperature and precipitation patterns, thereby influencing
vegetation. Higher altitudes generally have cooler temperatures and different
vegetation types compared to low-lying areas.
● Examples: Alpine vegetation in the Himalayas, tropical forests in the low-lying coastal
areas.
B. SLOPE AND DRAINAGE:
● Impact: Slopes and drainage patterns influence soil moisture and stability, affecting
the types of vegetation. Well-drained slopes support forests, while poorly drained
areas may support marshy vegetation.
● Examples: Well-drained slopes of the Western Ghats support dense forests, while
marshy areas support mangroves.
4. HUMAN ACTIVITIES
A. DEFORESTATION:
● Impact: Human activities such as logging, agriculture, and urbanization lead to
deforestation, significantly altering natural vegetation.
● Examples: Large-scale deforestation in the Western Ghats and northeastern India for
timber and agriculture.
B. AGRICULTURE:
● Impact: Conversion of forest land to agricultural land changes the natural vegetation
patterns.
● Examples: Replacement of natural forests with crop fields in the Indo-Gangetic plains.
C. CONSERVATION EFFORTS:
● Impact: Initiatives to protect and restore natural habitats help in conserving and
regenerating natural vegetation.
● Examples: Protected areas and national parks like Sundarbans, Kaziranga, and Jim
Corbett National Park.

Classification of Natural Vegetation In India

Climate, soil, and topography are the major determinants that influence the Natural Vegetation of a
place. The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature.
The amount of annual rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.
 Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation

200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests

100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests

50 to 100 cm Dry Deciduous or Tropical Savannah

25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)

Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)

A. MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS

1. TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS:
o Location: Western Ghats, northeastern states (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh),
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Consistently high (25°C - 30°C).
▪ Humidity: Very high (above 75%).
▪ Rainfall: Heavy annual rainfall (2000 - 3000 mm).
 o Soil Factors: Nutrient-rich but heavily leached due to constant rainfall;
typically, lateritic and red soils.
o Characteristics: Dense, multi-layered forests with trees reaching heights of 60
meters. These forests have a closed canopy, allowing very little sunlight to
penetrate to the forest floor.
o Flora: Rosewood, Mahogany, Ebony, Bamboo.
o Fauna: Elephants, tigers, leopards, hornbills, kingfishers.
2. TROPICAL SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS:
o Location: Western Ghats, Odisha, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: High (25°C - 28°C).
▪ Humidity: High (70% - 80%).
▪ Rainfall: Significant (1500 - 2000 mm).
o Soil Factors: Fertile, well-drained soils.
o Characteristics: A mix of evergreen and deciduous trees, denser undergrowth
than dry evergreen forests.
o Flora: White Cedar, Hollock, Kail.
o Fauna: Langurs, macaques, various bird species.
3. TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS:
o Location: Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, northeastern states, foothills
of the Himalayas.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Warm (24°C - 30°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate to high (60% - 80%).
▪ Rainfall: 1000 - 2000 mm, with distinct dry and wet seasons.
o Soil Factors: Fertile, rich in organic matter, generally alluvial and red soils.
o Characteristics: Trees shed leaves during the dry season to conserve water;
dense and diverse.
o Flora: Teak, Sal, Shisham, Mango.
o Fauna: Tigers, leopards, elephants, various birds and reptiles.
4. LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS:
o Location: Coastal regions, especially the Sundarbans in West Bengal, and delta
regions.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Warm (25°C - 30°C).
▪ Humidity: High (80% - 90%).
▪ Rainfall: 1500 - 2500 mm, influenced by tidal action.
o Soil Factors: Waterlogged, high salinity.
 o Characteristics: Vegetation adapted to saline conditions with roots submerged
in water.
o Flora: Sundari, Mangrove Palm, Rhizophora.
o Fauna: Bengal tigers, saltwater crocodiles, various bird species.

B. DRY TROPICAL FORESTS

1. TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS:
o Location: Coromandel Coast in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: High (26°C - 32°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate (50% - 60%).
▪ Rainfall: Moderate (800 - 1200 mm).
o Soil Factors: Fertile soils with moderate moisture retention.
o Characteristics: Evergreen trees and shrubs adapted to dry conditions.
o Flora: Barringtonia, Pterocarpus, Garcinia.
o Fauna: Blackbucks, spotted deer, various reptiles.
2. TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS:
o Location: Central India, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
o Climate Factors:
 ▪ Temperature: Warm to hot (25°C - 35°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate to low (40% - 50%).
▪ Rainfall: 1000 - 1500 mm, with a long dry season.
o Soil Factors: Less fertile, often sandy and prone to erosion.
o Characteristics: Trees shed leaves completely during the dry season, resulting
in a sparse canopy.
o Flora: Teak, Sal, Palash.
o Fauna: Deer, wild boar, numerous bird species.
3. TROPICAL THORN FORESTS:
o Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Haryana and Punjab.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: High (28°C - 40°C).
▪ Humidity: Low (20% - 40%).
▪ Rainfall: Very low (less than 750 mm).
o Soil Factors: Sandy soils with low organic matter content.
o Characteristics: Sparse vegetation with thorny trees and bushes adapted to
arid conditions.
o Flora: Acacia, Cactus, Babul, Ber.
o Fauna: Camels, blackbucks, desert foxes.
C. MONTANE SUB-TROPICAL FORESTS
1. SUB-TROPICAL BROAD-LEAVED HILL FORESTS:
o Location: Lower elevations of the Himalayas, hills of the Nilgiris, Western
Ghats.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Mild (15°C - 25°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate to high (60% - 80%).
▪ Rainfall: 1000 - 1500 mm.
o Soil Factors: Varied, generally fertile soils.
o Characteristics: Evergreen forests with broad-leaved trees.
o Flora: Oak, Chestnut, Magnolia.
o Fauna: Deer, monkeys, numerous bird species.
2. SUB-TROPICAL MOIST HILL FORESTS (PINE):
o Location: Middle Himalayan ranges, Khasi and Garo hills in northeastern India.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Moderate to cool (10°C - 20°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate (50% - 70%).
▪ Rainfall: Significant (1500 - 2000 mm).
o Soil Factors: Well-drained, often rocky soils.
o Characteristics: Dominated by various pine species, adapted to cooler
climates.
 o Flora: Chir Pine, Blue Pine, White Pine.
o Fauna: Himalayan black bear, leopards, various birds.
3. SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS:
o Location: Eastern coast of India, primarily Tamil Nadu.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: High (25°C - 30°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate (50% - 60%).
▪ Rainfall: Moderate (800 - 1200 mm).
o Soil Factors: Fertile, often calcareous soils.
o Characteristics: Evergreen species adapted to dry conditions.
o Flora: Olive, Myrtle, Acacia.
o Fauna: Wild boar, deer, various reptiles.
D. MONTANE TEMPERATE FORESTS:
1. MONTANE WET TEMPERATE FORESTS:
o Location: Higher elevations of the Western Ghats and northeastern hills.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Cool (10°C - 20°C).
▪ Humidity: High (70% - 90%).
▪ Rainfall: Heavy (2000 - 3000 mm).
o Soil Factors: Fertile, well-drained soils.
o Characteristics: Dense, lush forests with a mix of broadleaf and coniferous
trees.
o Flora: Magnolia, Laurel, Chestnut.
o Fauna: Tigers, leopards, numerous bird species.
2. HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS:
o Location: Middle elevations of the Himalayas.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Cool (10°C - 15°C).
▪ Humidity: Moderate to high (60% - 80%).
▪ Rainfall: 1500 - 2500 mm.
o Soil Factors: Fertile, rich in organic matter.
o Characteristics: Dense forests with a mix of broadleaf and coniferous trees.
o Flora: Oak, Maple, Deodar, Spruce.
o Fauna: Himalayan black bear, red panda, numerous bird species.
3. HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS:
o Location: Higher elevations of the western Himalayas, Ladakh.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Cold (5°C - 15°C).
 ▪ Humidity: Low (30% - 50%).
▪ Rainfall: Low (less than 1000 mm).
o Soil Factors: Rocky, less fertile soils.
o Characteristics: Sparse vegetation adapted to dry and cold conditions.
o Flora: Juniper, Birch, Rhododendron.
o Fauna: Snow leopards, yaks, ibex.
E. ALPINE FORESTS
1. SUB-ALPINE FORESTS:
o Location: Highest elevations of the Himalayas.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Very cold (below 0°C in winter, 10°C - 15°C in summer).
▪ Humidity: Low to moderate (40% - 60%).
▪ Rainfall: Moderate (1000 - 1500 mm, mostly as snow).
o Soil Factors: Thin, rocky soils.
o Characteristics: Stunted trees and alpine meadows with grasses and herbs.
o Flora: Juniper, Rhododendron, Alpine grasses.
o Fauna: Snow leopards, Tibetan antelope, high-altitude birds.
2. MOIST ALPINE SCRUB:
o Location: Higher reaches of the Himalayas, above the treeline.
o Climate Factors:
▪ Temperature: Extremely cold (below 0°C for most of the year).
▪ Humidity: Low (30% - 50%).
▪ Rainfall: Low (less than 1000 mm, mostly as snow).
o Soil Factors: Rocky, nutrient-poor soils.
o Characteristics: Low-growing shrubs and herbaceous plants adapted to harsh
conditions.
o Flora: Rhododendron, Artemisia, Alpine scrubs.
o Fauna: Snow leopards, Himalayan tahr, various alpine birds.
 LAND RESOURCES

