Carbon Footprint Reduction In Construction Industry 2024-2025

CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

A formal definition of carbon footprint is as follows: "A measure of

the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2) and methane (CH4)
emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all
relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal
boundary of the population, system or activity of interest.
Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-
year global warming potential (GWP100).

Scientists report carbon footprints in terms of equivalents of tonnes

of CO2 emissions (CO2-equivalent). They may report them per year,
per person, per kilogram of protein, per kilometer travelled, and so
on.

In the definition of carbon footprint, some scientists include only

CO2. But more commonly they include several of the
notable greenhouse gases. They can compare various greenhouse
gases by using carbon dioxide equivalents over a relevant time
scale, like 100 years. Some organizations use the term greenhouse
gas footprint or climate footprint to emphasize that all greenhouse
gases are included, not just carbon dioxide.

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol includes all of the most important

greenhouse gases. The standard covers the accounting and
reporting of
methane(CH4), nitrousoxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons , sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen
trifluoride (NF3), Kyoto Protocol–carbon dioxide.

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Figure 1.1 Carbon Footprint

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1.2 Types of greenhouse gas emissions:

Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1)

Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2)
Other indirect carbon emissions (Scope 3)

Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1):Direct or Scope 1 carbon

emissions come from sources on the site that is producing a product
or delivering a service.An example for industry would be the
emissions from burning a fuel on site. On the individual level,
emissions from personal vehicles or gas-burning stoves are Scope 1.

Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2): Indirect carbon emissions

are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the
process being studied. They are also known as Scope 2 or Scope
3 emissions.

Scope 2 emissions are the indirect emissions related to purchasing

electricity, heat, or steam used on site. Examples of upstream
carbon emissions include transportation of materials and fuels, any
energy used outside of the production facility, and waste produced
outside the production facility.Examples of downstream carbon
emissions include any end-of-life process or treatments, product and
waste transportation, and emissions associated with selling the
product. The GHG Protocol says it is important to calculate upstream
and downstream emissions. There could be some double counting.
This is because upstream emissions of one person's consumption
patterns could be someone else downstream emissions

Other indirect carbon emissions (Scope 3): Scope 3 emissions

are all other indirect emissions derived from the activities of an
organization. But they are from sources they do not own or
control.The GHG Protocol's Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3)

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Accounting and Reporting Standard allows companies to assess

their entire value chain emissions impact and identify where to
focus reduction activities.

Scope 3 emission sources include emissions from suppliers and

product users. These are also known as the value chain.
Transportation of good, and other indirect emissions are also part of
this scope.

CHAPTER 2
EMISSION, DESIGN AND OPERATION
2.1 Carbon Footprint of Mining, Manufacturing, and Materials
Transporting in the Construction Industry and GHG Reduction:

Construction process undergoes several phases, starting with

production of materials (non-metallic minerals, oil, cement mortar,
iron, steel, concrete) and material transportation which contributes
82–96% of the total CO2 emissions through the construction period
as shown in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 CO2 emission from different phases in the

construction industry.

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A study showed that carbon footprint of urban buildings

increased from 8.95 million tons in 2005 to 13.57 million tons
in 2009, and that 45% of CO2 resulted from building material
production whereas 40% of CO2 resulted from building
energy . Another study indicated that life-cycle carbon
emission of a five-story brick-concrete residential building was
1807.31 t, and 90% of CO2 were emitted at the stage of
construction materials preparation and the stage of building
operation.

2.2 Carbon Footprint of Cement and Concrete

Manufacturing:

Globally, cement manufacturing accounts for 5% of CO 2

emissions. It has been reported that manufacturing of 1 kg of
Portland clinker releases nearly 1 kg of CO2 to the
atmosphere. The calcination process that takes place in the
cement kiln contributes nearly 0.55 kg CO 2 per kg of cement
clinker. Concrete’s typical composition is 34% sand, 12%
Portland cement, 48% crushed stone, and 6% water. Since the
cement percentage is relatively small in concrete, it is
considered non-energy intensive compared to other
construction materials . CO2 emission rate during the
production of concrete is between 347 and 351 kg of CO2-

e/m3.

Table 2.1. On-site energy consumption and CO2 emissions

from cement/concrete production annually.

