1.
Learner-Centered Teaching
This approach prioritizes the needs, interests, and abilities of students. Teachers act as facilitators,
encouraging students to take an active role in their learning.
Promotes autonomy and active learning
• Involves collaboration, choice, and reflection
Learner-Centered Teaching
Role of Teacher Role of Learner Instructional Style
- Facilitator - Active participant - Flexible
- Guide - Collaborator - Inquiry-driven
Example Situations:
1. Students set personal learning goals and track their progress weekly.
2. In Literature, learners choose a book for independent study and present it in creative ways.
3. In Math, students collaborate to solve real-world budgeting problems.
2. Constructivist Approaches
Constructivism views learning as an active, contextual process of constructing knowledge, not just acquiring
it. It includes methods like discovery learning and problem-solving.
Builds on prior knowledge
• Emphasizes hands-on, authentic tasks
Prior Knowledge → Exploration → Meaning-Making → Reflection
Example Situations:
1. Students build a model volcano and analyze chemical reactions.
2. In AP, learners simulate government roles to explore decision-making.
3. In Science, learners test hypotheses using experiments.
3. Behaviorist Strategies
Based on Skinner and Pavlov, behaviorist strategies rely on observable behaviors and use reinforcement
and punishment to shape learning.
Includes positive/negative reinforcement and punishment
• Clear stimulus-response connections
Stimulus → Response → Reinforcement or Punishment → Behavior Strengthened/Weakened
Example Situations:
1. Giving stars to students who submit homework on time.
2. A time-out system for disruptive behavior.
3. Praising correct answers during drills to boost confidence.
4. Cognitive Learning Theories
This approach focuses on internal processes like memory, schema, and understanding. Ausubel’s
Meaningful Learning emphasizes connecting new knowledge to what is already known.
Builds schema through organization and relevance
• Promotes deep understanding
Prior Knowledge + New Input → Organized Schema → Meaningful Learning
Example Situations:
1. Teacher uses a concept map before introducing the topic “climate.”
2. Linking a new grammar rule with an old one in English class.
3. In Science, teacher activates prior knowledge before introducing photosynthesis.
5. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Learning occurs by observing others. Bandura highlights vicarious reinforcement and modeling as central
to learning behavior.
• Emphasizes role models, self-efficacy, and observational learning
• Peer teaching and modeling desired behaviors
Model Behavior → Observation → Imitation → Internalization
Example Situations:
1. A teacher demonstrates a respectful debate; students follow suit.
2. A student sees a peer rewarded for helping and repeats it.
3. A class watches a video of kindness and practices similar actions.
6. Humanistic Learning (Carl Rogers)
Focuses on the whole child—their emotions, values, and self-worth. Carl Rogers’ theory supports student-
centered, non-threatening environments.
Supports self-actualization and autonomy
• Encourages empathy and unconditional positive regard
• safe, inclusive, and respectful classroomsrust
Supportive Environment → Self-Worth → Motivation → Learning
Example Situations:
1. Morning circle time where students share thoughts freely.
2. Teacher checks on emotional states before starting the lesson.
3. Allowing students to choose how they reflect on a topic—through art, journaling, or music.
7. Motivational Theories
These theories explain what drives students to learn. Keller’s ARCS model focuses on Attention,
Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction.
Motivation is both intrinsic and extrinsic
• Expectancy-Value Theory: learners are motivated if they expect to succeed and value the task
• integrates motivational designs into lesson planning
A → Attention
R → Relevance
C → Confidence
S → Satisfaction
Example Situations:
1. Using a mystery box to grab attention at the start of a lesson.
2. Connecting science lessons to real-world careers.
3. Giving students immediate feedback and praise after a task.
8. Metacognition
“Thinking about thinking.” Metacognitive strategies teach students how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their
own thinking and learning.
• Promotes self-regulation and independent learning
• use of learning journals and reflective prompts
Plan → Monitor → Evaluate
Example Situations:
1. After solving a math problem, students reflect: “What strategy did I use?”
2. In reading, learners pause to question and predict.
3. Using a learning log to track progress in a long-term project.
9. Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
ZPD is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance. Scaffolding
helps learners progress through their ZPD.
