TABLE

TableOF
ofCONTENTS
Contents
PRERIQUISTIES AND COGNITIVE LEVELS
Differentiation from First Principles
1.(from CAPS curriculum)
Differentiation from First Principles
• The rate of change at a point
• Determining the derivative using first principles

Differentiation Rules
2. Differentiation Rules
• Laws of Differentiation & Notation
• Tangent to a curve

Cubic Functions
3. Cubic Functions
• Factorizing a Cubic Function
• Parts of a Cubic Function
o Turning Point
o Concavity
o Inflection Point
• Finding the equation of a cubic function
o 𝑥-intercepts given
o Turning points given
o Derivative given

Applications of Calculus
4. Applications of Calculus
• Optimization (minima & maxima)

Exam Practice
5. Exam Practice

2
DIFFERENTIATION USING FIRST PRINCIPLES

The rate of change at a point

The derivative of a function simply means the rate of change at a certain point on our
function.

Let’s assume we have a random function, 𝑓(𝑥), as depicted below:

𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐴(𝑥; 𝑓 𝑥 )

On this function, we have a certain point called A (as seen above). If we want to know the
rate of change at point A, we first need to find another point on our function called B. We
then would need to calculate average gradient between point A and B.

Note: the coordinates of point A is (𝑥 ; 𝑓 𝑥 ). The 𝑥-value for B is at certain distance (𝒉) from
the 𝑥-value of point A, thus its 𝑥-coordinate for point B is 𝑥 + ℎ. The 𝑦-value for point B is the
value of the function at 𝑥 + ℎ thus the coordinates of point B is (𝑥 + ℎ ; 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)).

Plotting both points A and B we get:

𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐵(𝑥 + ℎ; 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ )

𝐴(𝑥; 𝑓 𝑥 )

Distance(𝒉)

3
Now that we have plotted our two points A and B, we can determine the average gradient
using this formula:

𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴
𝑚𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴

Substituting our coordinates for A and B we get:

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑥+ℎ −𝑥

Simplifying we get:
𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒉 − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒎𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝒉

This equation tells us the average rate of change of our function between any two points.

The average rate of change can be represented as the gradient of a straight line which passes
through points A and B as shown below:
𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

If we want to know what the rate of change at point A is, we simply decrease the distance, ℎ,
between our two points and continue to do so until our distance gets infinitely closer to zero.
At this point our different points will be so close together, that the straight line that passes
through them will become a tangent to the function 𝑓(𝑥).

𝒚
𝒇(𝒙)

Note: the distance between

points A and B NEVER
reaches zero, it just gets
closer and closer to zero
𝑨 forever ... that’s how cool
infinity is!

4
 The gradient of our tangent now represents the rate of change at our point A.

Remember: the rate of change at a particular point is called our derivative. We also can
represent our derivative of our function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝒇′(𝒙).

This therefore means that the first derivative of our function can be represented as:

𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒉 − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

Note: The limit when ℎ approaches zero simply refers to the fact that the distance
between our two point is becoming very very very small, getting closer and closer to zero.

Determining the first derivative using first principles

Now that we know the equation that is used to determine the derivative using first
principles, we can look at how we use this formula.

Consider the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 where we need to determine the first derivative, 𝑓′(𝑥),
using first principles.

We know that the formula is:

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

First, determine 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) and 𝑓 𝑥 :

𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 5

𝑓 𝑥+ℎ =3 𝑥+ℎ +5

Then we substitute into the formula for 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 :

3 𝑥 + ℎ + 5 − (3𝑥 + 5)
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

We then simplify:

3𝑥 + 3ℎ + 5 − 3𝑥 − 5
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

5
When simplifying, our goal should be to get rid of the ℎ in our denominator:

3𝑥 + 3ℎ + 5 − 3𝑥 − 5
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

3ℎ
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim 3
ℎ→0

∴ 𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝟑

Now let’s consider the function 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖 and determine the first derivative, 𝑔’(𝑥),
using first principals.
𝑔 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

We then determine 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ):

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 8

𝑔 𝑥+ℎ = 𝑥+ℎ 2 +8

We substitute and then simplify:

𝑥+ℎ 2 + 8 − (𝑥 2 + 8)
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 8 − 𝑥 2 − 8
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ) Note: always try to find

𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim a way to cancel out ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ
from the denominator
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim 2𝑥 + ℎ
ℎ→0

Once we see that our ℎ in the denominator has been cancelled out, we substitute ℎ = 0 to
determine 𝑔’(𝑥).

