Fundamental of Photonics 26th , Nov.

楊承山 教授, Prof. Chan-Shan Yang

相關內容僅用於課堂封閉使用
INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND
METALS (CONTINUED)

Conduction
Band

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Overlap Band More Band
Gap Gap

Valence
Band

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

 Valence Band:

• “The band formed by series of energy levels containing valence electron is

called Valence Band”.
• It may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons.

Conduction Band:
• “The Band formed by energy values of free electron that have broken their
covalent bonds is called Conduction band”.

• Conduction band is the next permitted energy band.

• It may be empty or partially filled with electrons.

Forbidden energy Gap

• The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is called the
Forbidden energy gap or Forbidden Band or Band gap.
• This band is formed by series of non permitted energy levels above the top of
valence band and below the bottom of conduction band.
• Energy gap is denoted by Eg and it is the amount of energy supplied, to excite
the electron from valence band to conduction band. It is measured in eV.
 Position of Fermi Energy and Consequences

conduction band

+ +
valence band

Metal Semiconductor Isolator

Above Fermi Energy are Fermi Energy is within The band gap in isolator
enough free states for The band gap. For T>0 K, is big. No ‘free’ electron can be
electrons. They can some electrons are in In the condition band .
gain energy and move. conduction band and “free”. No current is possible
We have current in Metals. Holes are “free”

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Classification of solid: On the basis of energy band diagram

Insulator

• Material which do not conduct current is called insulator.

• C.B. and V.B. separates with large energy gap, which is greater than
5 eV.
 Semiconductor

• Materials which have conductivity lies between

insulator and conductor are called
Semiconductor.
• Energy gap is small and it is of the order of 1eV.
 Conductor

• Material which conduct current is called

Conductor
• As valence band overlaps with conduction
band, energy gap is zero
• If an electric field is applied to this solid,
electrons in the V.B. have easy asses to move in
C.B. and current flows through material.
Types of Semiconductor

• Intrinsic Semiconductor: Chemically pure

semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor.
• Extrinsic Semiconductor: Semiconductor doped
with some external impurity are called Extrinsic
semiconductor.
• Doping: It is the Process of adding impurities into
an intrinsic semiconductor .
Intrinsic Semiconductor(Si):

Fig. A Fig. B

 Fig. A- Two dimensional representation of Si crystal

 Fig. B- The Band Structure View

 Potential energy

Potential Energy ~ - +

Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 11

The nuclei in the lattice are positive charged and we have an attraction force between
the positive nuclei and negative charged electrons. If we move the electrons along the
Electrical field with an external force, which is opposite to the internal field,
we increase the potential energy of the electrons in the field.

E – Field
of nucleus

+ +
+ ++ + Direction
In crystal
Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 12
Negative electrons increase energy if we move them up in the conductive band.
Positive charged holes increase the potential energy if we move them down in the Valence band

At Edges of Conduction Band and Valence Band:

Electrons or Holes have no kinetic energy, no velocity

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Fermi level & Fermi Energy

• For conductor: The highest occupied energy level at

0ok is called Fermi level and the Energy
corresponding to it is called the Fermi Energy.
• For semiconductor: Fermi level is the reference
energy level and it correspond to the center of
gravity of conduction electron and valence hole.
Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
1
f (E ) 
E  E F
1  exp( )
kT
• f(E) is the function that gives the probability that particular
energy level having energy E is occupied by an electron at
Temperature T0 Kelvin. Where EF is the Fermi energy, k is
Boltzmann's constant.
• For conductor: The highest occupied energy level at 0K is called
Fermi level and the Energy corresponding to it is called the Fermi
Energy.
• For semiconductor: Fermi level is the reference energy level and
it correspond to the center of gravity of conduction electron and
valence hole.
 Nature of particles requires different statistics

BOLTZMANN – Statistic: Particle are capable of being differentiated

BOSE – Statistic: Particle are NOT capable of being differentiated

Fermi – Statistic: Particle are NOT capable of being differentiated and

only one particle is allowed to take a certain condition

Example (next page) :

2 particles should be distributed to 4 possible states with the same energy.
N= 2 (particle) , g = 4 (states with same energy)

How many possibilities do we get for the 3 different Statistics ?

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Energy Ei : gi states , Ni particle are distributes on gi states
Assumptions:
∑ 𝑁𝑖 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡= E ; ∑ 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

Thermal Equilibrium State:

Particle distribution according to the highest probability, P

P  maximum of probability
S = K ln (P ) , Entropy S get maximum because of P
 Calculation of Entropy for different particle types gives statistic distribution

Boltzmann

Probability P (E) Bose

Fermi

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Probability to find an electron within Energy E + dE

Fermi Function

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 Probability to find an electron within Energy E + dE

Fermi Function
Important about the Fermi Energy : Definition of Fermi Energy
At T= 0 , Fermi Energy is max Energy. All States below Fermi Energy are occupied, f (E<=EF)=1
At T>0, at Fermi Energy the probability to find a Fermion (electron). f(E=EF ) = ½ , 50%
Note, to be exact:
in Physics and Theory of Heat, the Fermi Energy for T > 0 K is called “Chemical Potential”.
In our course we call also for T > 0 the Energy with 50% probability the Fermi Energy.

Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 19

 Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Fermi-level

Density of states tells us how many states exist at a given energy E. The Fermi
function f(E) specifies how many of the existing states at the energy E will be
filled with electrons. The function f(E) specifies, under equilibrium conditions,
the probability that an available state at an energy E will be occupied by an
electron. It is a probability distribution function.