● India, with approximately 2.4% of the world's geographical area, supports about 17% of
the global population and 20% of its livestock. This land pressure has resulted in
deterioration, primarily through soil erosion, water logging, salinization, nutrient
depletion, lowering of groundwater tables, and soil pollution, caused mostly by human
interventions.

Land Use Categories:

● Forests: It is important to note that the area under actual forest cover is different from the
area classified as forest. The latter is the area that the Government has identified and
demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter
definition. Thus, there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the actual
forest cover.
● Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban),
infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category. An
expansion in the secondary and tertiary activities would lead to an increase in this category
of land use.
● Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren
hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with
the available technology.
● Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type of land is owned by
the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately
owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property
Resources
● Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net sown Area): The
land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is
privately owned.
● Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years
is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through
reclamation practices.
● Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one
agricultural year. Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land
recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.
● Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for
more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five
years, it would be categorised as a culturable wasteland.
● Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is
known as the net sown area.
Changes In Land Use Pattern In India:
● Changes in the pattern of land use in India refer to the transformation of land from one
land use category to another over time.
● It involves the conversion of land for various purposes, such as agriculture, forestry,
urbanization, industrialization, infrastructure development, and conservation. These
changes have significant implications for the environment, economy, and social well-being
of the country.
● As per the National Sample Survey, land use in India is broadly classified into net sown
area, forests, land put to non-agricultural uses, fallow lands, cultivable waste land, and
uncultivated land.

Impacts of Changes in the Pattern of Land Use in India

The changes in the pattern of land use in India have both positive and negative impacts:
Positive Impacts:
● Economic Development: The conversion of agricultural land for industrial and
infrastructure development can contribute to economic growth, job creation, and
improved living standards.
● Urbanization: Urban areas serve as centers of economic and social activities, providing
better infrastructure, educational institutions, healthcare facilities, and employment
opportunities.
Negative Impacts:
● Agricultural Loss: The conversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes reduces
the availability of fertile land for food production, affecting food security and rural
livelihoods.
● Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, habitat loss, soil erosion, and water pollution
are some of the environmental consequences of land use changes, leading to a decline in
biodiversity and ecosystem services.
● Land Fragmentation: Fragmentation of land due to urbanization and infrastructure
development can disrupt the ecological connectivity and functioning of landscapes.

Land Degradation and Desertification

As per United Nations Convention for Combating Desertification (UNCCD), Desertification is
defined as “land degradation in arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors including climatic variations and human activities”. Here ‘‘land’’ means the terrestrial
bio-productive system’’ and “land degradation” means “reduction or loss of biological or
economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range,
pasture, forest and woodlands
Types of Land Degradation:
Land degradation can be broadly categorized into three types: physical, chemical, and
biological.
Physical Degradation:
● Physical degradation involves erosion, loss of soil organic carbon, changes in soil
structure such as compaction and waterlogging.
● Soil erosion, especially through wind and water, is a significant contributor to land
degradation globally.
● It leads to the removal of topsoil, reduced soil productivity, and loss of plant nutrients,
impacting agricultural productivity and ecological balance.
Chemical Degradation:
● Chemical degradation encompasses leaching, salinization, fertility depletion,
acidification, and nutrient imbalances.
● These processes often result from poor land management practices, excessive use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and inadequate soil conservation measures.
● Chemical degradation affects soil fertility, hampers plant growth, and disrupts nutrient
cycles, posing challenges to sustainable agriculture and ecosystem health.
Biological Degradation:
● Biological degradation refers to the loss of vegetation, rangeland degradation, and loss
of biodiversity, including soil organic matter.
● Factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable land-use practices
contribute to biological degradation.
● The loss of vegetation cover leads to soil erosion, reduced habitat availability for
wildlife, and disruption of ecosystem functions, threatening overall ecological balance.

Causes of Land Degradation and Desertification in India:

India faces numerous causes of land degradation and desertification, resulting in significant
ecological challenges. Some key causes include:

● Vegetation Degradation:
○ Contributes 8.91% to desertification in India.
○ Includes deforestation, shifting cultivation, degradation of grazing lands,
grasslands, and scrublands.
○ Human activities accelerate soil erosion and disrupt ecological balance.
● Urban Growth, Industrialization, and Mining:
○ Rapid urbanization, industrial expansion, and mining prioritize economic growth
over environmental sustainability.
○ Leads to loss of agricultural land, destruction of natural habitats, and increased
pollution.
● Natural Causes:
○ Natural disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, floods, tornadoes, and wildfires cause severe land degradation.
○ Disrupt ecosystems, alter soil composition, and accelerate erosion.
● Land Shortage, Land Fragmentation, and Poor Economy:
○ Land scarcity, fragmented land holdings, and economic challenges hinder
sustainable land management.
○ Results in overexploitation, inadequate soil conservation, and limited
investment in sustainable practices.
● Water Erosion:
○ Contributes 10.98% to desertification in India.
○ Caused by loss of soil cover due to rainfall and surface runoff.
○ Removes topsoil, affecting nutrient availability and bacterial activity.
● Wind Erosion:
○ Accounts for 5.55% of desertification in India.
○ Involves sand displacement even at high altitudes in the Himalayas.
○ Leads to nutrient loss, reduced soil fertility, and agricultural land degradation.
● Population Increase:
○ Growing population pressure increases demand for agricultural land.
○ Leads to unsustainable farming practices and land conversion, worsening land
degradation.
● Agricultural Activities and Practices
○ Unregulated farming, excessive tillage, improper irrigation, and agrochemical
overuse degrade soil quality.
 ○ Results in erosion, nutrient imbalance, and reduced soil fertility.
● Poor Irrigation, Salinity, and Water Management:
○ Inefficient irrigation and water mismanagement cause waterlogging,
salinization, and groundwater depletion.
○ Salinity contributes 1.12% to desertification, particularly in irrigated lands.
○ Soil salinity hampers agricultural productivity, reduces fertility, and accelerates
land degradation.