Therefore:
𝑔′ 𝑥 = lim 2𝑥 + ℎ sub ℎ = 0
ℎ→0

∴ 𝒈′ 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙

6
Practice Problem:
𝟑
Given the function 𝒇 𝒙 = , find 𝑓′(𝑥) using first principles.
𝒙

Solution:

We know the formula for our derivative is:

𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒉 − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

We substitute into our formula and simplify:

𝟑 𝟑
−
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒉 𝒙
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

𝟑𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝒉
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 ÷𝒉
𝒉→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙+𝒉

𝑎 𝑚 𝑎 𝑛
Remember: ÷ = ×
𝑏 𝑛 𝑏 𝑚

𝟑𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟑𝒉 𝟏
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 ×
𝒉→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙+𝒉 𝒉

𝟑𝒉
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒉→𝟎 𝒙𝒉(𝒙 + 𝒉)

𝟑
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒉→𝟎 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒉)

Once we have cancelled out our ℎ from the denominator we then substitute ℎ = 0.

𝟑
𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒃 𝒉 = 𝟎
𝒉→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒉

𝟑
𝒇′ 𝒙 =
𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟎)

Therefore:
𝟑
𝒇′ 𝒙 =
𝒙𝟐

7
DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Laws of Differentiation and Notation

NOTATION
Below are the different ways in which can represent the derivative of a function.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
[𝑓 𝑡 ] 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑦′ 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓 𝑥 ] 𝐷𝑘 [𝑓 𝑘 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
LAWS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Law Example

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Derivative of a constant is ZERO 𝒌 =𝟎 𝟓𝝅𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝒎 𝑑 𝟑
𝒙 = 𝒎𝒙𝒎−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝒅 𝒎 𝑑
𝒂𝒙𝒎 = 𝒂 𝒙 𝟓𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑥

Exponent Law 𝑑 𝒎 𝑑 𝟔
𝒙 + 𝒙𝒏 𝒕 + 𝟓𝒕𝟑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝒎 𝑑 𝑛 𝑑 𝟔 𝑑
= 𝒙 + 𝑥 = 𝒕 + 𝟓𝒕𝟑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 𝒎𝒙𝒎−𝟏 + 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟔𝒕𝟓 + 𝟏𝟓𝒕𝟐

THE SECOND DERIVATIVE

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Notation = 𝒇′′ 𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒚′′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝒚′ = 𝟑𝒙𝟐
Example 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑
𝒚′′ = 𝟔𝒙

NB: when applying the laws of differentiation, it is important to first convert all your terms into
exponent form and to remove any terms from your denominator. 8
Practice Problem:
Find the first derivative of the following functions:

5
1. 𝑦= 3
𝑥+ − 5𝑅3
𝑥

5𝑥2−3𝑥4
2. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

𝑑
3. [15𝑒 2𝜋 + 12𝑡 2 ]
𝑑𝑡

Solution:

1. First convert into exponent form and then take the derivative:

𝟓
𝒚= 𝟑
𝒙+ − 𝟓𝑹𝟑 Remember:
𝒙
1
𝟏 𝑛
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑛
𝒚= 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟓𝒙−𝟏 − 𝟓𝑹𝟑
1
𝟏 −𝟐 𝑘 −𝑛 =
∴ 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙−𝟐 𝑘𝑛
𝟑

2. Convert our 𝑥 in the denominator into exponent form:

𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙𝟒
𝒇 𝒙 =
𝒙

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙−𝟏 𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙𝟒

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙𝟑

∴ 𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝟓 − 𝟗𝒙𝟐

3. We are taking the derivative with respect to 𝑡. So instead of using a 𝑥, we are using 𝑡,
however our method for differentiating remains the same.

𝒅
𝟏𝟓𝒆𝟐𝝅 + 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕

= 𝟎 + 𝟐𝟒𝒕
Note: you need to take the
derivative with respect to 𝑡.
This means that anything = 𝟐𝟒𝒕
that doesn’t have a 𝑡
becomes a constant.