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 1023 J/K =
8.6  105 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K

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 Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T  0 K
1
For E > EF : f ( E  EF )   0
1  exp ()

1 ∞
For E < EF : f ( E  EF )   1
1  exp ()

For Energy E < = Fermi Energy

the probability to find a electron
with this energy is 1.
For Energy > Fermi Energy we
will find no electron.
Probability = 0

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 Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T > 0 K

𝟏
If E = EF then f(EF) = for all temperatures
𝟐
   E  EF 
If E E F 3kT then exp    1
 kT 
  ( E  EF ) 
Thus the following approximation is valid: f ( E )  exp  
 kT 
Maxwell - Boltzmann
i.e., most states at energies 3kT above EF are empty.

 E  EF 
If E  EF  3kT then exp    1
 kT 
 E  EF 
f ( E )  1  exp  
Thus the following approximation is valid:  kT 

Mathematics: = 1 – x, if x << 1, x =
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Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 23
Fermi Dirac Distribution and Maxwell – Boltzmann Distribution
  ( E  EF ) 
f ( E )  exp  
 kT 

For E > EF +3KT

Maxwell – Boltzmann
is good enough to get
• kT (at 300 K) = 0.025eV (25 meV) , 3KT = 0.075eV (75 meV) the probability
• In comparison to Eg(Si) = 1.1eV,
• 3kT is very small in comparison to band gap

Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 24

 T >0

EF – 3KT

EF + 3KT

For Energies +- 3KT around EF Fermi Dirac Function can be described

with Maxwell Boltzmann Probability Function
3KT = 75meV at 300K
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 Equilibrium distribution of carriers

Distribution of carriers = DOS probability of occupancy

= g(E) f(E)

(where DOS = Density of states)

Total number of electrons in CB (conduction band) =

E top
CB
E top Ec
n0   g C ( E ) f ( E ) dE
EC
Ev
VB
E bottom
Total number of holes in VB (valence band) =
EV
p0   g V ( E ) 1  f ( E )  dE
EBottom

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 Equilibrium distribution of carriers

Distribution of carriers = DOS probability of occupancy

= g(E) f(E)

(where DOS = Density of states)

Total number of electrons in CB (conduction band) =

E top
CB
E top Ec
n0   g C ( E ) f ( E ) dE
EC
Ev
VB
E bottom
Total number of holes in VB (valence band) =
EV
p0   g V ( E ) 1  f ( E )  dE
EBottom

Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 29

 intrinsic

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor, no doping

𝐄𝐜 𝐄𝐯
= Ei ~ 𝟐

𝐄𝐜 𝐄𝐯 𝟏 𝐄𝐜 𝐄𝐯
𝐍𝐜
EF = Ei = - K T ln ( ) 𝟐 ~
𝟐 𝐍𝐯 𝟐

If mass of electron and holes would be equal, EF or Ei would be in the middle of Gap.
Ei is slightly below the middle of the gap, because Nc > Nv,

Dr. Wolfgang Ploss, Studien Material, 2022 31

Semiconductor, ni and pn Product

𝟏
(𝑬𝒈/𝑲𝑻)
ni = 𝐍𝐯 𝐍𝐜 𝒆 𝟐

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N-type Semiconductor:

Two dimensional representation The Band Structure View

• Semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurity (P,As)

are called N-type semiconductor.
• As pentavalent impurity atom donate free electrons it is
called Donor impurity.
• Donor impurities “create” an energy level, close to the
conduction band & represented by ED .
P-type Semiconductor:

Two dimensional representation The Band Structure View

• Semiconductors doped with trivalent impurity (Al, B) are
called P-type semiconductor.
• As trivalent impurity accept free electrons, so we call them
Acceptors.
• Acceptor impurities “create” discrete energy level, close to
the valence band & represented by EA .
 Effect of temperature on Fermi Function

The above diagram represents variation of f(E) as a function of temperature.

All the curves pass through cross-over point C corresponding to f(E) =1/2.
 Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor

Conduction band
m*h>m*e

Energy
m*h = m*e
m*h < m*e
Valence band

Temperature
• At T=0K the number of electrons in conduction band equals
the number of holes in valence band, ne = nh = ni .
Fermi level lies in the middle of the band gap.
• At T≠ 0 K, it depends upon the effective mass of electron and
hole.
 Eg  *
3 m
E f     kT ln e
*
 2  4 m h
Fermi level in p-type semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram of n-type semiconductor at 0K and 300K

• The number of holes in valence band are greater than

number of electrons in conduction band, nh > ne
• So the Fermi level shift towards the valence band.
• With temperature fermi level shifts towards Efi .,
Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram of p-type semiconductor at 0K and 300K

• The number of electrons in conduction band are greater

than number of holes in valence band, ne > nh
• So the Fermi level shift towards the conduction band .
• With temperature Fermi level shifts towards the EFi
 Variation of Fermi level with impurity
concentration in n-type semiconductor:
E

Conduction band Conduction band Conduction band

EC

EF
ED

Eg
Eg Eg
EV
Valence band Valence band ValenceEband
g

Impurity Concentration
Fig: (a) Fig: (b) Fig: (c)

Fig. (a): At low impurity concentration

Fig. (b): At moderate impurity concentration
Fig. (c): At high impurity concentration
Doping and conduction
DOPING AND CONDUCTION
 To make semiconductors better conductors, add
impurities (dopants) to contribute extra electrons
or extra holes

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 elements with 5 outer electrons contribute an
extra electron to the lattice (donor dopant)
 elements with 3 outer electrons accept an
electron from the silicon (acceptor dopant)
DOPING AND CONDUCTION CONTINUED...
 Phosphorus and arsenic are donor dopants
 if phosphorus is introduced into the silicon lattice,
there is an extra electron “free” to move around and
contribute to electric current
 very loosely bound to atom and can easily jump to
conduction band
 produces n type silicon