Activity CO2 CO2

Energy Use/Ton Emissions Energy Use/Ton Emissions
(Btu) (Ton)/Ton of (Btu) (Ton)/Ton of
Material Material
Quarr and crushing 4.29 × 104 4.05 × 10−3 1.61 × 105 1.44 × 10−2
ying

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Raw 9.39 × 104 1.69 × 10−2

grinding
Cement Kiln fuels 4.62 × 106 4.33 × 10−1
manufactu Reactions 5.44 × 10−1
ring
Finish 2.71 × 105 4.86 × 10−2
milling
Concret Blending/ 3.54 × 105 6.36 × 10−2
e mixing
productio Transportati 6.97 × 105 5.10 × 10−2
n on

2.3 Carbon Footprint of Steel Production:

Steel production starts with the reaction between iron ore and a
reducing agent, coking coal, in the blast furnaces producing
melted iron which is converted to steel in a later stage. The
reaction of iron ore with carbon is the major contributor of CO2
emission in the steel production corresponding to 70–80% of the
total CO2 emissions . Globally, steel manufacturing accounts for
6% of CO2 emissions. Globally, steel manufacturing accounts for
6% of CO2 emissions. According to Solis Guzmán, Steel B 500S
in two four-story blocks of flats (a total of 107 dwellings with

total area of 10,243.69 m2) gives 281,898.38 kg CO2 eq/year

during one year of construction process. Table 2 shows the
energy type and consumption, and CO2 emissions associated
with steel production in the integrated steel making and
secondary steel making stages.

2.4 Cement and Concrete Additives:

Cement manufacturing requires energy; therefore, it is

recommended to substitute the clinker content partially with
industrial by-products. It is safe to substitute the clinker content
by 30% (by weight of total binder) without compromising the
strength or performance. Also, high energy milling can be done to
blend constituents to increase their reactivity and to increase
their surface area, both of which can help improve the
compressive strength development. Recent studies have shown

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that regular Portland Cement can be replaced with alkali-activated

slag mortars. These alkali-activated slags (AAS) can help reduce
environmental impacts greatly since the production of AAS
results in low energy consumption and lower energy consumption
leading to lower CO2 emissions. In order to reduce the CO2
emissions, alternative clinker c h e m i s t s can be used as well as
changing cement production methods in favor of more energy
efficient technologies which result in reduction of 374 kg CO2/t
clinker and totaling annual 224,540 t-CO2 emission release.

In order to mitigate the impact of concrete on the environment, its

physical and me- chemical properties such as strength, durability
and light weight can be enhanced. For instance, lightweight
concretes (LWCs) with high volume of additives such as fly ash or
silica fume, which reduces the overall structural volume to
withstand load, reduces CO2 emissions by 30–50% as compared to
conventional concrete and improves mechanical properties of LWC.
Demolition waste such as old tires, crushed glass, and various
materials from the incineration process can be granulated and cast
into concrete as fillers. According to a study, a sustainable Ultra
High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composite (UHPFRCC)
was produced using silica flour, blast-furnace slag cement, silica
fume, superplasticizers, and steel fibers.Another study stated that
pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and high calcium wood ash (HCWA) were
reused as concrete materials and HCWA:PFA of 50:50 and 40:60
provide the optimal flexural and compressive strength.

2.5 Recycled Aggregate Concrete:

In addition to crushed concrete, recycled aggregate concrete

(RAC) consists of materials such as bricks, metals, tiles, and
other materials including plastic, wood, glass, and paper. RAC
has inferior durability and mechanical properties as compared

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to conventional concrete. However, desirable RAC properties

can be obtained by using ad- mixtures such as silica fume,
GGBS, fly ash, and meta-kaolin, and by modifying mixing
procedures. In a study, it was found that RAC together with
industrial wastes such as fly ash, silica fume, blast slag, etc. can
improve concrete’s carbon footprint and provide great benefits.
Chetumal Institute of Technology in Mexico studied the influence of
the fine and normal/recycled coarse aggregates on carbon
footprint. The result showed that recycled coarse aggregates
contributes 39% of CO2-e, fine aggregate contributes 19% of CO2-e
and normal coarse aggregate contributes 42% of CO 2-e. The study
concluded that increasing recycled aggregates may help reduce
22,343 tons of CO2-e annually in the region of Mexico alone. A
study found that 100% reclaimed and recycled aggregates,
which is called Pixelcrete, reduced the content of Portland cement
(60% less than the conventional concrete) in office building, and
led to 73.8 t-CO2-e reduction in GHG emission.