9
Tangent to a Curve
We are given the function, 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔 which has a tangent at the point 𝐊(𝟒; 𝟒𝟐).
Refer to the diagram below:
𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

K(4; 42)

Let’s determine the equation of our tangent in the form of 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Note: the gradient of the tangent is the derivative of the function, 𝑓(𝑥), at the point 𝐾(4; 42).

If a tangent intersects a function, 𝑓(𝑥), at the point (𝒂; 𝒃), then:

𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝒇′(𝒂)

Therefore:
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 5

𝑓 ′ 4 = 13

∴ 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝟏𝟑

The equation of our straight line is now:

𝑦 = 𝟏𝟑𝑥 + 𝑐

To find 𝑐, we substitute the coordinates for 𝐾.

𝑦 = 13𝑥 + 𝑐 sub 𝐾(4; 42)

42 = 13 4 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −10

Therefore, the equation of our tangent is:

∴ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎
10
Practice Problem:
The equation of a straight line is 𝑦 = 𝟗𝑥 + 𝑘. For which value(s) of 𝑘 will our straight line
become a tangent to the function 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 14 ?

Solution:
Remember:

If a tangent intersects a function, 𝑓(𝑥), at the point (𝒂; 𝒃), then:

𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝒇′(𝒂)

We can therefore deduce that:

𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟗

𝒈′ 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓

We solve for 𝑥 to determine the point of intersection of our function and tangent:

𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝒈′(𝒙)

𝟗 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓

𝟒 = 𝟐𝒙

𝒙 = 𝟐.

We can then determine our 𝑦-intercept by substituting our value for 𝑥 into 𝑔 𝑥

𝒈 𝟐 =𝟎

Therefore, our point of intersection is 𝟐; 𝟎

We can now solve of 𝑘 by using the point of intersection:

𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙 + 𝒌 𝐬𝐮𝐛 𝟐; 𝟎

𝟎=𝟗 𝟐 +𝒌

∴ 𝒌 = −𝟏𝟖

11
CUBIC FUNCTIONS

Standard Form and Factorization

In Gr 12 calculus we are introduced to the cubic function where we will be required to

understand and interpret the function.

The standard form of a cubic function is:

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅

Our priority is to first understand how to factorize a cubic function. The easiest way to factorize
a cubic function is to use the method of synthetic division.

Let’s assume we must factorize the following cubic function:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 12

First, we substitute any number into our equation starting from ±1; ±2; ±3 … until we get a
zero.
𝑓 1 = 1 3 + 3 1 2 − 4 1 − 12 = −12

𝑓 −1 = −1 3 + 3 −1 − 4 −1 − 12 = −12

𝒇 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟑 +𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟒 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎

This means the factors of our cubic polynomial (so far) is:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)

Now we can use our method of synthetic division to find our remaining factor.

We draw the following table:

2 1 3 -4 -12
The coefficients of
The number which 𝑓(𝑥), i.e. the numbers
made 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 in font of the 𝑥.

First, we drop our first number inside our table to the bottom of the table ass seen below:

2 1 3 -4 -12

1
12
Once we have dropped down the 1 to the bottom of our table, we then multiply our number
at the bottom of the table with the number outside our table on the lefthand side (i.e., the
number 2). We then place the product of these two numbers under the second number of
our table:

2 1 3 -4 -12
2

× 1

Now that our product is under the second number in the table and add both numbers:

2 1 3 -4 -12
2

1 5

We repeat the process by multiplying the number outside table with the answer that we got
in the previous step. We then place the product of these two numbers under third number in
our table. We then take the sum of the two numbers. We repeat the steps for the fourth
number:

2 1 3 -4 -12
2 10

1 5 6
×

2 1 3 -4 -12
You must ALWAYS
2 10 12 get ZERO as your
last number.
1 5 6 0
×

The numbers at the bottom of our table are the coefficients for our second factor.