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 sometimes use + symbol to indicate heavier doping, so n+
silicon
 phosphorus becomes positive ion after giving up
electron
DOPING AND CONDUCTION CONTINUED…
 Boron has 3 electrons in its outer shell, so it contributes a
hole if it displaces a silicon atom
 boron is an acceptor dopant

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 yields p type silicon
 boron becomes negative ion after accepting an electron
DIFFUSION OF DOPANTS
Top
 It is also possible to introduce view
dopants into silicon by heating
them so they diffuse into the silicon
 no new silicon is added

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 high heat causes diffusion
 Can be done with constant
concentration in atmosphere
 close to straight line
concentration gradient
 Or with constant number of atoms
per unit area Side
 predeposition view
 bell-shaped gradient
 Diffusion causes spreading of doped
areas
DIFFUSION OF DOPANTS (CONTINUED)

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Concentration of dopant in
surrounding atmosphere kept Dopant deposited on
constant per unit volume surface - constant
amount per unit area
ION IMPLANTATION OF DOPANTS
 One way to reduce the spreading found with
diffusion is to use ion implantation
 also gives better uniformity of dopant

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 yields faster devices
 lower temperature process
 Ions are accelerated from 5 Kev to 10 Mev and
directed at silicon
 higher energy gives greater depth penetration
 total dose is measured by flux
 number of ions per cm
2

 typically 1012 per cm2 - 1016 per cm2

 Flux is over entire surface of silicon
 use masks to cover areas where implantation
is not wanted
 Heat afterward to work into crystal lattice
HOLE AND ELECTRON CONCENTRATIONS
 To produce reasonable levels of conduction
doesn’t require much doping
 silicon has about 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3

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 typical dopant levels are about 1015
atoms/cm3
 In undoped (intrinsic) silicon, the number of
holes and number of free electrons is equal,
and their product equals a constant
 actually, ni increases with increasing
temperature

 This equation holds true for doped silicon as

well, so increasing the number of free
electrons decreases the number of holes
 There are two types of doping
DOPING N-type and P-type.

The N in N-type stands for negative.

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A column V ion is inserted.
The extra valence electron is free to
move about the lattice

The P in P-type stands for positive.

A column III ion is inserted.
Electrons from the surrounding
Silicon move to fill the “hole.”
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CURRENT
Drift Current

Drift current: The current due to (motion) drifting of

charge carrier under application of electric field is
called Drift Current.
 Drift current density is given by

J e ( drift )  n e e E

J h ( drift )  p e h E

Where  e ,  h are the constants called mobility

of electrons and holes respectively.

J ( drift )  J e
( drift )  J h
( drift )
Diffusion current
• Diffusion current: The directional movement of charge
carriers due to concentration gradient is called Diffusion
Current.
• Diffusion current density due to electron is given by
dn
J e ( diffusion )  eD e
dx

• Diffusion current density due to hole is given by

dp
J h ( diffusion )   e D h
dx

Where De and Dh are the diffusion coefficient for electron and

hole respectively.
J ( diffusion )  J e ( diffusion )  J h ( diffusion )
Conductivity of semiconductor

• Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor:

σi = ni e( μe + μh)
• Conductivity of Extrinsic semiconductor:

For n – type semiconductor:

σn = n e μ e = N D e μ e
For p – type semiconductor:
σp = p e μh = NA e μh
Where ND and NA are the concentration of donor and
acceptor impurity.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

• The Extrinsic Semiconductors are those in which

impurities of large quantity are present. Usually,
the impurities can be either 3rd group elements or
5th group elements.

• Based on the impurities present in the Extrinsic

Semiconductors, they are classified into two
categories.
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors
N-type Semiconductor

Free electron

Si

Si P Si

Si Impure atom
(Donor)
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E Ed
Donor levels
Eg
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Distance
 P-type Semiconductor

Hole
Co-Valent
bonds Si

Si In Si

Si

Impure atom
(acceptor)
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E

Electron Eg
energy Acceptor levels
Ea
Ev

Valence band

distance
 Drift Current
The moment of electron in the presence of
electric field.
Then current J  E
density J
 
E
Then conductivity nev d
  .........( 1)
E
vd
As we know that mobility of  
E
electrons.
v d   n E ........( 2 )
Substitute the drift velocity value in
equation 1

  ne n
J n ( drift )  ne n E
In case of semiconductor, the drift current density
due to holes is given by

J ( drift )  p  eE
P p

Then the total drift current density

J ( drift )  J ( drift )  J ( drift )

n p
  n n eE  p p eE
J ( drift )  eE ( n   p  )
n p

J ( drift )
 ( drift )   en   ep 
E
n p

For an intrinsic Semiconductor, n = p = ni, then

 (drift)  n e(   )
i i n p
Diffusion:
Due to non-uniform carrier concentration in a
semiconductor, the charge carriers moves from a
region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. This process is known as
diffusion of charge carriers.
 Diffusion of charge carriers

x
Drifting of
charge
carriers

Diffusion of charge carriers in a

Semiconductor
Let Δn be the excess of electron concentration.
Then according to Fick’s law, the rate of
diffusion of electrons

 (n)

x
(n)
  Dn
x
Where Dn is the diffusion of electrons, the
diffusion current density due to electrons is
given by Jn(diffusion)


  e[  D n (  n )]
x

 eD n (n)
x

The diffusion current density due to holes


J P ( diffusion )   e[  D p (  p )]
x


  eD p (p )
x
The total current density due to electrons is
the sum of the current densities due to drift
and diffusion of electrons

J n  J n (drift )  J n (diffusion)