Learning is social and interactive
• Teacher or peer provides temporary support
• supports guided practice and peer collaboration
[Can Do Alone] → [ZPD w/ Help] → [Mastered]
↑ Scaffolding ↑
Example Situations:
1. Teacher models solving a problem, then lets students try with help.
2. Peer tutoring: stronger students help others.
3. Reading buddy system—upper graders read with younger students.
10. Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
Gardner proposed that intelligence is multi-dimensional, including linguistic, logical, musical, bodily,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial, and naturalistic intelligences.
Tailor instruction to diverse learners
• Encourages varied activities and assessments
• emphasizes learning styles and talent development
Intelligence Sample Activity
Linguistic Write a poem
Bodily-Kinesthetic Act out a scene
Logical-Mathematical Solve math puzzles
Musical Compose a song
Interpersonal Group project
Intrapersonal Reflective journal
Spatial Create a visual timeline
Naturalistic Classify plants and animals
Example Situations:
1. A student writes a rap to summarize a topic in Araling Panlipunan.
2. Students create a dance to explain weather patterns.
3. Nature walk + journal to identify living things in Science.
11. Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated Instruction is a teaching approach where instruction is tailored to meet the varied needs of
students in a classroom. Teachers modify content (what is taught), process (how it is taught), and product
(how learning is assessed) to accommodate different learning styles, interests, readiness levels, and
abilities.
• Focuses on equity, not equality.
• Requires continuous assessment.
• Encourages student choice and voice.
• Uses flexible grouping.
• emphasizes the use of tiered activities and learning profiles.
Differentiated Instruction
CONTENT PROCESS PRODUCT
Tiered readings Group Discussions Performance tasks
Audio/video tools Peer tutoring Choice Boards
Advance organizers Role playing Creative presentations
Example Situations:
1. In English, students read different versions of a short story based on reading level, then discuss in
mixed-readiness groups.
2. In Math, one group works on real-life word problems, another does visual tasks, another uses
manipulatives.
3. In Science, students choose to present their findings through a video, a model, or a written report.
12. Inquiry-Based Learning
Inquiry-Based Learning encourages students to pose questions, investigate solutions, and build new
understandings. The teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding students as they engage in deep, meaningful
exploration.
• Centers on student curiosity.
• Follows the 5E Model: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate.
• promotes using scaffolded questions and hands-on activities.
Engage → Explore → Explain → Elaborate → Evaluate
(5E Model of Inquiry)
Example Situations:
1. Students ask, “Why do leaves change color?” and investigate through observation and research.
2. Learners explore local water pollution and propose solutions after interviewing experts.
3. In Araling Panlipunan, students analyze historical sources and debate perspectives on a revolution.
13. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning is a strategy where students work in small groups, helping one another learn and reach
shared academic goals. It builds social interaction, collaboration, and responsibility.
• Builds positive interdependence.
• Includes structured group activities like Jigsaw, Think-Pair-Share.
• recommends clear group roles and group accountability.
Cooperative Learning Strategies
1. Jigsaw - is a cooperative learning strategy where each student becomes an "expert" on one part of a
topic and then teaches it to their group.
➢ The class is divided into small groups.
➢ Each group member is assigned a different segment of the material.
➢ Students from different groups with the same topic meet to discuss and become experts ("expert
groups").
➢ Then, they return to their original groups to teach what they learned.
2. Think-Pair-Share - Think-Pair-Share is a quick and easy cooperative learning technique that promotes
individual thinking and peer discussion.
➢ Think: The teacher poses a question and gives students time to think independently.
➢ Pair: Students pair up and discuss their thoughts.
➢ Share: Pairs share their answers with the class.
3. Group Investigation- is a student-centered strategy where groups explore a topic in-depth and present
their findings.
➢ Students form groups based on interests.
➢ They plan their investigation (what to research and how).
➢ They collect data, analyze it, and present their findings to the class.