2.6 Carbon Footprint of On-Site Construction Processes

and GHGs Reduction:

Carbon footprints are resulted during manufacturing,

transportation, and installation processes of ground foundation,
wood/steel/concrete framed construction at on-site construction
activities. The amount of CO2 released from a concrete-steel
residential tower in the Tehran Metropolitan City was
13,076,390,236 kg CO2-e, and the amount of CO2 emissions in 1

m2 of Gross Floor Area (GFA) was 435,879.67 kg CO 2e/m2, of

which 83% was related to the emissions from transportation of
materials and 14% was related to construction wastes and 3% was
related to on-site construction process. A prefabricated wood-
frame multi-story building in Quebec City produced a total of
embodied carbon emissions of 275 kg CO2-e, which was 25%
less than traditional buildings built with steel or concrete. The

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fabrication phase of building material contributed the most

(75%) to the carbon emissions, while transportation (13%),
construction (1%), and waste management (11%) contributed
25%.
A study found that the embodied carbon of a 3-bedroom semi-
detached house con- structured using offsite panelized timber
frame was approximately 35 t-CO2 (82% of the total embodied
carbon is embodied in the materials incorporated in the building,
2% of the total embodied carbon resulted from transportation of
the materials from point of distribution to site and the rest
resulted from waste materials exported from the site and energy
used onsite), and an equivalent home constructed using
traditional masonry construction was 52 t-CO2. Using modern
methods in construction resulted in a 34% reduction in embodied
carbon. The overall CO2 emissions from the 1008 m wastewater
pipeline project in China were calculated in tons through the entire
construction period; the results were found to be 452.81 tons,
61.32 tons, and 6.59 tons from transportation phase, material
manufacturing phase, and installation phase, respectively. The

global warming and energy consumption of 1 m 2 of hoarding

construction using large amounts of steel products and concrete in
the construction site resulted in 3 tons of CO 2 eq GWP and 39 GJ of
non-renewable energy consumption. Another study showed that
home building with ready mix concrete results in 40% less CO 2
emissions and less fuel consumption per lot by changing concrete

slab size from 3000 ft2 to 1500 ft2. In addition, choosing the
closest ready mix concrete plant saves 46 gallons of diesel and
eliminates 1020 lb of CO2 emissions per lot in Greater Phoenix
Arizona area.
Enhancement of energy efficiency and optimization of construction
machines can re- duce direct carbon emissions in construction
industry. Oil and electricity consumption during the on-site
construction contribute to carbon footprint of construction industry.
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According to this study, the sources of CO 2 emission from the on-

site construction are as follows: reinforced concrete work produced
44.1 t-CO2 (23.9% of the total CO2 emissions), earthworks produced
39.1 t-CO2 (21.2% of the total CO2 emissions), ground heat
construction (close loop) produced 31.9 t-CO 2 (16.7% of the total
CO2 emissions), foundation work (PHC PILE) produced 26.7 t-CO 2
(14.4% of the total CO2 emissions), and ground heat construction
(open loop) produced 16.6 t-CO2 (8.5% of the total CO2 emissions)
of 84.6% of the total CO2 at the on-site construction phase.
Furthermore, electricity consumption of concrete works on-site
accounts for 41.9% of the total electricity used during the
construction,resulting 14.1% (13,279 kWh) of the total electricity
usage during building operations. A case study has shown that on
an average 99.8% of carbon present in the fossil fuel consumed
by an excavator is released into the atmosphere as CO 2.
Additionally, emission factors during idling times contribute to
overall average emission factors.
A study showed that the total CO2 emission increased during
engine idling of non- road diesel construction equipment was
considered although during the idle the time fuel use and CO2
emissions are between 1/3 to 1/5 of the non-idle time. During
idling time,2.7 kg CO2/liter was produced at a diesel fuel
consumption rate of 03.7 L/h. According to the EPA (2005),
operators should take the equipment needs into consideration,
including the time required for warm-ups and cool-downs. An
operational efficiency system that is commonly accepted and used
to estimate equipment productivity is 50 min = h (83%), which
indicates 50 min of non-idle time and 10 min of idle time per
hour. Equipment such as backhoes and bulldozers have equipment
productivity ranging from 80% to 85%. However, off-road trucks
have equipment productivity of 41% considering that a large part
of their time is spent cycle idling, mainly loading and offloading of
cargo. If off-road truck average operational efficiency increased

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from 40% to 50% by reducing idle time by only 6 min/h, the

hourly fuel use and CO2 emissions can be reduced 10%.
A case study of a construction project in USA involved a
roadway construction of an 18.8-mile highway requiring 184
pieces of machinery categorized into 35 equipment types, with
idle time assumed to be 6 h per day for 7 days per week for this
machinery. It was shown that the net total emission was
179,055 Mt-CO2-e during a period of 2.5 years (71,609 Mt-CO2-e
per year), of which 40,023 Mt-CO2-e/km was contributed by the
con- structured roadway. Amount of CO2 resulted from idling
time can be reduced using different technologies such as direct-
fire heaters, auxiliary power units (APU), thermal storage
systems, on-board batteries, and automatic engine shut-off
devices. According to a study, direct fired heaters can reduce
NOx and CO2 emissions by 99% and 94–96%, respectively, since
heat is transferred directly to the heat exchange from the
combustion flame resulting in less fuel usage than diesel
engines.