J n  ne  n E  eDn ( n )
x
Similarly

J p  pe  p E  eD p ( p )
x
 Formation of PN – Junction
When a P-type Semiconductor is joined together
with an N-type Semiconductor a PN junction is
formed. And it is also known as a Semiconductor
Diode.
Semiconductor diodes are widely used in
Rectifiers which converts input AC signal into
DC output signal.
 Diode Symbol

N P

Cathode Anode

_
+
 Ionized donors
Junction
P N
- - + +
- - + +
- - + +
- - + +
Space charge region
(OR)
Depletion region

Potential barrier(V0)

Potential barrier width

(W)
 P-N JUNCTION – FORWARD BIAS
 positive voltage placed on p-type material
 holes in p-type move away from positive terminal, electrons in n-
type move further from negative terminal
depletion region becomes smaller - resistance of device decreases

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

 voltage increased until critical voltage is reached, depletion

region disappears, current can flow freely
 Forward bias

Potential barrier
V

P-region N-region
+
+
+
+

Acceptor ions Donor ions

Depletion Layer
 Reverse bias
Potential barrier
V

P-region N-region
+
+
+
+

Acceptor ions Donor ions

Depletion Layer
P-N JUNCTION – REVERSE BIAS
 positive voltage placed on n-type material
 electrons in n-type move closer to positive terminal,
holes in p-type move closer to negative terminal

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 width of depletion region increases
 allowed current is essentially zero (small “drift” current)

Depletion layer width

Increses
No current Flow
 DIODES CAN BE
CONSIDERED AS SWITCH
BIASING THE P-N DIODE

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Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Applies - voltage Applies + voltage to
to the n region n region and –
and + voltage to voltage to p region
the p region
NO CURRENT
CURRENT!
 Depletion Region & Space Charge
The diffusing majority carriers from the two regions
recombine near the junction and disappear.

The uncompensated Acceptor and Donor ions set up an

Electric field which halts majority carrier Diffusion and
causes minority carrier Drift.

The two kinds of majority carriers diffusing across the

junction meet each other near the junction and undergo
recombination's, leaving negative ions on the P-side and
positive ions on the N-side of the junction.

This distribution of Positive and Negative Charges is

called Space charge.
 Energy level diagram
Depletion region
E
PN - junction

eVB Conduction band

Ec

Ec
EFp
EFn
Ev Fermi level

Valence band
Ev
eVB

P N
 V - I Characteristics of PN Junction

The diode can be operated in two different ways, as Forward

and Reverse bias.

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type

& negative terminal is to the N-type of the PN-junction diode,
known the diode is kept in forward bias.

When negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-

type & positive terminal is to the N-type of the PN-junction
diode, known the diode is kept in reverse bias.
 I
Current Forward Current

Knee Voltage
Reverse Bias V

Forward Bias

Reverse
break down
current
P-N JUNCTION - V-I CHARACTERISTICS
Voltage-Current relationship for a p-n junction (diode)

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 Light emitting diodes
LED’ s are the most visible type of diode, that emits a
fairly visible colored light, invisible infra-red or laser
type light when a forward current is passed through
them.
Principle:
Basically LED are made from a very thin layer of fairly
heavily doped semiconductor material.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from
conduction band combine with holes from in valence
band, releasing sufficient energy to produce photons of
light.
 E  h
c
E h


Anode Cathode
+
_

Cathode
Current

V
A Rectifier is an electronic circuit which
converts alternating current to direct current
(OR) unidirectional current.

Rectifiers are mainly three types

1.Half wave rectifiers
2.Full wave rectifiers
3.Bridge rectifiers
An electronic circuit which converts
alternating voltage (OR) current for
half the period of input cycle hence
it is named as half-wave rectifier.
 Half – Wave Rectifier

A.C Input

rf

RL
Pulsated
D .C Output
B
transformer
The ratio of D.C power output to applied A.C
power input is known as rectifier efficiency.
An electronic circuit which converts
alternating voltage (OR) current into
pulsating voltage (OR) current during
both half cycle of input is known as
full-wave rectifier.
 Full Wave Rectifier

A
rf

rf
B

RL D .C Output
Center tapped
transformer
The ratio of D.C power output to applied A.C
power input is known as rectifier efficiency.
 Consider Intrinsic Semiconductor
Electron Concentration Holes Concentration

2mekT 2
3
EF  Ec 2mekT 32 EV  EF
n2 ( 2
) exp( ) p2 ( 2
) exp( )
h kT h kT
EF  Ec E  EF
n  N C exp( ).........(1) p  N v exp( V ).......(2)
kT kT
2m kT 3
2mhkT 32
Where N C  2 ( e
) 2 Where N v  2 ( 2
)
h 2 h
Equation 1 & 2 holds good for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
under Thermal equilibrium condition.
 Hall Effect
When a Magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current
Carrying Conductor or Semiconductor, Voltage is developed
across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and the Magnetic field.

This phenomenon is called the Hall effect and voltage so

developed is called the Hall voltage.

Let us consider, a thin rectangular slab carrying Current in

the X-direction. If we place it in a Magnetic field B which is
in the y-direction.