Combating and Mitigating Desertification in India

India, with its diverse geography and climatic zones, faces the challenge of desertification in
certain regions. To combat and mitigate desertification, the following strategies and initiatives
have been undertaken:
● National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (NAPCD):
○ The NAPCD was launched by the Government of India to address desertification and
land degradation issues.
○ It aims to restore and rehabilitate degraded land, improve water management
practices, and promote sustainable land-use practices.
○ The program focuses on capacity building, awareness generation, research, and
monitoring of desertification processes.
● Watershed Development:
○ Watershed development programs have been implemented to conserve water
resources, prevent soil erosion, and enhance soil moisture.
○ Construction of check dams, contour bunding, and afforestation in watersheds help in
reducing runoff, promoting groundwater recharge, and preventing land degradation.
● Afforestation and Reforestation:
○ Large-scale afforestation and reforestation efforts are crucial for combating
desertification.
○ Planting of indigenous tree species helps stabilize soil, reduce wind erosion, and
increase water availability.
○ Initiatives like the Green India Mission, National Afforestation Programme, and social
forestry programs have been launched to promote afforestation and reforestation.
● Sustainable Agricultural Practices:
○ Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is essential to combat desertification.
○ Practices like agroforestry, contour farming, crop rotation, and terracing help in
retaining soil moisture, preventing erosion, and improving soil fertility.
○ Encouraging the use of organic fertilizers, efficient irrigation systems, and promoting
drought-tolerant crop varieties are also important.
● Soil Conservation Measures:
○ Implementing soil conservation measures such as contour plowing, contour bunding,
and construction of stone walls helps prevent erosion and retain moisture.
○ Terracing, mulching, and applying soil stabilization techniques play a significant role in
maintaining soil fertility and preventing desertification.
● Community Participation and Awareness:
○ Encouraging community participation and creating awareness about the importance of
sustainable land management practices is crucial.
○ Involving local communities in decision-making, capacity building, and providing them
with alternative livelihood options can help in sustainable land management.
● Research and Technological Interventions:
○ Research and development efforts must be focused on developing and promoting
innovative technologies for desertification control.
○ This includes the use of remote sensing, GIS mapping, and advanced agricultural
practices to monitor land degradation and implement effective measures.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),

1992
● UNCCD is the only international legally binding instrument to effectively tackle
desertification and the effects of drought.
● It was established in 1994. The Convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and
dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands.
● It aims to achieve a Land Degradation-Neutral (LDN) world consistent with the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development.
● The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the
participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation.
● The new UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic Framework is the most comprehensive global
commitment to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) in order to restore the
productivity of vast expanses of degraded land, improve the livelihoods of more than 3
billion people, and reduce the impacts of drought on a vulnerable population.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)

UNCCD defines it as “a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources necessary
to support ecosystem function and services and enhance food security remain stable or
increase within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems".
 India’ Global Commitment
● At the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Conference of the Parties (COP), 2015 in Paris, India joined the voluntary Bonn
Challenge pledge to bring into restoration 13 million hectares (mha) of degraded and
deforested land by the year 2020, and additional 8 mha by 2030.
● This pledge to restore of 21 [Link] by 2030 has been increased to 26 mha, during the
COP14 to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in
2019.
 Population Geography of India

Introduction

Population geography examines the spatial distribution, density, growth, composition, and
migration patterns of people within a region. India, the second-most populous country in the
world, presents a diverse demographic landscape influenced by historical, socio-economic, and
political factors. Understanding population dynamics is crucial for policy formulation, resource
allocation, and sustainable development.

1.1 Population Distribution and Density:

● Uneven Distribution: India’s population is unevenly distributed, with high

concentrations in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and sparse populations in desert,
mountainous, and forested regions.
● Population Density: The national average population density (as per Census 2011) is 382
persons per sq. km, with states like Bihar (1,102 persons/sq. km) and Uttar Pradesh
being densely populated, while states like Arunachal Pradesh (17 persons/sq. km) and
Mizoram have low density.
● Factors Affecting Distribution:
○ Physical: Climate, topography, water availability
○ Economic: Industrialization, urbanization, job opportunities
○ Social & Political: Cultural traditions, migration policies, government initiatives

1.2 Population Growth and Demographic Trends

● Phases of Population Growth in India:

○ Phase I (1901-1921): Stagnant growth due to high mortality rates (famines,
epidemics).
○ Phase II (1921-1951): Slow growth as mortality rates declined due to healthcare
improvements.
○ Phase III (1951-1981): High growth phase due to high birth rates and falling death
rates.
○ Phase IV (1981-present): Declining growth due to fertility control measures and
urbanization.
 ● Current Growth Rate: The annual population growth rate is declining, but India is
projected to surpass China as the world’s most populous country by 2027 (UN Report).

1.3 Population Composition:

● Age Structure:
○ Young Population: 65% of India’s population is below 35 years, providing a
demographic dividend.
○ Aging Population: The share of elderly (above 60 years) is increasing, posing
challenges for social security and healthcare.
● Sex Ratio:
○ National Average (Census 2011): 940 females per 1000 males.
○ Highest Sex Ratio: Kerala (1084 females/1000 males).
○ Lowest Sex Ratio: Haryana (877 females/1000 males).
○ Causes of Low Sex Ratio: Female infanticide, sex-selective abortions, social
preference for male children.
● Literacy Rate:
○ Overall Literacy (Census 2011): 74.04% (Male: 82.14%, Female: 65.46%).
○ Highest Literacy: Kerala (94%), Lowest: Bihar (63%).
○ Challenges: Gender disparity, rural-urban gap, lack of quality education.

1.4 Migration Patterns:

● Types of Migration:
 ○ Internal Migration: Rural to urban, urban to rural, seasonal migration for
employment.
○ Interstate Migration: From UP, Bihar, Odisha to Maharashtra, Delhi, Karnataka.
○ International Migration: NRIs in the Middle East, USA, UK.
● Push and Pull Factors:
○ Push Factors: Poverty, unemployment, landlessness, climate-induced
displacement.
○ Pull Factors: Job opportunities, better education, healthcare facilities.
● Challenges: Urban congestion, slum growth, strain on resources, social conflicts.

Settlement

Introduction

Settlement geography examines the spatial organization, structure, and evolution of human
settlements. Settlements can be classified based on size, function, and morphology. In India,
both rural and urban settlements display diverse characteristics influenced by geography,
history, and socio-economic factors.

1.1 Rural Settlements in India:

● Villages with low population density, primary economic activities, and close social
interactions.
● Types of Rural Settlements:
○ Compact/Nucleated Settlements:
■ Found in Indo-Gangetic Plains, Black soil region of Maharashtra.
■ Houses are clustered, with agricultural fields surrounding the village.
○ Dispersed/Scattered Settlements:
■ Found in tribal areas of Central India, forested regions of Northeast.
■ Houses are spread over a large area, with each family having individual
farmland.
○ Linear Settlements:
 ■ Developed along rivers, roads, or railways (e.g., villages along the Ganges
River).

○ Circular Settlements:
■ Found in Thar Desert, Gujarat, built around water sources or central
grazing land.

1.2 Urban Settlements in India

● Definition: Towns and cities with high population density, diversified economy, and
modern infrastructure.
● Growth Trends:
○ India has 53 urban agglomerations with populations exceeding 1 million (Census
2011).
○ Top Urban Centers: Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad.
○ Urbanization Rate: 31.16% (Census 2011), projected to exceed 40% by 2030.
● Classification of Cities:
○ Metropolitan Cities: Population above 1 million (e.g., Mumbai, Delhi).
○ Million-plus Cities: Cities with 1 million+ population but not metros.
○ Smart Cities: Government initiative for sustainable urbanization.

1.3 Urbanization in India

● Causes of Urbanization:
○ Industrialization: Growth of industries in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru.
○ Migration: Rural-urban migration due to economic opportunities.
 ○ Economic Reforms: IT revolution, real estate boom, infrastructure development.
● Challenges of Urbanization:
○ Overcrowding and Slums: Dharavi (Mumbai) is one of Asia’s largest slums.
○ Traffic Congestion & Pollution: Air pollution in Delhi, vehicular congestion.
○ Water and Sanitation Issues: Water shortages in Bengaluru, Chennai.

1.4 Government Initiatives for Urban Planning

● Smart Cities Mission: Sustainable cities with digital infrastructure, efficient

governance.
● AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): Improves basic
urban infrastructure.
● PMAY (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana): Affordable housing for all by 2022.