2.7 Carbon Footprint of Construction and Demolition

Waste Generation and GHG Reduction:

Construction demolition waste (CDW) stems from construction,

renovation, and demolition workplaces which include (i)
excavation materials, (ii) road building and maintenance
materials, (iii) demolition materials, and (iv) other worksite waste
materials, (e.g., unpainted, non-treated wood scrap, unpainted,
non-treated wood pallets, plastic, packaging), land clearing, and
development activities. Construction waste is increasing in volume
and affecting the environment adversely. Over 80% of CDW is
composed of excavated earth in construction works. Mixed CDW

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contains the remaining of materials and packaging. A 3-

bedroom modular timber frame semi-detached house with 83

m2 internal floor area produced 17 m3 of waste (excavated

inert materials, waste and unused construction materials, and

other waste) totaling 4.9 t-CO2 equating to 109 kgCO2 per m2.
Timber and packaging contributed to 33% and 31% of the total
waste, respectively.
When a building reaches the end of its service life, it is demolished;
the process is responsible for an emission of 0.004 to 0.01 kg CO2
per kg of the concrete material. This figure depends on the type of
reinforcement and structure used, in addition to the general
working conditions on the site during demolition. A situ-concrete
type building was being demolished in Korea; it required total

energy consumption of 51.5 MJ/m 2 from diesel fuel to demolish it;

thus, the level of CO2 emitted during demolition was 10.3 kg-

CO2/10 m2. In consideration of the CO2 that is emitted during the

transportation of the demolition debris, 24.4 Kg-CO 2/10 m2, 26.3

kg-CO2, and 17.6 kg-CO2 were obtained for a single-family house, a
flat, and a multi-family house, respectively. Waste transportation
consumes energy which leads to CO 2 emission. According to study,
during the construction period, 530 tons of waste generated and
during the transportation of this waste 527 L of diesel oil consumed
totaling 1.4 t-CO2 emission from the waste transportation phase.
Waste materials generated from the construction industry
(concrete and concrete rubble, construction ceramics, timber and
wood, glass, plastics, steel, iron, aluminum, excavated soil, and
Styrofoam) or from general life can be recycled as alternative
construction materials. During demolition, interior finishing from
buildings can be reused or recycled. To look after the environment
and determine the recycling and reuse values of CDW, the waste
management must be planned via volume and composition
determination. Concrete blocks can be crushed so that they can
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be used for landscaping or landfill. The fiber generated from the

carpet waste can be used in fiber reinforced concrete (FCR) and
fiber reinforced soil as well. The fiber improved several mechanical
properties of the concrete such as toughness, strength in tension,
fatigue strength, and durability, while it reduced possible cracks
and defects. Waste materials can act as substitutes of concrete
components; it is estimated that plastic and glass can replace fine
aggregates in concrete mixes by up to 20%, while waste concrete
could make up for 20% of the coarse aggregate mixes in concrete .
Recycling one kg of aluminum as building demolition waste can
contribute to emission reduction of 20.07 kg CO 2-e. Demolition
debris that contains steel is separated so that the steel can be
sold to scrap dealers. The economically not valuable waste can
be sent to dump sites. When the waste steel from hoarding
construction is recycled as steel scraps, 281 kg CO2-e/m GHGs
emission can be reduced. New asphalt can be used from
asphalt removed from road that is refurbished. The landscaping
clearing wastes can be used as well. A portion of waste glass
can be used in place of fine aggregate in asphalt paving
mixtures (glassphalt). Reusing wood waste in production of
particleboard reduced embodied carbon emissions up to 14.6%

(−28.6 kg CO2-e/m2).