Potential difference Vpq will develop between the faces p and

q which are perpendicular to the z-direction.
 Z

-
_ _ _ _ P_ _
VH
+ Y

_
_ _ _ _
_ _Q_ _ __
B
_

X
N – type Semiconductor
i
 Magnetic deflecting force

F  q(vd  B)
Hall eclectic deflecting force

F  qE H
When an equilibrium is reached, the Magnetic deflecting
force on the charge carriers are balanced by the electric
forces due to electric Field.

q (vd  B )  qE H
E H  (vd  B )
Where v d is drift velo city
Integrated Circuit

https://o-ring.info/en/industries/semiconductor-industry/

94
Integrated Photonics (Si Photonics)

https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=580298533&rlz=1C1SQJL_zh-
95
TWUS797TW797&sxsrf=AM9HkKkeQRublVTgSB9UiYtU9Eles_fsrQ:1699400989999&q=%E7%9F%BD%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&tbm=isch&source=lnms
&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjV0NuCirOCAxXbdvUHHcswDKIQ0pQJegQICxAB&biw=1080&bih=1771&dpr=1#imgrc=OHmlcYa9bqh0HM
https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Has_Silicon_Photonics_Finally_Found_Its_Killer/a69704
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
矽光子擬製作及整合的元件

國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
 Silicon Photonics (Co-Packaged Optics)

國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
98
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
 Silicon Photonics for LiDAR (Focal plane array)

國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
 Wearable Healthcare Modules

國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
國立臺灣師大 光電所 楊承山教授實驗室 Prof. Chan-Shan Yang, National Taiwan Normal University
超快奈米紅外至太赫茲半導體實驗室 Ultrafast and Nanoscale Infrared-to-Terahertz Semiconductor Lab
 Figure, Table, part of words from Fundamentals of Photonics, Saleh, Wiley

Dipole Moment Polarization of Dielectric

The electric dipole moment for a pair of
opposite charges of magnitude q is defined
as the magnitude of the charge times
the distance between them and the
defined direction is toward the positive
charge. It is a useful concept in atoms and
molecules where the effects of charge
separation are measurable, but the
distances between the charges are too
small to be easily measurable. Parallel Plate with Dielectric
Macroscopic:
P   0 E
Microscopic:

108
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/dipole.html
Wave Equation
Propagation in homogeneous, isotropic, non-conductivity (=0),
source free (r=o, J=0) dielectric medium

: Phase velocity
v 1  in the medium

109
Figure, Table, part of words from Fundamentals of Photonics, Saleh, Wiley
 Phase matching

c-axis

 n

Light polarized normal to c-axis: high refractive index

 can choose any angle  , still same index
 c-axis


n

Light polarized along c-axis: low refractive index

 different index for different angles 
Suppose n2 > n

c-axis c-axis c-axis

k k k

n2
n2
  
n

n

Field partially If 2 light has

Field normal to c-axis component // c-axis
parallel to c-axis
 phase matching possible
 Linear Optics vs Non Linear Optics
 Linear optics- ‘Optics of weak light’:
Light is deflected or delayed but its frequency is
unchanged.
Superposition principle holds

 Non-Linear optics-‘Optics of intense light’:

We are concerned with the effects that light itself induces
as it propagates through the medium.
Superposition principle not valid
In Linear optics

A light wave acts on a molecule,

which vibrates and then emits
its own light wave that interferes
with the original light wave.
In Non-Linear Optics

If irradiance is high enough

vibrations at all frequencies
corresponding to all energy
differences between populated
states are produced.
OPTICS – LIGHT & MATTER INTERACTION

Nonlinear optics (NLO) is the study of

interaction of intense laser light with
matter.
NLO sample

input output
 Light Matter interaction

E2 E2
h h

E1
E1 Spontaneous
Absorption Emission
 Stimulated Emission

E2
h h h

E1

Stimulated
Emission
m
Properties of Laser Beam
A laser beam
•Is intense
•Is Coherent Optical power density
•Has a very low
divergence

Focused laser beam E ~ 1010 V/m

How does optical nonlinearity
arise

The strength of the electric e

field of the light wave should h a0
be in the range of atomic
fields N

Eat  e / a 2
0

a0   / me
2 2

Eat  2 10 V/m10

 Optical Nonlinearity
 Applied Electric field distorts the cloud and displace
the electron
 Compare this with mass on a spring
 Separation of charges gives rise to a dipole moment
 Dipole moment per unit volume is called the
polarisation

+ ++= --
F= - kx

E
 How nonlinearity arise
When electromagnetic waves propagate in a material, the atoms and molecules
oscillate at the frequencies of the electric field associated with waves. The field
associated with these EM waves polarizes the molecules in the medium,
displacing them from their equilibrium positions and induces a dipole moment,
p, given by

p=qd
q is the electric charge and d is the field induced displacement.
The polarization P, i.e. the dipole moment per unit volume, resulting from this
induced dipole is given by P= ϵ χ E
0
P=Nqd
N is the electron density in the medium.

The polarizing effect of the field on the molecular dipoles depends both on the
properties of the medium and on the field strength E.
When the intensity of

Output
the incident light to a
material system
increases the response of
medium is no longer
?
linear
P=Nqd

Input intensity
 Like loaded spring

F= -kx

P= ϵ0 χ E

P   0   (1) E   (2) E 2   (3) E 3  ...