JIGSAW THINK-PAIR-SHARE GROUP INVESTIGATION
Each group member studies a part Think alone, discuss with partner, Plan, research, and present group
share to whole class pic
Example Situations:
1. In Science, students do a Jigsaw activity where each learns one organ system and teaches the rest.
2. In Values Education, pairs reflect on a moral scenario then share with the class.
3. In Filipino, groups investigate dialect variations and present through a mini-report.
14. Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
PBL is a student-centered approach where learners solve complex, real-life problems without predefined
answers. It enhances research, collaboration, and analytical thinking.
• Students are active problem-solvers.
• Teacher acts as a facilitator, not lecturer.
• recommends interdisciplinary problems and authentic contexts.
[Problem Scenario]
↓
[Research]
↓
[Collaborative Planning]
↓
[Solution Proposal]
↓
[Presentation & Feedback]
Example Situations:
1. Students design a low-cost water filter for disaster-prone areas.
2. Learners solve a community problem: trash management in school.
3. In HELE, students plan a budget-friendly meal for a family of five.
15. Project-Based Learning
PBL involves students in long-term, interdisciplinary projects that culminate in a tangible product or
performance. It emphasizes real-world application of knowledge.
• Encourages creativity and planning.
• Includes student choice and sustained inquiry.
• Projects that reflect community relevance.
Start → Research → Develop → Create → Present → Reflect
Example Situations:
1. Students create an eco-friendly campaign with posters, skits, and social media.
2. Groups build a mini-business plan in TLE.
3. Class makes a documentary about barangay history and presents it to the community.
16. Flipped Classroom
In a Flipped Classroom, students learn new material at home (through video or readings) and use class time
for active learning, discussion, and application.
• Shifts teacher role to facilitator.
• Allows for differentiated support in class.
• supports the use of online content and modular materials.
[Home] → Watch/Read Content
[Classroom] → Discussion, Problem-Solving, Practice
Example Situations:
1. Students watch a math tutorial video at home, then solve problems in class with teacher guidance.
2. In English, learners read a short story at home, then discuss plot elements in class.
3. In MAPEH, they watch a dance routine and practice it together in class.
17. Direct Instruction
Direct Instruction is a teacher-centered method focused on explicit, structured teaching of specific skills. It
follows a systematic format to ensure skill mastery.
• Includes step-by-step instruction.
• Emphasizes drill and practice.
• Using frequent checking for understanding.
Review → Present → Guided Practice → Independent Practice → Assess
Example Situations:
1. Teacher models how to convert fractions to decimals step-by-step.
2. In Filipino, teacher explains affixes with examples, then gives drills.
3. Teacher reviews grammar rules, gives guided worksheet, then a quiz.
18. Mastery Learning
Mastery Learning, based on Benjamin Bloom’s model, ensures that students fully understand a concept before
moving to the next. Focus is on corrective teaching and formative assessments.
• Learning pace varies, not standards.
• Uses formative quizzes and remediation.
• suggests re-teaching techniques and peer tutoring.
[Teach] → [Formative Assessment] → Mastery?
↓ ↓
Yes → Next No → Remediate → Reassess
Example Situations:
1. Students redo a quiz on sentence types after a review session.
2. A slow learner gets extra worksheets and peer help before retaking a task.
3. Teacher divides the class into those ready for the next topic and those needing more practice.
19. Experiential Learning
Experiential Learning is learning by doing, reflecting on the experience, and applying what was learned. Based
on David Kolb’s cycle.
Involves active participation.
• Moves from experience to reflection to action.
• promotes fieldwork, simulation, and role-playing.
Concrete Experience → Reflective Observation → Abstract Conceptualization → Active Experimentation
Example Situations:
1. Students simulate a marketplace to learn budgeting and spending.
2. Class visits a recycling plant and proposes a waste segregation plan.
3. Learners role-play different government officials in a mock election.
20. Play-Based Learning
Play-Based Learning allows children to explore, discover, and learn through guided play, developing
cognitive, emotional, and social skills.
• Ideal for early childhood.
• Encourages symbolic play and interaction.
• Integrating themes and storytelling.