Therefore, the factors of our function is:

𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝟏𝑥 2 + 𝟓𝑥 + 𝟔)

Factorizing the second factor we see that the factorized form of our function is:

𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟑)

13
Practice Problem:
Factorize the following cubic functions:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 + 6

Solution:
1. First find a value of 𝑥 which makes our 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 and then solve using synthetic
division:

𝒇 −𝟏 = 𝟎

∴ 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟔)
-1 1 2 -5 -6
-1 -1 6

1 1 -6 0 ∴ 𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟐)

2. Let’s first write the equation which INCLUDES our 𝒙𝟐 .

𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟔

Once we have included 𝑥 2 we can factorize using the same method:

𝒈 𝟑 =𝟎

∴ 𝒈 𝒙 = (𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄)

3 1 0 -11 6
3 9 -6 ∴ 𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐)

1 3 -2 0

14
Parts of a cubic function

To understand the important parts of a cubic function, let’s first look a summary of a cubic
function below:

General Equation:
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅

𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 )

𝒂>𝟎 𝒂<𝟎

𝒚 𝒚

𝒙 𝒙

Domain {𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ ℝ}

Range {𝒚: 𝒚 ∈ ℝ}

Turning Points:
Consider the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒙.

This function will have TWO turning points, a maximum and a minimum. Refer to the graph
below:
𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

Local maximum 𝐴

𝒙
𝐵 Local minimum

15
Both points A and B are the turning points of 𝑓 𝑥 and if we were to draw a tangent line
through both points A and B, the line would be horizontal. The gradient of these tangent lines
would be zero. This means that our first derivative would also be zero.

𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝟎 at TURNING POINT

Let’s determine the turning points of our function 𝑓(𝑥).

Given:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥

We first determine the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9

Set 𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝟎 and solve for 𝑥

3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

𝑥−3 𝑥−1 =0

∴ 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 3

We substitute our values for 𝑥 into 𝑓(𝑥) to determine the 𝑦 values of our turning points.

𝑓 1 =4

𝑓 3 =0

Therefore, our turning points are (𝟏; 𝟒) and 𝟑; 𝟎 .

We can now plot these two turning points on our function:

𝒚 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐴(1; 4)

𝒙
𝐵(3; 0)

16
Concavity :
Concavity refers to the change in gradient as we move from left to right on our 𝑥-axis. If the
graph is concave down, it means our gradient decreases as 𝑥 increases. Concave up means
that our gradient of the curve increases as the 𝑥-values increase.

Refer to the diagram below:

Concave Down Concave up

To determine concavity of a function we need to refer to the second derivative. Concave

down occurs when the second derivative is negative and concave up occurs when the
second derivative is positive.

Concave up: 𝒇′′ 𝒙 > 𝟎

Concave down: 𝒇′′ 𝒙 < 𝟎

Consider the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒙. Determine the value(s) for 𝑥 where our
function is (a) concave down and (b) concave down.

(a) First determine the second derivative:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 − 12

For concave up:

𝒇′′ 𝒙 > 𝟎

6𝑥 − 12 > 0

6𝑥 > 12

∴𝒙>𝟐

17
(b) We first determine the second derivative:

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 − 12

For concave down:

𝒇′′ 𝒙 < 𝟎

6𝑥 − 12 < 0

6𝑥 < 12

∴ 𝒙 < 𝟏𝟐

Inflection Point:
The inflection point is the part of our function where we change from concave up to concave
down and visa versa. This is the part of the function where our second derivative is zero.

Inflection Point: 𝒇′′ 𝒙 = 𝟎

The inflection point is also the midpoint between the two turning points.

Consider the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒙. Determine the point of inflection.

First determine 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 :

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9

𝒇′′ 𝒙 = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐

Set 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑥

6𝑥 − 12 = 0

∴𝑥=2

We determine our 𝑦 values by substituting the value for 𝑥 into our function 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑓 2 =2

Therefore, the point of inflection is (𝟐; 𝟐).

18
Practice Problem:
Consider the function 𝒈 𝒙 = −𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐. Determine the following:

(a) The turning points of 𝑔.

(b) The inflection point of 𝑔.
(c) The value(s) of 𝑥 where the function is concave up.
(d) The value(s) of 𝑥 where the function is concave down.
(e) Sketch the function 𝑔, indicating the turning points as well as the inflection point.

Solution:

(a) We first need to determine the first derivative:

𝒈 𝒙 = −𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐

𝒈′ 𝒙 = −𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙

Set 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and solve for 𝑥:

−𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 = 𝟎

−𝟑𝒙 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟎

∴ 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐

Substitute the values for 𝑥 into 𝑔(𝑥) to determine the 𝑦-values:

𝒈 𝟎 =𝟐

𝒈 𝟐 =𝟔

Therefore, the turning points of the function is 𝟎; 𝟐 and (𝟐; 𝟔).