AGRICULTURE
Indian agriculture, a crucial segment of the immense pressure on the sector,
country's economy, is marked by several demanding
distinctive features that have shaped its
development and continue to influence its ● Mechanization: The Green Revolution in
present and future. These features provide the late 1960s and early 1970s marked a
insight into the complexities, opportunities, significant shift towards mechanization.
and challenges of Indian agriculture. While this revolution resulted in a
substantial increase in food grain
● Subsistence Agriculture: Indian agriculture production, total mechanization remains a
is largely subsistence-based, rooted in distant goal due to barriers like small farm
traditions dating back hundreds of years. sizes, lack of access to finance, and the
Despite technological advancements and intermittent nature of farming.
changes in agricultural practices post-
independence, a substantial portion of ● Dependence on Monsoon: Indian
India's rural population still engages in agriculture is heavily reliant on the
subsistence farming. This approach, monsoon. Despite an increase in irrigation
primarily aimed at feeding the farmer's infrastructure, only about a third of the
family with little surplus for sale, is a total cropped area is irrigated, leaving the
testament to the endurance of traditional remainder at the mercy of monsoons. With
practices amidst evolving agricultural climate change causing increased
paradigms. uncertainty in rainfall patterns, this
dependence on monsoon presents a
● Population Pressure: Despite the rise in significant risk.
urbanization and industrialization, about
70% of India's population remains directly ● Crop Diversity: India's diverse topography,
or indirectly reliant on agriculture for their climate, and soil types allow for an
livelihood. This vast dependency exerts extensive variety of crops, from tropical to
 temperate. Few countries can match this 3. Intensive and Extensive Farming
diversity. However, this variety also poses a
challenge in terms of managing a multitude ● Intensive: High input/output per land unit,
of cropping systems and addressing the labor-intensive, modern technology.
specific needs of different crops.
○ Regions: Kerala, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh.
● Food Crop Dominance: With a large
● Extensive: Low yield per land unit, rare in
population to feed, the production of food
India (land scarcity).
crops remains the primary focus of Indian
farmers. However, a shift has been noted in 4. Plantation Farming
recent years, with a decline in the share of
land used for food crops as farmers ● Purpose: Single cash crop grown on a large
diversify into commercially advantageous scale for sale.
cash crops.
● Crops: Tea, coffee, rubber, spices, banana.
● Seasonal Patterns: Indian agriculture
● Regions: Tea (Assam, Darjeeling), coffee
follows a tri-seasonal pattern with kharif
(Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu).
(monsoon crop), rabi (winter crop), and
zaid (summer crop) seasons. These distinct ● Features: Labor-intensive, manual activities
cropping seasons, with their respective (e.g., picking, pruning).
crop types, such as rice for kharif and wheat
for rabi, add another layer to the 5. Mixed Farming
complexities of Indian agriculture.
● Purpose: Combines crop cultivation and
Types Of Farming In India animal husbandry.

1. Subsistence Farming ● Features: Diversifies risk, stabilizes income.

● Purpose: Primarily for family consumption, ● Regions: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh
minimal surplus. (wheat, paddy, dairy farming).

● Crops: Rice, wheat, millets, pulses, oilseeds, 6. Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn)
vegetables. ● Practice: Clearing, burning vegetation; ash
● Features: Small, fragmented landholdings, as fertilizer.
traditional tools, minimal modern ● Regions: Northeast India (Assam,
techniques. Meghalaya, Nagaland).
● Regions: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, densely 7. Nomadic Herding
populated areas.
● Practice: Livestock reared by nomadic
2. Commercial Farming tribes moving for fresh pastures.
● Purpose: Crops grown for market sale. ● Regions: Rajasthan (camels, sheep, goats).
● Crops: Cotton, jute, sugarcane, groundnut,
spices. Cropping Patterns in India
● Features: Large farms, modern techniques, Cropping pattern refers to the arrangement
high-yield seeds, fertilizers, irrigation. and sequence of different crops grown in a
particular area over a specific period. The
● Regions: Sugarcane (UP, Maharashtra), cropping pattern in India is diverse and
cotton (Gujarat, Maharashtra). influenced by various factors, including climate,
soil fertility, market demand, government 3. Crop Rotation:
policies, and regional agricultural practices.
Let's explore the major cropping patterns in ● Crop rotation involves the systematic
India in detail: rotation of different crops in a specific
sequence on the same land to maintain soil
1. Monocropping: fertility, control pests and diseases, and
reduce weed growth.
● Monocropping, also known as single-
cropping, involves the cultivation of a single ● Crop rotation practices vary across
crop on a specific piece of land during a different regions of India based on agro-
particular season. climatic conditions and traditional farming
practices.
● This pattern is prevalent in regions where
the environmental conditions and market ● For instance, in Punjab and Haryana,
demand favor the cultivation of a particular farmers commonly rotate crops like wheat,
crop. paddy, mustard, and pulses.
● For example, in Punjab and Haryana, 4. Mixed Cropping:
monocropping of wheat during the winter
season is a common practice. ● Mixed cropping involves the cultivation of
two or more crops simultaneously in the
2. Multiple Cropping: same field.
● Multiple cropping involves the cultivation ● The crops grown together can provide
of two or more crops on the same land mutual benefits, such as enhanced nutrient
within a single agricultural year. It utilization, reduced pest infestation, and
maximizes land utilization and optimizes better soil conservation.
resource availability. The two main types of
multiple cropping are: ● An example of mixed cropping is the
cultivation of wheat and gram (chickpea)
● Double Cropping: together.
○ In double cropping, two different crops 5. Specialized Cropping:
are grown successively in the same field
during a single year. For instance, paddy ● Specialized cropping refers to the
cultivation followed by the cultivation cultivation of specific crops that require
of wheat in the same field is a common unique agro-climatic conditions, specialized
double cropping practice in several techniques, and high skill levels.
regions of India. ● This pattern is prevalent in regions that are
● Inter Cropping: geographically suited for particular crops.

○ Inter cropping refers to the ● For example, the cultivation of tea in

simultaneous cultivation of two or more Assam, coffee in Karnataka, and rubber in
crops in the same field, either in Kerala are examples of specialized
alternate rows or mixed together. It cropping.
helps optimize land and resource
utilization. An example of inter cropping
6. Cash Crops:
is the cultivation of legumes such as ● Cash crops are crops grown primarily for
pigeon pea (tur) with cereals like commercial purposes, with the aim of
sorghum (jowar) or maize. generating income for farmers.
● These crops are usually high-value crops Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
and are often exported. Examples of cash and Odisha. These states have favorable
crops in India include cotton, sugarcane, climate and soil conditions for the growth
tobacco, and oilseeds. of high-quality rice varieties.
7. Subsistence Crops: 2. Wheat:
● Subsistence crops are grown primarily for ● Wheat is another major food crop in India,
self-consumption by farmers and their mainly consumed in the northern and
families. central parts of the country. It's a Rabi crop,
sown in October-November and harvested
● These crops fulfill the food and nutritional in April-May.
requirements of the farming households.
● Wheat cultivation requires lesser water
● Examples of subsistence crops in India compared to rice and is primarily
include rice, wheat, millets, pulses, and dependent on winter rainfall provided by
vegetables. the western disturbances.
Major Crops of India ● The best climate for wheat cultivation is a
cool and moist growing season followed by
Food Grains: a sunny and dry ripening period. The
optimal temperature range for wheat
1. Rice: cultivation is between 10°C to 15°C at the
● Rice is a fundamental food crop in India, time of sowing, increasing to 20°C to 25°C
serving as the primary dietary staple for at the time of harvesting.
over half of the country's population. It's a ● Wheat thrives best in well-drained loamy or
Kharif crop, typically cultivated during the clayey loam soils. These soils, rich in
southwest monsoon season from June to nutrients and capable of retaining
November. moisture, are ideal for wheat growth.
● Rice cultivation is labor-intensive and Alluvial soils, especially those in the
requires a significant amount of water, Gangetic plains, also support wheat
making it best suited for regions with high cultivation due to their high fertility.
levels of rainfall or ample irrigation ● The main wheat-producing states in India
systems. include Uttar Pradesh (leading producer),
● Rice prefers a hot and humid climate, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and
needing temperatures between 20°C to Rajasthan. These states are characterized
35°C, with an annual rainfall above 100cm. by fertile soils and favorable winter
However, with proper irrigation, it can also temperatures, which create optimal wheat-
be grown in regions with lesser rainfall. growing conditions.