E = Eo cosωt
1.Permanent Polarization
2.First order Polarization
3.Second order Polarization
4.Third Order Polarization
Nonlinear polarization

 Linear medium: low field intensity

D  0E  P P  0  E D    E   r 0 E

Linear polarization  r  1 

 Nonlinear medium: high field intensity

D  0E  P P   0   E   ( 2 )  E 2   ( 3)  E 3  ...  PL  PNL

Nonlinear polarization

Pi   0  ij  E j  2 Dijk  E j E k  4  ijkl E j E k E l  ...  PL  PNL

Linear 2nd order 3rd order i, j, k = x, y, z
susceptibility nonlinear nonlinear Summation over
tensor susceptibility susceptibility repeated indices
tensor tensor
Sum frequency generation (SFG)
Difference frequency generation
(DFG)
 2nd order optical nonlinearity SHG Laser emission

 Start with two beams ω = ω1

and ω = ω2
Sum frequency Pump laser
 SFG: ω3 = ω1 + ω2 , k3 = k1 + k2
 DFG: ω3 = ω1 - ω2 , k3 = k1 - k2
 SFG/DFG for photodetection
 Use a 1060 nm laser to convert 10
μm mid-infrared radiation to 960
nm near-infrared radiation that
can be handled by low-cost
detectors
 Introduction to nonlinear optics…
Sum frequency generation
Example of second order nonlinear optical effects

2
 3 = 1+2
1

SHG, THG and higher harmonic generation

 Second harmonic generation (SHG): two photons of
frequency  yield one of frequency 2.
P (2 ) ε 0   
(2)
(2 ; ,  ) E  ( ) E ( )
 ,
  ( 2 ; ,  ) : symmetric under interchange of  and .
(2)

A Chemist view of
nonlinear optics

Chemist
 Phase matching condition
• Only when 2k1 = k2 will SHG be efficient
– n(λ1) = n(λ2)
~ 100% SHG conversion
2k1 = k2
efficiency is possible by
optimizing phase matching!

2k1 ≠ k2

• General rule for parametric processes

– SHG, SFG/DFG, THG, FWM
– momentum conservation
 Applications:

• Optical phase conjugation

• Optical parametric oscillators
• Optical computing
• Optical switching
• Optical data storage
Second Harmonic Generation
2
  ( 2)


Common SHG materials

 800 nm: BBO

 806 nm: lithium iodate (LiIO3)
 860 nm: potassium niobate (KNbO3)
 980 nm: KNbO3
 1064 nm: monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4, KDP),
lithium triborate (LBO) and β-barium borate (BBO)
 1300 nm: gallium selenide (GaSe)
 1319 nm: KNbO3, BBO, KDP, potassium titanyl phosphate
(KTP), lithium niobate (LiNbO3), LiIO3, and ammonium
dihydrogen phosphate (ADP)
 1550 nm: potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP), lithium
niobate (LiNbO3)
Third Harmonic generation

 
 ( 3)

3
 OPTICAL MIXING

E = E1 cosω1t +E2 cosω2t

P ( 2 )   ( 2) ( E1 cos 1t  E 2 cos  2 t ) 2

cos(  1   2 ) & cos(  1   2 )

Sum Frequency Generation

2 2
 ( 2)  3  1   2
1 1
2
3
1
Difference Frequency Generation

2 2
 ( 2)  3  1   2
1
1
2
1
3
FOCUSING OF LIGHT BY LENS

focus
Refractive Index with Intensity
P   0  L
E   0  3
E 3


n 
0

D  E   0 E  P

 (  0 (1   L
)   0 (3) 2
E )E
  0 (1   )  0 E
L 3 2

 3
n  (1   ) (1 
L 1/ 2 2 1/ 2
E )
1  L

 n 0  n 2E 2
0
Nonlinear Refractive Index

n  n0  n2 I

n0 c 12 2 ( 3)
where I | E ( ) |2 n2  2 
2 n0 c
Fundamental of Photonics 19th , Nov.

楊承山 教授, Prof. Chan-Shan Yang

以下內容僅用於課堂封閉使用
The birth of ultrafast technology

Bar bet: Do all four

hooves of a galloping
horse ever
simultaneously leave
the ground?
Leland Stanford Eadweard Muybridge

The “Galloping Horse”

Controversy
Palo Alto, CA 1872

Time resolution:
1/60th of a second
Ultrafast optics vs. electronics
–6
10

Time resolution (seconds)

–9
10
Electronics

–12
10

Optics
–15
10

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

No one expects electronics to ever catch up.

The metric system
We’ll need to really know the metric system because the pulses are
incredibly short and the powers and intensities can be incredibly high.

Prefixes:

Small Big

Milli (m) 10-3 Kilo (k) 10+3

Micro (µ) 10-6 Mega (M) 10+6
Nano (n) 10-9 Giga (G) 10+9
Pico (p) 10-12 Tera (T) 10+12
Femto (f) 10-15 Peta (P) 10+15
Atto (a) 10-18 Exta (E) 10+18
 Timescales
It’s routine to generate pulses < 1 picosecond (10-12 s).
Researchers generate pulses a few femtoseconds (10-15 s) long.

Computer Camera One Age of Human existence

10 fs light clock cycle flash month pyramids
pulse 1 minute Age of universe

10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018
Time (seconds)
1 femtosecond 1 picosecond

Such a pulse is to one minute as one minute is to the age of the

universe.

Such a pulse is to one second as 5 cents is to the US national debt.

Strobe photography
“How to Make
Apple sauce
at MIT”
1964
Harold
Edgerton
MIT, 1942

“Splash on a
Glass”
Junior High
School
student
1996

Time resolution: a few microseconds

Ultrafast lasers
Shortest Pulse Duration (fs) The electric field
Active mode of a 4.5-fs pulse
locking
1000
Passive mode locking

Electric field
100 Colliding pulse
mode locking
Intra-cavity pulse
10 Ti-Sapphire compression
-20 0 20
Time (fs)
'65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '95
Year

Current record:
4.0 fsec
Ultrafast Baltuska, et al. 2001
Ti:sapphire
laser Reports of attosecond
pulses, too!
 National Ignition Facility (under construction)
Even higher
intensities!

192 shaped pulses; 1.8 MJ total energy

Nova
Continuous vs. ultrashort pulses of light
A constant and a delta-function are a Fourier-Transform pair.