Play-Based Learning
COGNITIVE SOCIAL LANGUAGE
Puzzles Roleplay Songs
Blocks Sharing Books
Example Situations:
1. Children use toy food to play market and practice counting and vocabulary.
2. Kids act out a story using puppets to understand emotions.
3. Learners build structures with blocks to explore shapes and balance.
21. Positive Discipline
Emphasizes guidance rather than control.
Positive discipline is a classroom management style that focuses on respect, empathy, and problem-solving
rather than punishment. Teachers use this approach to help students understand the consequences of their
actions and take responsibility for their behavior.
Instead of shaming or punishing, teachers communicate respectfully, set clear boundaries, and offer
logical consequences. This builds students’ self-discipline and nurtures a positive relationship between
teacher and student.
Promotes mutual respect
• Focuses on long-term behavior change
• Encourages student accountability
[Undesired Behavior] → [Respectful Discussion] → [Logical Consequence] → [Behavioral Improvement]
Example Situations:
1. A student interrupts the class—teacher pauses and discusses the impact calmly.
2. A student forgets homework—teacher guides them in creating a checklist.
3. Class creates a “respect contract” with agreed behaviors.
22. Classroom Routines
Reinforces classroom predictability and structure.
Classroom routines are consistent actions or procedures that help students know what to expect, reduce
anxiety, and keep the classroom organized and efficient. Routines help create a sense of security, improve
time management, and allow students to become independent in their tasks.
They include things like morning rituals, transitioning between subjects, cleaning up, and lining up
properly.
Ensures order and flow
• Promotes self-discipline and responsibility
• Saves instructional time
[Routine Task] → [Step-by-Step Process] → [Practice] → [Consistency]
Example Situations:
1. Morning routine: greeting, attendance, warm-up work.
2. Dismissal procedure: pack-up, table cleanup, exit quietly.
3. Group rotation: clearly marked stations and signals.
23. Assertive Discipline (Canter’s Model)
Supports assertiveness over permissiveness or aggression.
Assertive discipline is a classroom management strategy developed by Lee and Marlene Canter. It requires
teachers to set clear expectations, follow through with consequences, and maintain authority with
kindness. Teachers are firm, fair, and consistent—not passive or aggressive.
It balances structure and empathy, allowing teachers to be proactive rather than reactive.
Establishes non-negotiable rules
• Immediate and consistent consequences
• Builds student respect and responsibility
[Class Rule] → [Student Behavior] → [Consequence or Praise] → [Behavior Reinforced]
Example Situations:
1. Student talks while others are reading—teacher gives a warning based on the class rule chart.
2. Student disrupts again—moves seat and reflects during break.
3. Student behaves—receives praise and a participation point.
24. Culturally Responsive Teaching
Affirms diverse student backgrounds and learning styles.
Culturally responsive teaching acknowledges and uses students’ cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and
values to make learning more effective. It celebrates diversity by incorporating culture into lessons,
fostering inclusion, and challenging bias.
This approach helps all students, especially minorities, feel seen and valued.
Integrates students’ cultures into learning
• Builds a safe and inclusive space
• Develops cultural competence
[Student Culture] → [Inclusive Content] → [Higher Engagement] → [Academic Growth]
Example Situations:
1. Students write stories based on family traditions.
2. Teacher invites parents to share cultural practices during lessons.
3. Diverse languages shown on classroom labels.
25. Inclusive Practices
Promotes universal access to quality education.
Inclusive education ensures that students with disabilities or learning differences learn in the same
environment as their peers. Teachers modify instruction, provide accommodations, and differentiate content
to meet all learners’ needs.
This approach is about equality, dignity, and access.
• Supports students of all abilities
• Uses Individualized Education Plans (IEPs)
• Promotes collaboration among stakeholders
[Learner Needs] → [Adjustment Made] → [Inclusive Participation]
Example Situations:
1. Student with dyslexia listens to audiobooks.
2. Teacher uses sign language during lessons.
3. Group tasks are designed so all can contribute meaningfully.
26. Trauma-Informed Pedagogy
Encourages emotional safety for learning.
Trauma-informed pedagogy recognizes that some students carry emotional scars that affect learning. These
students may have experienced abuse, violence, or loss.
Teachers using this method create safe, predictable environments, show compassion, and avoid triggering
situations. It focuses on healing and trust over control.