(b) We first determine 𝑔′′(𝑥):

𝒈′ 𝒙 = −𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙

𝒈′′ 𝒙 = −𝟔𝒙 + 𝟔

Set 𝑔′′ 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑥:

−𝟔𝒙 + 𝟔 = 𝟎

−𝟔𝒙 = −𝟔

∴𝒙=𝟏

Substitute into 𝑔(𝑥):

𝒈 𝟏 =𝟒

Therefore, the inflection point is (𝟏; 𝟒)

19
(c) For concave up:
𝒇′′ 𝒙 > 𝟎

−𝟔𝒙 + 𝟔 > 𝟎

−𝟔𝒙 > −𝟔

∴𝒙<𝟏

(d) For concave down:

𝒇′′ 𝒙 < 𝟎

−𝟔𝒙 − 𝟔 < 𝟎

−𝟔𝒙 < −𝟔

∴𝒙>𝟏

(e) From the equation for 𝑔(𝑥) we know 𝒂 < 𝟎 , thus it will make a backwards “N” (refer to
page 16). We have also determined the Turning points and the Inflection point.

Plotting the points we get:

(2; 6)

(1; 4)

(0; 2)
𝒙

20
Finding the Equation of a Cubic Function

X-intercepts Given:
Consider the following graph below and determine the equation of the function.

−1
𝒙
2

We have been given the 𝑥-intercepts so we can use the following equation:

𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑

Substituting the values of the 𝑥-intercepts we get:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2)

𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 2

To solve for 𝑎, we substitute ANY OTHER POINT.

𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 2 sub 0; 2

2 = 𝑎 1 −2 2

4𝑎 = 2

1
𝑎=
2
1 2
𝑦= 𝑥+1 𝑥−2
2

The equation of our function therefore is:

𝟏 𝟑
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

21
Turning Points Given:
We are given the graph of the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 with turning points (−𝟏; 𝟐)
𝟏 𝟓𝟎
and (− ; ) provided below. Determine the equation of the function, 𝑓(𝑥).
𝟑 𝟐𝟕
𝒚

(−1; 2)

1 50
− ;
3 27
𝒙

We first find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Remember 𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝟎 at BOTH turning points. We also know the 𝑥-values for both our
turning points which means we can substitute them into 𝑓′(𝑥)

𝟏 𝟓𝟎
For point − ; For point −𝟏; 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐𝟕

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
1 2 1 2
3 − + 2𝑏 +𝑐 =0 3 −1 + 2𝑏 −1 + 𝑐 = 0
3 3

𝟏 𝟐
− 𝐛+ 𝐜=𝟎 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐛 + 𝐜 = 𝟎
𝟑 𝟑

We then use simultaneous equations to solve for 𝑏 and 𝑐

1 2
− 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 3 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐
3 3

2 1
𝑏 − = 2𝑏 − 3
3 3

8 4
= 𝑏
3 3

∴𝒃=𝟐
Solving for 𝑐 we get

𝒄=𝟏

22
Now that we know the values of 𝑏 and 𝑐, our equation would look like this:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑑

To determine 𝑑, we substitute any point given to us on the function

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑑 sub (−𝟏; 𝟐)

2 = −1 3 + 2 −1 2 + −1 + 𝑑

𝒅=𝟐

Therefore, the equation of our function is:

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟐

Derivative of function is given.

The graph below is the graph of 𝑓′(𝑥) , the derivative of the function
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝟖 determine the equation of the function 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝒚
𝒇′(𝒙)

𝒙
−3 1

−6

We first find the equation of the parabola, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 , using this equation:

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) sub (𝟎; −𝟔)

−6 = 𝑎 0 + 3 0 − 1

𝒂=𝟐

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1

𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟔

23
We now find the first derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 8

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

The equation our first derivative above should match the equation of our parabola
calculated on the previous page.

This means that we should equate the coefficients with each other.