Irradiance vs. time Spectrum

Continuous beam:

time frequency

Ultrashort pulse:

time frequency
 Long vs. short pulses of light
The uncertainty principle says that the product of the temporal
and spectral pulse widths is greater than ~1.

Irradiance vs. time Spectrum

Long pulse

time frequency

Short pulse

time frequency
Ultrafast laser media
Solid-state laser media have broad bandwidths and are convenient.
Laser power
A generic ultrashort-pulse laser
A generic ultrafast laser has a broadband gain medium, a pulse-
shortening device, and two or more mirrors:

Pulse-shortening devices include:

Saturable absorbers
Phase modulators
Dispersion compensators
Optical-Kerr media
Generating short pulses = “mode-locking”
Locking the phases of the laser frequencies yields an ultrashort pulse.
Group velocity dispersion (GVD)
broadens ultrashort laser pulses
Different frequencies travel at different group velocities in materials,
causing pulses to expand to highly "chirped" (frequency-swept) pulses.

Input Chirped output

ultrashort not-so-ultrashort
Any
pulse pulse
medium

Longer wavelengths almost always travel faster than shorter ones.

Pulse compressor
This device has negative group-velocity dispersion and hence can
compensate for propagation through materials (i.e., for positive chirp).

The longer wavelengths

traverse more glass.

It’s routine to stretch and then compress ultrashort pulses by factors

of >1000.
Continuum generation
Continuum Generation: focusing a
femtosecond pulse into a clear
medium turns the pulse white.

Generally, small-scale self-focusing occurs,

causing the beam to break up into
filaments.

Recently developed techniques involving optical fibers, hollow fibers,

and microstructure fibers produce very broadband continuum, over
500 THz (1000 nm) in spectral width!
We can shape ultrashort pulses.
 Multi-photon imaging
In multi-photon imaging, we focus an ultrashort pulse tightly into an
object and observe the multi-photon signal light.

F ~ I2
F = Two-photon
Fluorescence
energy

Images due to Chris Schaffer, UCSD

Ultrashort pulse lasers can precision
machine many materials.

100 m

Ceramics Metals

Diamond

Teeth Polymers High Explosives

Intralase performs vision-correction
surgery using fs lasers.

FDA approval is already in hand.

Actually, from the ruins, a new, more
realistic telecom industry will emerge,
and it will be ultrafast.
What is Terahertz Radiation (T-Ray, THz gap)

h[ev  s]  c[ ms ] 12.42 102 [ev  nm]

E[ev]= =  4.14[mev]
[nm] 300 10 [nm]
3

h: (4.14*10-15 ev∙s)

E [J] (4.1  10 3 )  (1.6  10 19 )[J]

T [K]    48[K ]
J  23 J
k b[ ] 1.38  10 [ ]
K K
kb: (1.38*10-23 J/K)
165
THz Properties:
1st : Very sensitive to water

David. F. Plusquellic, NIST THz medical and biological applications

 THz Properties:
2nd : Material identification
Liquid or LCs Semiconductor, or metal
ITO thin film (440.6 nm) Reference
J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 27(9 ) (2010) -4
6.0x10 Sample
4.0
0.48 n(fitting,Ref[4]) 10
-8

3.8 ne(fitting,Ref[4])
n(fitting,Ref[21]) 10
-9

3.6
no(fitting,Ref[4]) 0.44 n(fitting,Ref[5]) -4
4.0x10

THz field (a. u.)

-10
ne(data,Ref[4]) 10
n(data,Ref[5])

Power (a.u.)
3.4 no(data,Ref[4]) 0.40 n(data,Ref[5])
-11
10
ne(fitting,Ref[21]) n(data,Ref[5]) 440.6 nm -12
3.2 10
no(fitting,Ref[21]) 0.36 n(data,Ref[22-24]) -13
3.0 n(This work) -4 100.0 nm 10
ne(data,Ref[21])
no(data,Ref[21]) 0.32
2.0x10 -14
10
2.8
ne(data,Ref[22-24])
2.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
no(data,Ref[22-24]) 0.28

n
Frequency (THz)
2.4 ne(This work)
0.0
n

no(This work) 0.24

2.2
2.0 0.20
ne
1.8 0.16 -4
Transmission coefficient = 18%
1.6 -2.0x10
0.12
1.4 no 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1.2 0.08
Delay time (ps)
1.0 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10 10
3
10
4
10 10 10 10 10 10
Wavelength (m) Wavelength (m) C.-S. Yang, et al., IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 27, Accepted (2013) Chin. Phys. Lett. 26(11) (2009)

Nanomaterial
GaAs InN ZnO Nanomaterials Si Nanocrystal SnO2 Nanowire
Nanowires Nanorods

Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 163105 (2007) Phys. Rev. B 73, 193311 (2006)
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 45, 465101 (2012)
Nano Lett. 9(9) (2009)

J. Phys. Chem. B 110, (2006)

The binding energies of receptors, donors, and excitons in semiconductors,

as well as optical phonons and superconducting energy gaps, all overlap in
the terahertz frequency range. Other phenomena, such as electron-phonon
scattering and various tunneling mechanisms, mostly coincide with the
terahertz band in terms of energy or time scales."
Detection of abused drugs
MA, MDA, and MBDB IEEE Spec. Mat. Properties (2005)
Abused Drugs MDMA, and Methamphetamine Opt. Express (2003)
Cocaine, Heroin, Morphine Materialstoday 11 (2008)
THz Properties:
3rd : Penetration

THz security

codeburst
THz Properties
4th : High resolution (Temporal and Spatial)

Physics World
Generation of Terahertz Radiation - Type I (Optical
Antennas)
Generation of free-space THz pulses using ultrashort pulses
A fs pulse induces conductivity in a biased photoconductive switch.
photoconductive switch
femtosecond optical
beam

radiated THz wave

DC bias

femtosecond
laser pulse
J(t)
Radiated field:
photo-induced J
time E (t ) 
current J(t) t

radiated E(t)
time
Applications of Terahertz Detection Technology:
From Spectroscopic Techniques to Image Analysis.
光學式兆赫波光譜系統 (寬頻) 兆赫波即時影像系統 (單頻)

爆裂物檢測 藥品檢測 半導體檢測 工業檢測 行李掃描 人體掃描

材料光譜分
兆赫波光譜影 工業非破壞檢測 人體安檢
析 172
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Outline
What is Terahertz Radiation (T-Ray, THz gap)

Generation, Detection, and Reception of

Terahertz Radiation.