Understands the impact of trauma
• Builds a supportive climate
• Uses non-triggering strategies
[Trauma Background] → [Safe Learning Space] → [Student Trust] → [Engagement & Healing]
Example Situations:
1. Teacher avoids yelling, uses calming language.
2. Student upset—allowed to journal quietly.
3. Flexible deadlines during emotional distress.
27. Bullying Prevention
Encourages a culture of kindness and empathy.
Bullying prevention involves teaching empathy, setting boundaries, and creating a school culture where
students feel safe and respected. Prevention strategies include open communication, reporting systems,
and emotional support.
Develops peer respect
• Uses education and intervention
• Involves whole-school approach
[Awareness Programs] → [Empathy Skills] → [Student Intervention] → [Safe Environment]
Example Situations:
1. Class role-play on bystander intervention.
2. Weekly lessons on empathy and kindness.
3. Conflict mediation between students.
28. Growth Mindset Cultivation (Dweck)
Promotes resilience and motivation.
Growth mindset, coined by Carol Dweck, means believing intelligence and skills can improve with effort,
persistence, and learning. Teachers help students reframe failure as a learning opportunity rather than a
sign of inability.
• Encourages effort-based praise
• Views challenges as learning paths
• Promotes resiliencecss
[Challenge Faced] → [Effort Applied] → [Feedback Received] → [Improvement]
1. Student says, “I can’t do this.” Teacher adds, “...yet.”
2. Wall display: “Mistakes help us grow.”
3. Feedback focuses on strategies, not just results.
29. Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
Stresses emotional intelligence as vital for academics.
SEL equips students with the skills to manage emotions, build relationships, and make responsible
choices. These skills are essential for academic success, behavior regulation, and mental well-being.
• Develops self-awareness and social skills
• Improves classroom cooperation
• Teaches conflict resolution
[Self-Awareness] → [Self-Management] → [Social Awareness] → [Relationship Skills] → [Decision-Making]
Example Situations:
1. Emotion check-in chart every morning.
2. Teaching conflict resolution through role-play.
3. Reflective journaling on how to handle anger.
30. Technology Integration
Encourages blended and flexible learning.
Technology integration uses tools like Google Classroom, videos, online quizzes, educational games, and
other platforms to enhance teaching and engage learners.
It’s not just about tools—it’s about using them strategically to support objectives and creativity.
• Enhances access and participation
• Prepares students for a digital future
• Increases interactive learning
[Learning Objective] → [EdTech Tool] → [Activity/Assessment] → [Student Outcome]
Example Situations:
1. Using Padlet for brainstorming ideas.
2. Flipping a lesson using a recorded YouTube video.
3. Students create presentations using Canva.
31. Formative Assessment
Ongoing checks for understanding.
Formative assessment refers to low-stakes, real-time evaluations used during instruction to monitor student
learning and adjust teaching accordingly. It's often informal and includes exit tickets, short quizzes,
observations, and peer feedback.
Occurs during learning
• Guides instructional decisions
• Focuses on student progress
[Teaching] → [Formative Check] → [Feedback] → [Instructional Adjustment]
Examples:
1. Exit ticket asking: "What’s one thing you learned today?"
2. Group shares peer feedback after a presentation.
3. Teacher checks understanding through a thumbs-up/thumbs-down poll.
32. Summative Assessment
Final evaluation of learning.
Summative assessment measures student mastery at the end of an instructional period. Examples include
final exams, standardized tests, and projects. These are typically graded and contribute to the final mark.
Given after instruction
• Evaluates overall achievement
• High-stakes and graded
[End of Unit/Term] → [Summative Test/Project] → [Grades]
Examples:
1. Periodic exam after a unit on fractions.
2. Final group performance in a music class.
3. Standardized test like NAT or AP.
33. Authentic Assessment
Real-world performance tasks.
Authentic assessments require students to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application
of knowledge. Includes portfolios, role plays, experiments, and rubric-based performance.