2.8 Carbon Footprint during Operational Stage and GHGs

Reduction:

Over the full cycle, building operations contribute to the CO 2

balance when in service. Carbon emission during operational
stage of a building was a major contributor, accounting for
85.4% of the total emission followed by the construction stage
which ac- counted for 12.6% of total emissions. A high-rise
residential housing block in Hong Kong demonstrated that GHG
emission was estimated to about 213.03 t-CO 2-e/flat and 4980

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kg CO2-e/m2, of which 85.82% was stemming from the

operating energy, 12.69% from materials, 1.14% from
renovation, 0.28% from end-of-life of the building, and 0.07%
from other factors. The energy consumption per area of the
buildings from urban, national, and global scales are 3.03

GJ/m2, 4.27 GJ/m2 and 0.44 GJ/m2 which correspond to 0.40 t-

CO2-e/m2, 0.14 t-CO2-e/m2 and 0.04 t-CO2-e/m2 greenhouse

gas emissions, respectively, based on hybrid systems analysis
combining input–output analysis and process analysis in China.
In order to contribute to CO2 reduction, new technologies were
implemented in buildings. According to a study, low-carbon
strategies, such as increased energy efficiency design for new
buildings and energy-saving retrofit for existing buildings would
decrease energy consumption by 2.98% with a carbon emission
reduction of 3.15 million t-CO2-e. Choosing correct materials,
systems, and technologies which are listed in following sections at
the phase of design and materials selection, will reduce energy
consumption and CO2 emissions during operational stage of the
buildings.

2.9 Alternate Water Resources for Water Reuses:

Reusing water in a typical office building is estimated to

conserve about 75% of the indoor potable water. The average
water saving of a green building was estimated to reach 37.6%
with applying water efficiency technologies. The rise of the
water savings will reduce energy consumption and CO 2
emissions. The passive irrigation system has two stages:
collecting water when it rains and supplying water in drought
conditions. Water flow in the system is natural under gravity or
capillarization method.

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Black water comes from toilets and kitchens. Black water reuse
showed a positive response from people who used automated or
remotely controlled systems by the installer. Another study
reported that it is costly and has poor process design. Condensate
recovery reuses water produced by air conditioning (AC) systems.
AC condensate can be used in flushing toilets, irrigation, cooling
towers, roof cleaning, green roofs, and spray cooling.

Examples of water reuse and alternative water supplies include

water conserving toi- lets, waterless toilets, waterless urinals,
alternative shower and faucet fixtures (alternative controls, self-
powering, low flow), water efficient appliances, and alternative
landscaping (high efficiency irrigation, water conserving plant
selection). Some statistical studies showed that water
technologies increase water efficiency. For instance, urinals and
commercial dishwashers showed the greatest reductions of water
use, while showers and commercial toilets showed the least
savings. In the same manner, wastewater centralized reuse
system (WWCRS) require more energy for treatment which leads to
higher CO2 emissions, while the grey water decentralized reuse
system (GWDRS) requires less energy (11.8–37.5%) than WWCRS
consumed. A constructed wetlands system treats wastewater in a
building so that it can be used in low-flow toilets and urinals, which
reduces the water use in total by a percentage higher than 60%

2.10 Other Building Systems and Technologies:

There are various technologies and systems that can be applied

to enhance the efficiency of buildings and decrease CO2
emissions. Such innovations include: windows and building
surfaces with tunable optical properties; high-efficiency heat
pumps; highly efficient lighting devices; thin insulating materials;
improved software for analyzing building design and operations;
inexpensive, energy harvesting sensors and controls; optimized
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control strategies; and interoperable building communication

systems. A study was conducted to compare different systems
in a building, and it found that systems like interior lights
(−150%), mechanical ventilation (−25%), and pumps (−11%) had
the least energy savings whereas systems like interior fans (100%),
heat rejection units (56%) and receptacle equipment (33%) had
the highest energy savings. The negative values show that the
systems are less efficient when compared to the baseline. In
another study, it was found that using renewable energies such as
a solar photovoltaic system, wind turbine, and anaerobic digester
resulted in 1204.1 t-CO2-e reduction in an office building in
Australia, and using renewable energy such as a solar photovoltaic
system, a solar thermal water system, and a ground source heat
pump resulted in 2871.6 t-CO2-e reduction in an office building in
China during the life cycle of the buildings. Expanded polystyrene
(EPS), cellulose, and elastomer as insulation and sealing materials
resulted in an average 3.5 kg CO2-e/kg emission, some insulation
materials such as sheep’s wool could reduce its impact up to 98%.

CHAPTER 3
CASE STUDY

3.1 Indira Paryavaran Bhawan Ministry of Environment and

Forest (MoEF):

MoEF sets is a radical change from a conventional building

design.The project team put special emphasis on strategies for
reducing energy demand by providing adequate natural light,
shading, landscape to reduce ambient temperature, and energy
efficient active building systems. Several energy conservation
measures were adopted to reduce the energy loads of the building

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and the remaining demand was met by producing energy from on-
site installed high efficiency solar panels to achieve net zero criteria.
Indira Paryavaran Bhawan uses 70% less energy compared a
conventional building. The project adopted green building concepts
including conservation and optimization of water by recycling waste
water from the site.