● The ideal soil for rice cultivation is clayey or 3. Maize:

loamy soil. These types of soil can hold a lot
● Maize, also known as corn, is the third most
of water, which is required for flooded
important cereal crop in India after rice and
paddy cultivation. Alluvial soils found in
wheat. It plays a crucial role in the
river deltas and coastal regions are also
agricultural economy, serving not only as a
quite suitable.
food crop but also as a feed crop for
● Major rice-growing states in India are West livestock and as a raw material in industrial
Bengal (first in terms of production), processing.
● Maize is a Kharif crop in most parts of India, B. Bajra (Pearl Millet):
but it's also grown during the Rabi season in
some states. It requires a moderate ● Bajra is grown in regions with low rainfall
temperature, preferably between 21-27°C, and high temperature conditions, making it
and a well-distributed rainfall of 50-100 cm an important crop in the arid and semi-arid
during its growing period. regions of the country.

● It can be cultivated successfully in a variety ● It's a Kharif crop, requiring temperatures

of soils ranging from clay loam to sand between 25°C to 35°C.
loamy, but well-drained loamy soils rich in ● Bajra thrives in sandy and loamy soils with
organic matter are considered most good drainage, and it's highly resistant to
suitable. soil erosion.
● India ranks sixth in the global production of ● Rajasthan is the largest producer of Bajra in
maize. In terms of production, the leading India, followed by Uttar Pradesh,
states for maize cultivation in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Haryana.
Karnataka, followed by Telangana,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Bihar. C. Ragi (Finger Millet):

4. Millets in India ● Ragi is known for its high nutritional value

and is especially popular in the southern
● India is the largest producer of millets in the states of India.
world, providing highly nutritious food
that's rich in proteins, vitamins, and ● It's a rain-fed Kharif crop but can also be
minerals. grown as a Rabi crop in some regions. It
requires a moderate climate with
● Millets are also important because of their temperatures between 20°C to 27°C and
resilience to harsh climatic conditions, can be grown in less fertile soils and at high
making them key crops in dry and drought- altitudes.
prone regions.
● The major ragi producing states are
A. Jowar (Sorghum): Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Maharashtra,
Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
● Jowar is a major millet primarily grown in
arid and semi-arid regions of India. D. Other Millets:
● It is a Kharif crop but in some parts of India ● Foxtail Millet: This is the second-most
like Maharashtra, it's grown as a Rabi crop widely grown species of millet. It is grown
as well. for both grain and fodder. It can survive in
difficult agro-climatic conditions and low-
● Jowar requires a warm climate with
fertility soils. Major producers are Andhra
temperatures between 25°C to 32°C.
Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka.
● It can be grown on a variety of soils,
● Proso Millet: Also known as common
including clayey, loamy, or sandy, but it
millet, it requires less water compared to
thrives best in black cotton soil. The major
other millets. It can be grown in a variety of
jowar producing states are Maharashtra,
soil types and climatic conditions. Uttar
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya
Madhya Pradesh.
Pradesh are major producers.
● Barnyard Millet: It is grown mainly in hilly
regions due to its resilience to variable
 weather conditions. It's used both as food ● They prefer a hot climate and are grown
and fodder. Uttarakhand is the major in a variety of soils, but sandy loam to
producer. black cotton soils are best suited for
their cultivation. Rajasthan,
5. Pulses in India Maharashtra, Gujarat, and West Bengal
Pulses are an important group of crops in India, are the leading producers of mung
not just for their nutritional value as a rich beans in India.
source of proteins, but also for their role in D. Lentils (Masoor):
improving soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. India
is the largest producer, as well as the ● Lentils are an important pulse crop
consumer, of pulses in the world. Here's an grown as a Rabi season crop. They are
overview of the major pulses grown in India: best suited to temperate climates and
prefer sandy loam to clay loam soils.
A. Chickpeas (Gram Or Chana):
● The major lentil-producing states in
● Chickpeas are the most widely grown India include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
pulses in India. Pradesh, and West Bengal.
● There are two types - Desi chana with E. Urad (Black Gram):
smaller, darker seeds and a rough coat,
cultivated mostly in the Indian ● Urad is primarily cultivated as a Kharif
subcontinent, and Kabuli chana with larger, crop but is also grown during the
lighter colored seeds and a smoother coat, summer and Rabi seasons in some parts
grown in Southern Europe, Northern Africa, of India.
Afghanistan, and Chile. Chickpeas are ● It prefers a hot and humid climate and
typically grown as a Rabi crop, sown in is tolerant of drought conditions.
October-November and harvested in
March-April. ● It can be grown in a variety of soils, but
black cotton soils are most suitable. The
● They require a moderate cool climate and major urad producing states in India are
can be grown in a wide range of soils. The Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
major producing states are Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Rajasthan. 6. Oilseeds in India
B. Pigeon Peas (Tur or Arhar): India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds
● Pigeon peas are both a food crop (for the in the world and these crops play a vital role in
production of split pulses, or 'dal') and a the Indian economy. Oilseeds are primarily
fodder crop (leaves for cattle). used in the production of edible oils, but they
also have a variety of other uses, including
● They are grown as a Kharif crop and are animal feed and for the production of biodiesel.
highly tolerant of drought conditions. They Here's a look at the major oilseeds grown in
grow well in a range of soils, but prefer well- India:
drained loamy soils. The major pigeon pea-
producing states are Maharashtra, Uttar A. Mustard (Rapeseed):
Pradesh, Karnataka, and Gujarat. ● Mustard is the largest oilseed crop in India
C. Mung Beans (Moong): in terms of production and acreage. It is
predominantly a Rabi crop, requiring cold
● Mung beans are cultivated as both a conditions to grow.
Kharif and a Rabi crop in India.
● Mustard grows best in well-drained loamy ● The major sunflower-producing states are
or clayey soils. Major mustard-producing Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
states in India include Rajasthan, Uttar Bihar, and Orissa.
Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and
Gujarat.
B. Groundnut: F. Castor:

● Groundnut is the second most important ● Castor is a Kharif crop that thrives in hot
oilseed crop in India. and humid conditions. It can grow in poor
soils and is known for its drought
● It is primarily a Kharif crop and requires a tolerance.
long warm growing season. Groundnut
thrives in well-drained sandy loam or sandy ● The major castor-producing states are
clay loam soil. Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh.