• Focuses on practical application
• Often uses rubrics
• Student work is contextual and creative
[Knowledge + Skills] → [Real-World Task] → [Rubric Evaluation]
Examples:
1. A portfolio showing writing improvement over time.
2. Students act as journalists reporting school events.
3. Science project simulating a weather forecast.
34. Differentiated Assessment
Fair evaluation for diverse learners.
Differentiated assessment adapts tools or tasks to suit students’ learning styles, language levels, or
disabilities. Teachers might adjust content, process, product, or environment to ensure all learners can
demonstrate their understanding.
• Tailored to student needs
• Promotes equity over equality
• Involves flexible assessments
[Student Profile] → [Adapted Assessment] → [Fair Evaluation]
Examples:
1. ELL student allowed to explain orally instead of writing.
2. Visually impaired student uses audio-recorded test.
3. Advanced learners create a mini-research instead of a quiz.
35. Feedback Strategies
Helps students grow.
Effective feedback is timely, specific, and actionable. It should guide students on what they did well, what
needs improvement, and how to improve it. Feedback helps students correct errors and internalize
learning goals.
• Should be given promptly
• Focuses on the task, not the person
• Encourages a growth mindset
[Student Work] → [Observation] → [Constructive Feedback] → [Improvement]
Examples:
1. “Great detail in your essay! Next time, try using more transitions.”
2. Teacher provides video feedback on a student’s performance.
3. Comment: “Check your calculation in step 3; the rest looks solid.”
36. Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment
Develops student responsibility.
These strategies involve students evaluating their own or their peers' work using rubrics or checklists. It
develops self-awareness, accountability, and critical thinking. Teachers guide students in giving respectful
and meaningful input.
Promotes reflection and responsibility
• Encourages ownership of learning
• Supports peer collaboration
[Student Work] → [Rubric/Checklist] → [Reflection or Peer Feedback]
Examples:
1. Student rates own performance in a science experiment.
2. Peer group uses a checklist to review each other’s posters.
3. Self-reflection journal after a presentation.
37. Grading Systems
Understanding how students are assessed.
There are two main grading systems:
• Criterion-Referenced: Compares performance to fixed standards (e.g., rubrics, competencies).
• Norm-Referenced: Compares students to each other (e.g., grading on a curve).
Criterion-referenced = fairness, clear expectations
• Norm-referenced = competitive, limited top scorers
Student Score → [Criterion-Referenced: Mastery Level]
[Norm-Referenced: Class Ranking]
Examples:
1. Student gets 85% (criterion-referenced) = Proficient.
2. In a norm-referenced setting, only top 10% get A’s.
38. 21st-Century Skills
Modern skills for global learners.
21st-century skills include critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration (4Cs). These
skills prepare students for a dynamic, tech-driven world and are often taught through project-based
learning and digital tools.
• Prepares for real-world demands
• Includes digital literacy, problem-solving
• Promotes lifelong learning
[Learning Activity] → [Critical Thinking + Creativity + Collaboration + Communication]
Examples:
1. Group creates a podcast on environmental issues.
2. Students debate climate change using research.
3. Create infographics summarizing a lesson.
39. Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)
Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (Grades K–3).
MTB-MLE promotes literacy and learning in the learner’s first language, especially in early years. Students
transition to learning in Filipino and English later on. It ensures better comprehension, participation, and
confidence.
[Mother Tongue Instruction] → [Understanding Concepts] → [Gradual Introduction of Filipino & English]
Examples:
1. Teaching math in Cebuano before transitioning to English terms.
2. Using local stories in reading lessons.
3. Translating classroom posters into mother tongue.
40. Legal and Ethical Considerations
Teacher’s responsibility to uphold laws and ethics.
Teachers must follow legal and ethical frameworks to protect students.
• RA 10533 (K-12 Law): Extends basic education to 12 years.
• RA 7610: Protects children from abuse, including in schools.
• RA 10173 (Data Privacy Act): Protects student records and personal data.
Follow ethical teaching practices
• Ensure student safety and rights
• Respect confidentiality and legal policies
[Law/Policy] → [Teacher Obligation] → [Classroom Application]
Examples:
1. Keeping grades confidential.
2. Reporting suspected child abuse.
3. Avoiding public shaming or posting student info online.