Indira Paryavaran Bhawan is now India’s highest green rated

building. The project has received GRIHA 5 Star and LEED Platinum.
The building has already won awards such as the Adarsh/GRIHA of
MNRE for exemplary demonstration of Integration of Renewable
Energy Technologies.

Figure 3.1 Indira Paryavaran Bhawan Ministry of Environment

and Forest

Sustainability Features:

 Net-Zero Energy: Produces as much energy as it uses each

year, primarily through rooftop solar.
 Green Building Certification: Has been awarded GRIHA 5-Star
and LEED Platinum certifications.

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 Energy Efficiency: Is equipped with energy-efficient lighting,

HVAC systems, and building orientation to lower energy
requirements.
 Rainwater Harvesting and Wastewater Recycling systems.
 Natural Ventilation and Day lighting minimize the use of
artificial systems.
 Use of Recycled and Local Materials in construction.

Technical Innovations:

 930 kW rooftop solar photovoltaic system.

 Sensor-based lighting and air conditioning.
 Double-skin facade for thermal insulation.
 Water-cooled chillers and energy-efficient building envelope.

Technical Challenges:

 Design Complexity: Net-zero energy needed passive solar

design, renewable energy systems, and energy-efficient
technologies all of which needed to be harmoniously
coordinated.
 Solar Integration: Structural supports and meticulous planning
were necessary to install a 930 kW rooftop solar system in an
urban setting without sacrificing building aesthetics or safety.
 Balancing Comfort and Efficiency: Maintaining indoor comfort
while minimizing energy consumption needed creative HVAC
and lighting systems.
 Innovative Materials: Specifying low-embodied energy,
recycled, and local materials necessitated further research,
sourcing, and quality control.

Table 3.1: Achivements by MoEF

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3.2 Hyderabad Metro Rail:

Hyderabad Metro Rail is considered a game changer with nil carbon

emissions as the trains run on electricity rather than fossil
fuels.Moreover, many innovative and one-of-its-kind technologies
incorporated in the Metro rail project make it a highly efficient
service.The advent of Metro rail in Hyderabad city, with Corridor I
and a major stretch of Corridor III becoming operational, is inspiring
private/individual vehicle owners to take up this public transport
system, which is expected to have an overall positive effect by
reducing pollution.Once fully operational, Hyderabad Metro Rail is
expected to reduce carbon emissions by up to 3,100 tons a year.
With reduction in vehicles, there will be less air pollution, and the
overall quality of life also improves with clean air in the
city.Therefore, Metro rail project is being seen as a great step in the
right direction towards a green future for the city, and a milestone
project for a sustainable and clean environment.The metro
contributes to a reduction in carbon emissions by encouraging a
shift towards sustainable public transport, saving approximately 184
million liters of fuel and reducing 424 million kilograms of CO2
emission.

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Figure 3.2 Hyderabad Metro Rail

Sustainability Features:
 Regenerative braking in trains recovers ~35% of energy.
 Energy-efficient LED lighting throughout stations and depots.
 Metro stations built to maximize daylight, minimizing artificial
lighting requirements.
 Most stations are IGBC-certified (Indian Green Building Council).
 Solar panels fitted on station rooftops and depots.
 Application to lighting, escalators, and other utility of the
stations.
 Seam with electric vehicles, feeder buses, and bike-sharing
initiatives in order to mitigate carbon impact of commuting.
 Rainwater harvesting facilities located within most of the
stations.
 Recycling wastewater at the depots used in landscaping as well
as in cleaning.
 Aims to remove thousands of vehicles from roads, significantly
cutting air and noise pollution.

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Technical Innovations:
 Improves frequency and safety by allowing trains to run at
shorter headways.
 Elevated complex intended to minimize land acquisition and city
disruption.
 Relies on precast segmental construction to enable faster
construction.
 Incorporates contactless smart cards, mobile ticketing with QR
codes, and compatibility with e-wallets.
 Residential developments planned in association with metro
stations in order to offer walkable mixed-use neighborhoods.

Technical Challenges:

 Acquisition of narrow urban corridors in high-density

neighborhoods held up construction.
 Relocation of utilities (water mains, electric wires, etc.) involved
significant coordination with city authorities.
 Raised viaducts and stations needed traffic control in congested
urban areas, causing public nuisance.
 Irregular ground, aged subterranean infrastructure, and
elevated water tables created tunneling and foundation issues.
 Synchronization of commercial viability with public service
objectives raised finance and governance issues.
 L&T needed to invest significantly in advance, and ridership
projections had to be as per projections for viability.
 Sophisticated technologies such as CBTC and automated
systems necessitated upskilling of the workforce and expert
handling.