● The major peanut-producing states are Commercial Crops in India

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Commercial crops, also known as cash crops,
Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
are crops that are grown primarily for sale in
C. Soybean: the market, rather than for the farmer's own
use. These crops play a crucial role in the Indian
● Soybean is a major Kharif crop in India. It is economy, providing raw materials for several
predominantly grown for its oil, but its high industries and earning significant foreign
protein content also makes it an important exchange through exports. Let's take a detailed
source of animal feed. Soybeans prefer a look at some major commercial crops grown in
moderate climate and grow best in well- India, starting with cotton.
drained loamy soil.
1. Cotton:
● The major soybean-producing states are
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and ● Cotton is one of the principal commercial
Rajasthan. crops of India and the country stands as one
of the largest producers of cotton in the
D. Sesame (Til)
world.
● Sesame is a Kharif crop in northern India
● Cotton is a Kharif crop that requires a long
and a Rabi crop in southern India.
frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a
● It is known for its resilience and can grow in moderate rainfall (50-100 cm annually). It
drought conditions, but it thrives best in grows well in black cotton soil, which is
well-drained sandy loam soils. The major typical of the Deccan plateau.
sesame-producing states are Uttar Pradesh,
● Major cotton-producing states in India
Rajasthan, Gujarat, West Bengal, and Tamil
include Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana,
Nadu.
and Punjab. Indian cotton is known for its
E. Sunflower: quality, especially the long-stapled cotton
produced in Punjab, Haryana, and
● Sunflower is both a Rabi and Kharif crop, Rajasthan.
depending on the region. It requires full
sunlight and grows best in deep, well- ● The Indian textile industry heavily depends
drained fertile soils. on cotton, and it's also a significant export
commodity.
2. Jute: ● It is grown in a variety of soils – from sandy
and clayey to black cotton soil. Andhra
● Jute, often referred to as the 'golden fibre', Pradesh and Gujarat are the leading
is another important commercial crop of tobacco producing states in India.
India.
● The tobacco industry in India is significant,
● Jute plants require a warm and humid providing jobs to millions and contributing
climate with temperatures between 24°C to to the economy.
37°C and heavy rainfall (minimum 200 cm
annually). Plantation Crops in India
● They grow well in well-drained fertile soils Plantation crops are typically high-value crops
in the floodplains where soils are renewed that are used both in the domestic and export
every year. markets. They require a large amount of labor
● High-quality jute comes from West Bengal, and capital, as they need extensive care and
Bihar, Assam, Orissa, and Meghalaya. Jute protection. Some of the major plantation crops
is primarily used for making packaging in India include tea, coffee, rubber, and
material, including jute bags, gunny bags, coconut.
mats, and ropes. The jute industry, 1. Tea:
centered around Kolkata, is one of the
oldest industries in India. ● India is one of the largest producers and
consumers of tea in the world. It grows
3. Sugarcane: primarily in the high-altitude regions of
● Sugarcane is a tropical as well as a Northeast India and the Nilgiri Hills of South
subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and India.
humid weather with a temperature of 21°C ● Tea cultivation requires deep and fertile
to 27°C. well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic
● Sugarcane requires an annual rainfall of 75 matter.
cm to 150 cm, and it grows well in deep, ● It thrives in a tropical climate with
well-drained, loamy soil. Uttar Pradesh is temperatures between 20°C and 30°C, and
the leading sugarcane producing state, it needs heavy rainfall of 150-300 cm
followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil annually.
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar,
Punjab, and Haryana. ● The leading tea-producing states in India
are Assam and West Bengal, followed by
● Sugarcane is used to produce sugar, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
jaggery, and molasses, and also serves as a
raw material in the production of 2. Coffee:
bioethanol.
● India is known globally for its coffee,
4. Tobacco: particularly the variety Coffea Arabica,
which originates from the hills of
● Tobacco is a significant commercial crop Karnataka.
grown in India.
● Coffee plantations require a hot and humid
● It is a Kharif crop and requires a frost-free climate with temperatures ranging from
climate, temperatures between 20°C and 15°C to 28°C and a well-distributed annual
30°C, and moderate rainfall. rainfall of about 150-250 cm.
● The soil should be deep and well-drained, (floriculture). It plays a significant role in the
rich in organic matter. Indian economy, providing employment,
nutrition, and income to millions of people.
● The majority of coffee cultivation occurs in
three states: Karnataka, followed by Kerala 1. Fruits:
and Tamil Nadu, which together account for
the majority of coffee production in India. ● India is known for its rich diversity of fruits,
both tropical and subtropical, owing to its
3. Rubber: varied agro-climatic zones.
● India is the fifth largest producer of natural ● Major fruit crops grown in India include
rubber, most of which is consumed mango, banana, citrus fruits (lemon,
domestically. orange, and grapefruit), apple, guava,
papaya, pineapple, pomegranate, and
● Rubber plantations require a climate with grapes, among others.
temperatures between 25°C and 35°C, with
heavy rainfall of around 200-300 cm ● Different states specialize in the cultivation
annually, and a humid atmosphere. of specific fruits. For example,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and
● Rubber is grown in the hilly regions of the Karnataka are known for mango
Western Ghats, where the soil is lateritic production, while Himachal Pradesh and
(rich in iron and aluminum), which is ideal Jammu and Kashmir are famous for apple
for its growth. cultivation.
● The leading rubber-producing state in India ● Fruits are grown across the country, with a
is Kerala, followed by Tamil Nadu and focus on states that have suitable climatic
Karnataka. conditions and infrastructure for
4. Coconut: processing and marketing.

● Coconut is a vital plantation crop of the 2. Vegetables:

coastal areas of India, particularly the ● Vegetable cultivation is an integral part of
South. horticulture in India.
● It requires a tropical climate with high ● It includes a wide range of crops such as
humidity and rainfall ranging between 120- potato, tomato, onion, cabbage,
230 cm annually. cauliflower, brinjal (eggplant), okra (ladies'
● It grows well in alluvial and loamy soils. finger), peas, beans, leafy greens (spinach,
Coconut cultivation is mainly done in the fenugreek, coriander), and various gourds
coastal states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, (bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd).
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and also some ● Vegetables are cultivated throughout the
areas of West Bengal and Odisha. country, with the major vegetable-
● Coconut has a wide range of uses, from its producing states being Uttar Pradesh, West
water, to its flesh, to its fibers, and even its Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
shells. ● Some states have specific vegetable crops
associated with them.
Horticulture In India
● For instance, Uttar Pradesh is renowned for
Horticulture is an important sector in Indian potato production, and Haryana and
agriculture, encompassing the cultivation of Punjab are famous for their high-yielding
fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants varieties of vegetables.
3. Floriculture: related products. Beekeeping has gained
prominence in India due to its potential as a
● Floriculture involves the cultivation of lucrative agribusiness and its contribution to
flowers and ornamental plants for their pollination and biodiversity conservation. Here
aesthetic and decorative purposes. are some key points about apiculture in India:
● The demand for flowers has been growing ● Honey Production: India is one of the
steadily in India, both for domestic leading honey-producing countries in the
consumption and exports. world.
● The major flower crops cultivated in India 2. Sericulture (Silk Farming) in India
include roses, marigolds, jasmine, orchids,
chrysanthemums, gerbera, and carnations. Sericulture refers to the cultivation of
silkworms for the production of silk. India has a
● Floriculture is concentrated in specific rich tradition of silk farming and is one of the
regions with suitable climatic conditions. largest producers of silk in the world. Here are
● For example, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and some key points about sericulture in India:
Maharashtra are known for their rose
● Major Silk Varieties: India is known for the
production. West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
production of different types of silk,
and Tamil Nadu excel in jasmine cultivation.
including Mulberry silk, Eri silk, Tussar silk,
The state of Sikkim is known for its orchids.
and Muga silk. Mulberry silk is the most
Government Initiatives: common variety produced in India.

● The Government of India has implemented ● Geographical Distribution: The major silk-
various programs and initiatives to producing states in India are Karnataka,
promote horticulture and boost the income Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
of farmers involved in this sector. Some and Assam. These regions have favorable
notable initiatives include the National climatic conditions and abundant
Horticulture Mission (NHM), the Pradhan availability of mulberry leaves, which are
Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), the primary food source for silkworms.
and the National Bamboo Mission. 3. Poultry Farming:
● These programs focus on providing
Poultry farming involves the rearing of
financial assistance, technological support,
domesticated birds, such as chickens, ducks,
market linkages, and infrastructure
and turkeys, for meat and egg production.
development to horticulture farmers. The
Poultry farming has seen significant growth in
government also promotes the
India and has become a major source of income
establishment of cold storage facilities,
for farmers. Here are some key points about
processing units, and export-oriented units
poultry farming in India:
to facilitate the marketing and value
addition of horticultural produce. ● Disease Control: Disease control and
biosecurity measures are crucial in poultry
Various Agriculture Practices in farming to prevent the outbreak of diseases
India such as avian influenza.