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝟑𝒂𝑥 2 + 𝟐𝒃𝑥 + 𝒄

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝟐𝑥 2 + 𝟒𝑥 − 𝟔

Therefore:
3𝑎 = 2

𝟐
𝒂=
𝟑

2𝑏 = 4

𝒃=𝟐

𝒄 = −𝟔

The equation of the function therefore is:

𝟐
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖
𝟑

Note: If we were to plot both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓′(𝑥) on the same set of axis, we can see that the 𝑥-
coordinates of our turning points for 𝑓 matches the 𝑥-intercepts of 𝑓 ′ :

𝒇(𝒙)
(−3; 26)
𝒚 𝒇′(𝒙)

2
(1; 4 )
3

−3 1 𝒙

24
 APPLICATIONS OF CALCULUS

Optimization (minima & maxima)

Assume we have rectangular piece of cardboard which is to be folded to form an open box.
To be able to fold the box, a square is cut out on each corner of the box with the side being
𝑥 cm. The length of the box must be 64cm and the width must be 24cm. Determine the
maximum value for 𝑥 so that the volume of the box is a maximum.

Refer to the diagram below:

First, determine the equation for volume for our shape provided:

𝑽 = 𝒍𝒃𝒉

We now determine what the length and breadth of our shape is

𝑙 = 64 − 2𝑥

𝑏 = 24 − 2𝑥

The height of our box once folded would be ℎ = 𝑥.

The volume of our shape is thus

𝑉 = 𝑥 24 − 2𝑥 64 − 2𝑥

Expanding our equation, we get

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 176𝑥 2 + 1563𝑥

25
The equation above represents a cubic function, and the turning points of this function will
represent the maximum volume of our box as well as the minimum volume of our box.

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

Maximum volume

Minimum volume

Therefore, to determine the values for 𝑥 where our box would be a maximum, we need to
determine our turning points!

We first find the first derivative:

𝑉 ′ = 12𝑥 2 − 352𝑥 + 1536

We then set 𝑽′ = 𝟎 and solve for 𝑥:

12𝑥 2 − 352𝑥 + 1536 = 0

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

−(−352) ± (−352)2 −4(12)(1536)

𝑥=
2(12)

∴ 𝑥 = 24 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑟 5.33 𝑐𝑚

We can thus deduce that to obtain a maximum volume for our box our value for 𝑥 must be
5.33cm.

26
Let’s assume we have a cone with a radius, 𝑟, and a vertical height of ℎ. The slant height of
the cone is 12cm. What value must ℎ be to ensure our shape has a maximum volume?

Refer to the diagram below:

𝟏𝟐 cm
𝒉

We first determine the volume of our cone:

1
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3

We can see from our equation above that we have two unknown values, ℎ and 𝑟 2 . However,
we can manipulate 𝑟 2 so that we can represent it in terms of ℎ.

We can do this as our radius, height and slant height all form a right-angled triangle:

𝒉 𝟏𝟐 cm

𝒓
Using the Pythagorean theorem, get that:

122 = ℎ2 + 𝑟 2

∴ 𝑟 2 = 144 − ℎ2

Therefore, the volume of our cone can be represented as:

1
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋 144 − ℎ2 ℎ
3

27
We can now expand our equation:

1
𝑉 = 𝜋 144ℎ − ℎ3
3

1
∴ 𝑉 = 48𝜋ℎ − 𝜋ℎ3
3

Now determine the first derivative

𝑉 ′ = 48𝜋 − 𝜋ℎ2

Set 𝑽′ = 𝟎
48𝜋 − 𝜋ℎ2 = 0

48 = ℎ2

ℎ = ±4 3 𝑏𝑢𝑡 ℎ ≥ 0

∴ ℎ = 4 3 𝑐𝑚

Therefore, to ensure that the volume of our cone is a maximum, the height, ℎ, needs to be
𝟒 𝟑 cm or about 6.93 cm.

Practice Problem:
The diagram below shows the plan for a granny flat which is to be built onto the corner of a
cottage. A railing ABCDE is to be constructed around the four edges of the granny flat. It is
given that 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑫𝑬 = 𝒙 and 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑪𝑫 = 𝒚 , and the length of the railing around the
granny flat must be 30 meters.

Calculate the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 for which the veranda will have a maximum area.