The Bottlenecks Encountered by Terahertz

Technology

The Encounter between Two-Dimensional

Materials and Terahertz Radiation

The Opportunities of Terahertz Radiation in 6G

and Biomedical Applications
 Ernst Abbe found
diffraction limit
in 1873

FRIEDRICH SCHILLER UNIVERSITÄT JENA, Credit by KaurJmeb

 The size of microorganisms

• Cell :10 um~20 um

• Yeast : ~4 um
• Bacteria : 100 nm ~ 1 um
• Virus : ~100 nm
• Protein : 10 nm~50 nm
What Living Things You Can See Under a Light Microscope?
Bence György et al, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. (2011) 68:2667–2688
Moreira., et al, Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics 68.4 (2007): 803-812.
N.I. Hulkoti et al, Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 121 (2014) 474–483 175
Outline
What is Terahertz Radiation (T-Ray, THz gap)

Generation, Detection, and Reception of

Terahertz Radiation.

The Bottlenecks Encountered by Terahertz

Technology

The Encounter between Two-Dimensional

Materials and Terahertz Radiation

The Opportunities of Terahertz Radiation in 6G

and Biomedical Applications
 What is the Surface Plasmon

Surface plasmon polaritons(SPPs) Localized surface plasmon resonance(LSPRs)

Metamaterial SPR biosensors Nanolasers

Zhanghua Han and Sergey I Bozhevolnyi, Rep. Prog. Phys., 76, 2013.
Lis, Dan, and Francesca Cecchet, Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 5.1 (2014): 2275-2292.[3]
Li, A. et al., Nanophotonics, 7(6), 2018, 989-1011. [4]
Ouyang, Q. et al., Scientific reports, 6(1), 2016, 1-13.
Chou, Y. H., Chou, ACS nano, 9(4), 2015 3978-3983.
177
Metamaterial

Metamaterials are artificial materials.

Permittivity (𝜀) and permeability (𝜇) are both
negative.
Based on Effective material theory (EMT),
designing the microstructures should be smaller than
the wavelength of incident radiation.

Frequency Region Terahertz Visible Light

Wavelength 3 mm-30 μm 400-800 nm

Process Photolithography E-beam

Cost Cheap Expensive

Metamaterials poised to disrupt 5G, autonomy, and connected vehicles, August 15, 2019 //By Rich Pell
Creating Artificial Response with Metamaterials, David R. Smith, Duke University.
178
2 dimensional structure material (2D material)
2 dimensional lattice structure
Lateral dimension um to cm, vertical dimensional one atomic or one molecule thick
Repeat unit with atomic thickness
 Introduction of Graphene
Graphitic Carbon Materials
E
Graphene (2D)

Graphite Fullerene C nanotube From wiki

 Introduction of Graphene

Electrical Thermal Youngs

Transparent Thickness
Conductivity Conductivity module

97.7 %
5 x103
in visible light 106 S/m 1.1 TPa 3.35 Å
W/m·K
region

[1] [2]
[1] Nada F. Atta et.al, “Graphene — A Platform for Sensor and Biosensor Applications: A Review” Biosensors (2015)
[2] D.S.L. Abergel et.al,” Properties of graphene: a theoretical perspective “,Advances in Physics, 59:4, 261-482 (2010)
181
Introduction of graphene

Graphene Band Structure of graphene

Graphene based transistor Graphene based sensor

Li, X. et al., Small, 12, 2016, 6640e6696.
Neto, A. C. et al. Reviews of modern physics, 81(1), 2009, 109
Yao, J. et al., Microchimica Acta, 186(6), 2019, 1-25.

182
 Physical properties of graphene

• It has high mobility, electrical and thermal conductivity, and mechanical strength.
• Electrical conductivity is tunable by gating, doping, and photoexcitation to change its
Fermi level.
• Especially graphene has great plasmonic response from mid to far infrared range.

-EF +EF

Conduction
band

Valence
band

Intrinsic P-type N-type

Samira Naghdi et al, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 805, 2019

Naresh Kumar Emani et al, Nanophotonics, 4, 2015, 214-223
https://harrickplasma.com/nitrogen-doped-graphene-by-plasma-treatment/ 183
(Electrical modulation) Frequency-dependent optical conductivity
of graphene

Fermi level
A B

119 meV 300 K

CNP 77 K
0.6 ps

P.Gallagher, CS Yang, et al., Science (2019).

 Terahertz Biomedical Sensor Integrated with Surface
Plasmon Resonance

(a) The schematic of bacteria (E. coli.) detection (b) A color-enhanced SEM image of metamaterials
in solution environment. coated by penicillia.

(c) THz transmission before and after the deposition of E. coli. On the functionalized metamaterials in aqueous environments.
(d) THz transmission before and after the deposition of E. coli. On the sensors without the surface functionalization.
Park, S. J., et al. "Detection of microorganisms using terahertz metamaterials." Scientific reports 4.1 (2014): 1-7. 186