1. Apiculture (Beekeeping) in India: 4. Dryland Agriculture

Apiculture refers to the practice of rearing Dryland agriculture refers to agricultural
honeybees for the production of honey, practices in regions with limited rainfall and
beeswax, royal jelly, propolis, and other bee- water availability. It involves the cultivation of
crops that can thrive in arid and semi-arid ensuring a consistent water supply for crops is
conditions. Here are some key points about crucial for India's food security.
dryland agriculture in India:
Types of Irrigation:
● Crop Selection: In dryland areas, farmers
cultivate crops that are drought-tolerant ● Surface Irrigation: The most common
and have adapted to low rainfall conditions. method in India, water is distributed over
the soil surface by gravity. It includes basin,
● Examples of crops suitable for dryland border, and furrow systems.
agriculture include millets (sorghum, pearl
millet), pulses (chickpea, pigeon pea), ● Drip Irrigation: Water is delivered directly
oilseeds (groundnut, sesame), and certain to the root zone of the plant. This method
varieties of wheat and barley. is highly efficient as it minimizes
evaporation, but it requires more initial
● Water Conservation Techniques: Water investment.
conservation techniques such as rainwater
harvesting, watershed management, and ● Sprinkler Irrigation: A method that
the construction of check dams and farm simulates rainfall by distributing water
ponds are employed to maximize water through a system of pipes and sprinklers.
availability and manage rainfall runoff. It's useful for uneven terrain and minimizes
water wastage.
● Soil Conservation Measures: Soil erosion
control measures, such as contour plowing, ● Subsurface Irrigation: A network of pipes
terracing, mulching, and the use of cover delivers water directly to the root zone
crops, are implemented to prevent soil beneath the soil surface. This method is not
degradation and retain moisture in the soil. very common in India.
● Drought-Resistant Varieties: The Irrigation Sources:
cultivation of drought-resistant crop
varieties and the use of improved ● Canal Irrigation: Large-scale, state-
agricultural practices, such as conservation managed projects that draw water from
agriculture and agroforestry, are adopted rivers and reservoirs. It's the most
to enhance productivity and resilience in prevalent source of irrigation.
dryland agriculture.
● Groundwater Irrigation: Utilizing wells and
Dryland agriculture is crucial for ensuring food tube wells. Over time, this has increased
security and livelihoods in arid and semi-arid due to the availability of cheap pump
regions of India. By adopting suitable farming technology, but it's also led to
techniques and resilient crop varieties, farmers overexploitation of groundwater in many
can overcome the challenges posed by water regions.
scarcity and achieve sustainable agricultural
production. ● Tank Irrigation: Smaller, localized bodies of
water like ponds and tanks are used
Irrigation predominantly in Southern and Eastern
India.
Irrigation plays a crucial role in Indian
● Rainwater Harvesting: Increasingly popular
agriculture because of the variable monsoon
as a sustainable method of irrigation,
rainfall patterns. With over half of the country's
especially in regions with lower rainfall.
workforce employed in agriculture and two-
thirds of its population living in rural areas,
Land Reforms in India:
Land reforms in India are government ○ Prevented encroachment on forest land
measures aimed at equitable land distribution, and promoted sustainable resource
promoting social justice, reducing poverty, and use.
enhancing agricultural productivity.
Impact of Land Reforms:
Key Reforms:
Land reforms in India have had both positive
1. Abolition of Zamindari System: and negative impacts:
○ Ended the dominance of Zamindars ● The redistribution of land has led to
(large landowners). increased land ownership among
marginalized and landless farmers,
○ Land redistributed to tenant farmers.
improving their socio-economic status and
○ First implemented in Uttar Pradesh reducing poverty.
(1950). ● Tenancy reforms have provided security of
2. Tenancy Reforms: tenure to tenant farmers, enabling them to
invest in land and improve agricultural
○ Secured tenant farmers' rights, practices.
regulated rents, and abolished
exploitative practices. ● The abolition of the Zamindari system has
dismantled feudal structures, empowering
○ Prevented arbitrary evictions. small farmers and agricultural laborers.
3. Ceiling on Land Holdings: ● However, challenges such as improper
implementation, inadequate land records,
○ Imposed limits on land ownership to and bureaucratic hurdles have affected the
prevent concentration. effectiveness of land reforms in some
○ Excess land redistributed to landless or areas.
small farmers. ● The consolidation of landholdings has
contributed to mechanization, increased
4. Consolidation of Landholdings: farm efficiency, and improved agricultural
○ Combined fragmented plots into larger, productivity.
contiguous farms. ● Land reforms have helped in reducing land
○ Promoted efficient farming, inequality and promoting social justice, but
mechanization, and better land records. persistent challenges of landlessness and
unequal distribution of land remain in
5. Cooperative Farming: certain regions.
○ Encouraged collective farming to share
resources, improve productivity, and Facts and Figures:
strengthen market access for small
farmers. ● Uttar Pradesh was the first state to abolish
the Zamindari system in 1950, followed by
6. Forest and Tribal Land Reforms: other states.
○ Secured land tenure rights for tribal ● As of 2020, around 21 states in India have
communities. enacted land ceiling laws to restrict the
maximum land holdings of individuals or
families.
● Kerala and West Bengal have implemented ○ Crop Diversification: Encouraging high-
successful land reforms, leading to value crops reduces mono-cropping
significant redistribution of land among risks, improves soil health, and
small and marginalized farmers. enhances farmer incomes.
● The Forest Rights Act of 2006 provides legal ○ Extension Services: Providing farmers
recognition and protection of land rights for with timely information, training, and
tribal and forest-dwelling communities. support boosts knowledge and
adoption of best practices.
Land reforms continue to be a significant
aspect of India's agricultural and social ○ Research and Development:
development policies. The implementation of Investments in R&D promote
effective land reforms, along with proper land sustainable practices, climate-resilient
records management and support for small and crops, and pest management.
marginalized farmers, is essential for achieving
equitable and sustainable agricultural growth. ○ Infrastructure & Markets: Better
storage, transportation, and direct
Agricultural Productivity: market linkages reduce losses and
Agricultural productivity measures output per ensure fair pricing.
unit of input (land, labor, resources), indicating 3. Government Initiatives:
efficiency in food and crop production. It is vital
for food security, rural development, and ● Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
economic growth in India. (PMKSY): Focuses on irrigation and water
use efficiency.
Key Highlights:
● Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):
1. Green Revolution: Promotes organic farming.
○ Boosted rice and wheat yields in the ● Rural Infrastructure Development:
1960s–70s with high-yield varieties, Supports storage, logistics, and value chain
irrigation, and fertilizers. efficiency.
○ Achieved self-sufficiency but faces Green Revolution in India
sustainability challenges.
The Green Revolution (mid-1960s to late
2. Factors Affecting Productivity: 1970s) marked a transformative phase in
Indian agriculture, focusing on increasing food
○ Technology Adoption: Modern
productivity and addressing food scarcity. It
methods like improved seeds,
emphasized high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of
mechanization, and precision farming
wheat and rice, modern techniques, and
remain unevenly adopted.
improved infrastructure.
○ Access to Credit and Inputs: Quality
seeds, fertilizers, and affordable credit Key Features:
are essential, particularly for small ● High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): Crops like
farmers. wheat and rice bred for higher yields and
○ Irrigation Facilities: Efficient water use resistance to diseases.
(e.g., drip irrigation) and expanding ● Modern Techniques: Mechanization with
irrigation systems are critical, especially tractors, harvesters, and efficient irrigation
in rain-fed areas. systems.
● Irrigation Infrastructure: Dams, canals, and ● Leader: Dr. Verghese Kurien, National Dairy
tube wells ensured consistent water supply. Development Board (NDDB).
● Chemical Inputs: Use of fertilizers and ● Focus:
pesticides increased yields but raised
concerns about environmental ○ Increase milk production.
degradation. ○ Empower small-scale dairy farmers
through cooperatives.
● Government Support: Subsidies, credit
access, and agricultural research ○ Modernize dairy processing and
institutions supported the movement. distribution.
Impact: ● Impact:
● Increased Crop Yields: Surpassed food ○ Made India the largest milk producer
shortages, especially in wheat and rice globally.
production.
○ Improved rural livelihoods, women’s
● Self-Sufficiency in Food: Reduced reliance empowerment, and nutrition.
on imports.
○ Reduced dependence on milk imports.
● Poverty Alleviation: Boosted rural income
and employment. 2. Blue Revolution (Fisheries
Development)
● Technological Advancements: Laid the
groundwork for future agricultural ● Focus: Sustainable development of marine
innovations. and inland fisheries.

Challenges: ● Key Aspects:

● Environmental Issues: Soil degradation, ○ Aquaculture: Advanced fish farming

water pollution, and biodiversity loss. techniques (breeding, hatcheries).