Table 3.2 : Achivements by Hyderabad Metro Rail

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The Bosco Verticale (Vertical Forest):

Is a complex of two residential skyscrapers designed by Boeri
Studioand located in the Porta Nuova district of Milan, Italy. They
have a height of 116 metres and 84 m (276 ft) and within the
complex is an 11-storey office building.

The distinctive feature of the skyscrapers, both inaugurated in 2014,

is the presence of over ninety plant species, including
tall shrubs and trees, distributed on the facades. It is an ambitious
project of metropolitan reforestation that aims to increase
the biodiversity of plant and animal species in the Lombard capital
through vertical greening, reducing urban sprawl and contributing to
the mitigation of carbon gases.

Sustainability Features:

 Hosts over 700 trees, 5,000 shrubs, and 15,000 perennials.

 Supports birds and insects, helping restore local biodiversity in
urban areas.
 The vegetation absorbs CO₂ and produces oxygen.
 Filters dust particles, pollutants, and reduces smog.
 Trees provide natural insulation, reducing heating and cooling
demands.

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 Reduces the urban heat island effect by shading and

transpiration.
 An integrated irrigation system uses gray water (recycled from
the building).
 Sensors optimize water use based on plant needs.

Technical Innovations:

 Balconies are reinforced to support the weight of trees (up to 3

tons per tree).
 Wind load was carefully modeled to ensure stability.
 Plants were selected based on sunlight exposure, wind
conditions, and balcony orientation.
 Use of climate-resilient species adapted to urban micro-climates.
 Uses smart sensors to monitor soil moisture and weather
patterns.
 Water sourced from on-site filtration and recycling systems.
 Innovative integration of planters into the building’s facade.
 Requires precise coordination between architectural, structural,
and landscaping disciplines.

Technical Challenges:

 Requires specialized arborists (trained climbers) for pruning and

plant care.
 Managing plant health across seasons is labor-intensive and
costly.
 Trees add dynamic loads, especially in high winds.
 Engineering had to account for wind turbulence and plant
movement.
 Ensuring that the dense vegetation does not become a fire
hazard.
 Integrated sprinkler systems and firebreaks were necessary.
 Risk of invasive species or plant diseases spreading rapidly.

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 Ongoing need for biological pest management without harmful

chemicals.
 Much higher than traditional buildings due to complex planning,
engineering, and upkeep.

The Crystal:
A Sustainable Cities Initiative by Siemens, has opened in London.
Conceived by Wilkinson Eyre Architects, the dramatic crystal-
shaped, glazed structure has created a new independent global hub
for debate on sustainable urban living and development. The 6,300
sq m building – which houses exhibition spaces, conference facilities
and a technology and innovation centre – has been designed to
achieve the highest international sustainability credentials for a
building (BREEAM Outstanding and LEED Platinum).

Sustainability Features:

 Energy Efficiency: The Crystal operates without burning fossil fuels, relying
entirely on electricity. It utilizes solar power and ground source heat pumps for
heating and cooling, significantly reducing its carbon footprint.
 Water Management: The building achieves 90% water self-sufficiency through
rainwater harvesting and on-site black water treatment, minimizing reliance on
municipal water supplies.
 Intelligent Building Systems: An advanced Building Management System (BMS)
integrates various controls, including lighting, HVAC, and security, optimizing
energy use and enhancing occupant comfort.

Technical Innovations:

 Geothermal Energy Utilization: A network of 199 ground source heat pumps,

totaling 17 kilometers in length and reaching depths of up to 150 meters, supplies
virtually all the building's heating and most of its cooling needs.

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 Adaptive Façade Design: The Crystal's distinctive glass façade is engineered for
high performance, providing insulation, solar control, and maximizing natural
daylight, thereby reducing the need for artificial lighting.
 KNX Intelligent Building Controls: The integration of KNX systems allows
seamless communication between various building control devices, enhancing
operational efficiency and user experience.

Technical Challenges:

 Complex Geometry: The building's crystalline form required innovative structural

solutions, including a bespoke steel framework, to accommodate its intricate
design while maintaining structural integrity.
 System Integration: Coordinating over 2,500 individual control devices, such as
window actuators, lighting controls, and HVAC systems, posed significant
challenges in ensuring seamless operation and interoperability.
 Sustainability Certification Compliance: Achieving both BREEAM Outstanding
and LEED Platinum certifications necessitated meticulous planning and
execution to meet the stringent criteria of these leading environmental assessment
methods.