C 𝒚 D

𝒙
Granny flat

𝒚 E
F

Cottage

B 𝒙 A

28
Solution:
We first need to determine the length of EF and AF:

𝑬𝑭 = 𝑨𝑭 = 𝒚 − 𝒙

First determine the equation for the area of our granny flat:

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 − 𝑨𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚 − 𝒙 𝟐

Now we need to determine 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦. Remember the length of ABCDE is 30 m which

means:
𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙

𝟐𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝒚

𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓 − 𝒚

We now substitute into our equation:

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒚𝟐 − (𝒚 − 𝟏𝟓 − 𝒚 )

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = −𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟔𝟎𝒚 + 𝟐𝟐𝟓

We find the first derivative:

𝑨′ = −𝟔𝒚 + 𝟔𝟎

Set 𝑨′ = 𝟎 and solve for 𝑦

−𝟔𝒚 + 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎

𝟔𝒚 = 𝟔𝟎

∴ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎

We then solve for 𝑥

𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓 − 𝒚

∴𝒙=𝟓

29
EXAM PRACTICE FOR CALCULUS

NSC – June 2025 Paper 1

Question 8
1
8.1 Determine 𝑓′(𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓 𝑥 = . (5)
𝑥

8.2 Determine:

𝑑
8.2.1 [ 4𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 2 ] (3)
𝑑𝑥

3𝑥4−4𝑥2+6
8.2.1 𝑔′(𝑥) if 𝑔 𝑥 = (3)
𝑥2

8.3 The equation of the tangent to 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 at 𝑥 = 1 is given by 𝑦 = 9𝑥 − 9.

Determine the values of 𝑏 and 𝑐. (4)

[15]

Question 9

The graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 − 5 is drawn below. E(-1;0) and G(5;0) are the 𝑥-

intercepts of 𝑓.
𝒚

𝐄 𝐆
𝒙
−1 𝐎 5

𝑓(𝑥)

9.1 Show that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑐 = −9 (3)

9.2 Calculate the value for 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) has a local minimum value. (4)

30
9.3 Use the graph to determine the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 . 𝑓 𝑥 > 0 (3)

9.4 For which values of 𝑡 will the graph of 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑡 have two distinct positive roots
and one negative root? (3)

[13]

Question 10

EHGF is a rectangle. HE is produced 𝑥 2 cm to N and EH is produced 𝑥 2 cm to P. NF produced

intersects PG produced at M to form an isosceles triangle MNP with NM=MP. D lies on NP where
MP ⊥ NM. D lies on MD where MD ⊥ NP. NP = 4cm and MD = 3 cm.

Refer to the diagram below:

F G

𝑥2 𝑥2
N E D H P

4 𝑐𝑚

10.1 Show that the area of EFGH is given by 𝐴 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 4 . (4)

10.2 Calculate the maximum area of rectangle EFGH. (4)

[8]

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31
 NSC – November 2024 Paper 1

Question 7

7.1 Determine 𝑓′(𝑥) from first principles if it is given that 𝑓 𝑥 = 4 − 7𝑥 (4)

𝑑𝑦
7.2 Determine if 𝑦 = 4𝑥 8 + 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

7.3 Given: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎

𝑑𝑦
7.3.1 (1)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
7.3.2 (2)
𝑑𝑎

12
7.4 The curve with the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + passes through the point A(2;𝑏).
𝑥
Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at A. (4)

[14]

Question 8

After flying a short distance, an insect came to rest on a wall. Thereafter the insect started
crawling on the wall. The path that the insect crawled can be described by:

ℎ 𝑡 = (𝑡 − 6)(−2𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 − 6)

Where ℎ is the height (in cm) above the floor and 𝑡 is the time (in minutes) since the insect started
crawling.

8.1 At what height above the floor did the insect start crawling? (1)

8.2 How many times did the insect reach the floor? (3)

8.3 Determine the maximum height that the insect reached above the floor. (4)

[8]

32
Question 10

Given: 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3

9.1 Solve 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥) (3)

9.2 The graphs 𝑓, 𝑓′, 𝑓′′ all pass through the point (0; 0)

9.2.1 For which of the graphs will (0; 0) be a stationary point? (1)

9.2.2 Explain the difference, if any, in the stationary points referred to in 9.2.1. (2)

9.3 Determine the vertical distance between graphs of 𝑓′ and 𝑓′′ at 𝑥 = 1. (3)

9.4 For which value(s) of 𝑥 is 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0? (4)

[13]

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33