● Inequitable Benefits: Wealthy farmers ○ Infrastructure: Fish landing centers,

gained more, while small farmers struggled markets, cold storage, and processing
with access to resources. units.

● Input Dependency: High costs for seeds, ○ Technology: Fish aggregating devices,
fertilizers, and machinery burdened disease control, and advanced feed.
marginal farmers. ○ Empowerment: Credit, training, and
● Sustainability Concerns: Overuse of self-help groups for fisherfolk.
groundwater and unsustainable practices ○ Conservation: Eco-friendly practices,
depleted resources. biodiversity protection.
Other Key Agricultural 3. Yellow Revolution (Oilseeds
Revolutions in India: Development)
1. White Revolution (Dairy ● Focus: Boost oilseed production to reduce
Development) edible oil imports.

● Period: 1970–1996 (Operation Flood).

● Strategies: High-yield varieties, better 2. Eastern Himalayan Region:
farming practices, and processing
industries. ● Covers the northeastern states of India,
including Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
● Impact: Increased oilseed output and Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland,
farmer income. Sikkim, and Tripura.
4. Silver Revolution (Egg and Poultry ● Experiences a subtropical to temperate
Development) climate with high rainfall.

● Focus: Increase egg and poultry production. ● Suitable for crops like tea, oranges, ginger,
and cardamom.
● Key Steps: Hybrid poultry breeds, modern
farms, and infrastructure for processing 3. Lower Gangetic Plains Region:
and marketing. ● Covers the Gangetic plains of West Bengal
● Impact: Met growing demand for protein- and parts of Bihar and Odisha.
rich food, generated employment. ● Characterized by a tropical monsoon
5. Golden Fiber Revolution (Jute climate with hot summers and high
humidity.
Industry Revitalization)
● Suitable for paddy, jute, sugarcane, and
● Focus: Revive jute cultivation, processing, vegetables.
and global competitiveness.
● Goals: Sustainable farming, value addition,
4. Upper Gangetic Plains Region:
and job creation. ● Covers the upper Gangetic plains, including
parts of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
● Impact: Boosted jute industry and rural
employment. ● Features a tropical monsoon climate with
hot summers and moderate rainfall.
Agro-Climatic Zones in India
● Suitable for wheat, rice, sugarcane, fruits,
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research and vegetables.
(ICAR) has identified 15 agro-climatic zones in
India. These zones are based on variations in 5. Middle Gangetic Plains Region:
climate, soil types, topography, and other ● It encompasses the central Gangetic plains,
ecological factors that influence agricultural including parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
practices in different regions of the country.
Let's explore each of these agro-climatic zones ● Has a tropical monsoon climate with hot
in detail: summers and moderate rainfall.
1. Western Himalayan Region: ● Suitable for crops like wheat, rice, maize,
pulses, and oilseeds.
● Located in the northern part of India,
encompassing Jammu and Kashmir, 6. Trans-Gangetic Plains Region:
Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
● Spans across the states of Punjab, Haryana,
● Characterized by a temperate climate with and Delhi.
cold winters and cool summers.
● Has a semi-arid to sub-humid climate with
● Suitable for temperate crops like apple, hot summers and cold winters.
pear, cherry, and potato.
● Suitable for crops like wheat, rice, maize, 11. East Coast Plains and Hills Region:
cotton, and oilseeds.
● Covers the east coast plains, including parts
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region: of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and
Odisha.
● Covers the eastern plateau region,
including Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and ● Characterized by a tropical monsoon
parts of Odisha and West Bengal. climate with hot summers and moderate to
high rainfall.
● Features a tropical monsoon climate with
hot summers and moderate to high rainfall. ● Suitable for crops like paddy, millets,
oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, and cashew.
● Suitable for crops like rice, pulses, oilseeds,
and horticultural crops. 12. West Coast Plains and Ghats
8. Central Plateau and Hills Region: Region:
● Encompasses the central plateau region, ● It encompasses the west coast plains and
including Madhya Pradesh and parts of Western Ghats, including Kerala,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Karnataka, and parts of Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu.
● Characterized by a semi-arid to sub-humid
climate with hot summers and moderate ● Has a tropical monsoon climate with hot
rainfall. summers and high rainfall.

● Suitable for crops like millets, pulses, ● Suitable for crops like paddy, coconut,
oilseeds, cotton, and horticultural crops. spices, fruits, and vegetables.

9. Western Plateau and Hills Region: 13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Region:
● Covers the western plateau region, ● Covers the plains and hills of Gujarat.
including Maharashtra, parts of Gujarat, ● Features a semi-arid to arid climate with
and Karnataka. hot summers and low to moderate rainfall.
● Features a semi-arid to sub-humid climate ● Suitable for crops like cotton, oilseeds,
with hot summers and moderate rainfall. millets, fruits, and vegetables.
● Suitable for crops like millets, pulses, 14. Western Dry Region:
oilseeds, cotton, fruits, and vegetables.
● It encompasses the arid and semi-arid
10. Southern Plateau and Hills Region: regions of Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
● It encompasses the southern plateau ● Characterized by an arid climate with
region, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and extremely hot summers and low rainfall.
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
● Suitable for crops like millets, pulses,
● Has a tropical monsoon climate with hot oilseeds, and drought-tolerant crops.
summers and moderate to high rainfall.
15. Island Region:
● Suitable for crops like paddy, millets,
oilseeds, fruits, and spices. ● Includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
and Lakshadweep Islands.
● Features a tropical climate with high
humidity and moderate rainfall.
● Suitable for crops like coconut, banana, 2. Economic Hardships:
spices, and tropical fruits.
● Average monthly income: ₹10,218
Significance of Agriculture in (NSO, 2019).

India: ● Over 50% of agricultural households

are in debt (2019).
● GDP Contribution: Agriculture’s share
declined from 35% (1990-91) to 15% (2022- 3. Soil Degradation & Water Scarcity:
23) due to growth in industrial and service ● 90% of groundwater is used for
sectors. agriculture.
● Employment: Largest employment ● Excessive chemical usage reduces soil
provider in India. fertility.
● Food Security: 4. Infrastructure Gaps:
○ Self-sufficient in rice and wheat. ● Insufficient storage, cold chains, and
○ World's largest producer of milk, pulses, rural roads lead to post-harvest losses.
and spices. 5. Underinvestment in Research:
○ Key contributor to the Public ● Declining funds for agricultural
Distribution System (PDS). innovation hinder productivity.
● Land Use: 6. Outdated Practices:
○ Over 50% of geographical land is under ● Many farmers still rely on traditional
cultivation. methods, with limited access to modern
○ 63% rainfed, 37% irrigated. technologies.
7. Market Volatility:
● Exports: Agricultural exports (2022-23)
stood at US$ 52.50 billion, including rice, ● Lack of market linkages and price
spices, and cotton. information exposes farmers to
exploitation.
● Socio-Cultural Role: Agriculture shapes
rural traditions and promotes sustainable 8. Skewed Policies:
practices.
● Fertilizer subsidies promote overuse,
Key Challenges of Indian harming health and environment.
Agriculture: ● Low PDS prices depress farm incomes.
1. Small Land Holdings: 9. Climate Change:
● Average holding size reduced to 1.08 ● Erratic weather patterns, floods,
hectares (2015-16). droughts, and cyclones reduce yields.
● 86.1% of farmers are small or marginal, ● Projected rainfed rice yield drop: 20%
limiting economies of scale. by 2050, 47% by 2080.

Way Forward for Indian

Agriculture:
● Invest in Infrastructure: Develop cold ○ Revise fertilizer subsidies to promote
chains, rural roads, and storage facilities. balanced use.
● Modernize Practices: Promote advanced ○ Strengthen MSP and market linkages.
technologies like precision farming and drip
irrigation. ● Climate Adaptation: Introduce sustainable
farming techniques and support climate-
● Strengthen Research: Increase funding for resilient crops.
agricultural R&D to address climate
challenges. ● Farmer Support: Expand access to
affordable credit, insurance, and training
● Policy Reforms: programs.