CHAPTER 4
PROS AND CONS

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Pros:

1. Environmental Benefits
 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions significantly reduced.
 Contributes to climate change mitigation.
 Reduces water and air pollution from construction.
2. Resource Efficiency
 Favors employment of recycled, renewable, and sustainable
materials.
 Supports energy-efficient construction technology and practice.
3. Innovation and Modernization
 Fast tracks use of advanced techniques such as prefabrication, 3D
printing, and smart materials.
 Favors the use of digital tools such as Building Information
Modeling (BIM) for improved planning and resource utilization.
4. Economic and Operational Savings
 Reduced energy and maintenance expenses throughout the
building's life.
 Enhances property value and long-term returns on green
investments.
5. Healthier Work and Living Environments
 Better indoor air quality and comfort.
 Less noise and dust enhance conditions for workers and
surrounding communities.
6. Better Brand Image and Compliance
 Improves reputation and supports environmental, social, and
governance (ESG) objectives.
 Facilitates meeting certifications and government regulations.

Cons:

1. High Initial Costs

 Green materials and technologies may be more costly upfront.

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 Sustainability assessments and certifications (e.g., LEED, GRIHA)

will incur extra costs.

2. Material and Technology Limitations

 Sustainable materials might not be available or may have limited
performance.
 Transportation and logistics of green materials may add to the
cost.
3. Lack of Awareness and Skilled Labor
 Workers and contractors might not be familiar with sustainable
construction practices.
 Specialized consultants and technical specialists may be needed.
4. Increased Planning and Coordination Time
 Sustainable building demands precise design, modeling, and
analysis.
 Increased coordination among various stakeholders.
5. Regulatory and Incentive Gaps
 Ineffective or poor government policies and incentives in certain
areas.
 Market can undervalue sustainability in cost-sensitive projects.
6. Maintenance and Monitoring Requirements
 Energy-efficient systems need regular maintenance to perform at
their best.
 Monitoring performance and data analysis are required for
ongoing savings.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

GHG emissions mitigation can be achieved by indirect pricing

such as regulations and direct pricing such as carbon tax and
emission trading schemes (ETS).Therefore, increasing the
awareness, education, and incentives can lessen the carbon
footprint of construction industry. Consequently, we aimed to
increase awareness of the carbon footprint sources in
construction and building operations during manufacturing,
transportation, construction, operations/management, and end-of-
life deconstruction. It was found that mining and manufacturing
of materials and chemicals contributed to high energy usage
and 90% of the total CO2 emissions. Therefore,

 Testing different blends of cement with addition of

alternative additives such as alkali-activated slag mortars or
fly ash in concrete.
 Changing cement production methods.
 Recycling building wastes such as concrete aggregate and
recycled asphalt in common construction materials.
 Conversion from the wet process to the dry process in concrete
manufacturing;
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 Substitution of lower carbon content fuels for coal, coke, and

petroleum coke.
 Alternate options in terms of vehicle type, engine power, truck
capacity, and fuel type to improve the fuel efficiency in the
construction vehicles.
 Reducing idle time by using direct fired heaters, auxiliary power
units (APU), thermal storage systems, on-board batteries, and
automatic engine shut-off devices.
 Applications of alternate water resources for water reuse
purposes;
 Switching to efficient HVAC systems.
 Utilization of different building operations/systems will lessen
energy consumption and reduce GHG emissions up to 90% in
different stages in construction industry.

REFERENCE

1. WEF. Shaping the Future of Construction: A Breakthrough in

Mindset and Technology; WEF Cologny: Geneva, Switzerland,
2016.
2. Yan, H.; Shen, Q.; Fan, L.C.H.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, L.
Greenhouse gas emissions in building construction: A
case study of One Peking in Hong Kong. Build. Environ.
2010, 45, 949–955.
3. Kisku, N.; Joshi, H.; Ansari, M.; Panda, S.; Nayak, S.; Dutta,
S.C. A critical review and assessment for usage of recycled
aggregate as sustainable construction material. Constr. Build.
Mater. 2017, 131, 721–740.
4. Mardiana, A.; Riffat, S. Building energy consumption and
carbon dioxide emissions: Threat to climate change. J. Earth
Sci. Clim. Chang. 2015, 1–3.
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5. A Review of Carbon Footprint Reduction in Construction

Industry, from Design to Operation: Banu Sizirici, Yohanna
Fseha, Chung-Suk Cho.
6. Wikipedia

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