St.

JOSEPH'S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI - 119

(An Autonomous Institution)
B.E./[Link]. DEGREE END SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS, APRIL/MAY 2025
Sixth Semester
Information Technology
IT 8602 Mobile Communication Key
(Regulations 2017)
Part-A
1. Compose a role which is played by Radio/Infrared signals in Mobile Computing.
Radio and infrared signals play crucial roles in mobile computing, enabling seamless
wireless communication and connectivity.
Role of Radio Signals - Cellular Networks, Wi-Fi Connectivity, Bluetooth Communication,
GPS Navigation.
Role of Infrared Signals - Data Transfer, Remote Control, Security Systems

2. Distinguish between Infrastructure-based Networks and Infrastructure-less Network.

Infrastructure mode - Devices on the network all communicate through a single access
point, which is generally the wireless router.
Infrastructure-less mode - It is also known as “peer-to-peer” mode. Ad-hoc networks
don’t require a centralized access point. Instead, devices on the wireless network connect
directly to each other.

3. Tabulate the services of GSM.

Bearer services, Tele Services and Supplementary services.

4. What are the ways GPRS is better than GSM.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) offers several advantages over GSM (Global System
for Mobile Communications), particularly in mobile data transmission. A few are Higher
Data Speed, Efficient Use of Network Resources, Always-On Connectivity, Cost Efficiency,
Better Support for Internet Applications.

5. What is the frequency range of WiFi?

Wi-Fi operates within two primary frequency ranges:
i. 2.4 GHz Band – Ranges from 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz
ii. 5 GHz Band – Ranges from 5.15 GHz to 5.825 GHz

6. What is Bluetooth Low Energy?

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is a wireless communication technology designed for energy-
efficient data exchange over short distances. It is an improvement over classic Bluetooth,
focusing on reducing power consumption while maintaining connectivity.
7. Distinguish proactive and reactive protocols.
Proactive protocols
i. Determine routes independent of traffic pattern
ii. Traditional link-state and distance-vector routing protocols are proactive
Examples: DSDV (Dynamic sequenced distance-vector), OLSR (Optimized Link State
Routing)
Reactive protocols
i. Maintain routes only if needed
Examples: DSR (Dynamic source routing), AODV (on-demand distance vector)

8. Write the characteristics of MANETS.

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are decentralized, self-configuring wireless networks
that operate without fixed infrastructure. The key characteristics are Dynamic Topology,
Self-Organizing & Autonomous, Multi-Hop Communication, Limited Resources, Security
Issues, Scalability Issues, Infrastructure-Less Operation.

9. What are the mechanisms of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) that influence the
efficiency of TCP in a mobile environment?
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) plays a vital role in reliable data communication, but
its efficiency can be impacted in mobile environments due to issues like network
variability and limited resources. The key mechanisms that influence its performance in
mobile settings are Slow Start and Congestion Control, Retransmission Timeout (RTO)
Adaptation, Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery, Selective Acknowledgment (SACK),
Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN), TCP Variants for Mobile Networks.

10. Interpret the use of HTTP and FTP.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) used primarily for web browsing, allowing users to
request and receive content from web servers.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Designed for file transfers between systems, allowing users to upload and download files
over a network.

Part – B

11a. Explain in detail the random assignment schemes that are used in CDMA
protocol. (13)
Random Assignment Schemes – ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
1. ALOHA
➢ Simple communication scheme developed at the university of Hawaii. Basic form is
called pure ALOHA scheme
 ➢ If a node has data to send, it begins to transmit. It does not check whether the channel
is busy before transmitting. If the frame successfully reaches the destination, the next
frame is sent
➢ If frame fails to be received, it is sent again. This scheme works acceptably when the
chances of contention are small. Collisions can become unacceptably high if the
number of contenders for transmission is high.

2. Slotted ALOHA
➢ Chances of collisions are attempted to be reduced by enforcing restrictions on
sender’s transmitting time. Time is divided into equal-sized slots in which a packet can
be sent. Size of the pkt is restricted.
➢ A node wanting to send a pkt, can start to do so only at the beginning of a slot
➢ Employs beacon signals that are sent at precise intervals that mark the beginning of a
slot, at which point the nodes having data to send can start to transmit. All senders
have to be synchronized and transmission can only start at the beginning of a time
slot.
➢ Does not work very well if the number of stations contending to send data is high.

3. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

A node senses the medium before starting to transmit. If it senses that some transmission is
underway, it defers its transmission. Sensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if
the carrier is idle decreases the probability of a collision.
But hidden terminals cannot be detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the same
time as another sender, a collision might occur at the receiver. This basic scheme is still
used in most wireless LANs
1-Persistent:
➢ In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately (with
probability 1). This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more
stations may find the line idle and send their frames immediately.
Non-persistent:
➢ In this method, a station that has a frame to send senses the line. If the line is idle, it
sends immediately. If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then
senses the line again.
➢ The non-persistent approach reduces the chance of collision because it is unlikely that
two or more stations will wait the same amount of time and retry to send
simultaneously.
➢ However, this method reduces the efficiency of the network because the medium
remains idle when there may be stations with frames to send.
p-Persistent:
➢ In this method, the channel has time slots with a slot duration equal to or greater than
the maximum propagation time. In this method, after the station finds the line idle it
follows these steps:
➢ With probability p, the station sends its frame.
➢ With probability q = 1 − p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time
slot and checks the line again.
- If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
- If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses
the back-off procedure.
Two popular extensions of the basic CSMA technique are CSMA/CD – Career Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection and CSMA/CA - Career Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance.
4. CSMA/CD – Career Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
➢ Sender starts to transmit if it senses the channel to be free. Even after sensing the
channel to be free, there can be a collision during transmission.
➢ This is because in wireless network, it is very difficult for a transmitting node to detect
a collision. Any received signal from other nodes would be too weak, compared to its
own signal and can easily be masked by noise.
➢ As result, a transmitting node would continue to transmit frame, and only the
destination node would notice the corrupted frame after it computes checksum. This
leads to retransmission and severe wastage of channel utilization.
➢ In a wired network when a node detects a collision, it immediately stops transmitting,
thereby minimizing channel wastage.
 ➢ During the time a node is transmitting, several nodes might be wanting to transmit.
These nodes would be monitoring the channel, waiting for it to become free.
➢ The moment the transmitting node completes its transmission, these waiting nodes
would sense the channel to be free, and would all start transmitting at the same time,
resulting in collision.

To overcome such collisions, in collision detection scheme, all nodes were forced to wait
for a random amount of time before sensing the medium again. If the medium is sensed
to be busy, a node waiting to transmit waits for a further random amount of time and so
on. Thus, the chance of 2 nodes starting to transmit at the same time would be greatly
reduced.
5. CSMA/CA - Career Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
➢ In this scheme, once a sender senses the medium to be free, transmits an RTS (Ready
To Send) packet to receiver before the actual data transmission. On receiving this, the
receiver sends a CTS (Clear To Send) packet, and the actual data transfer commences
only after that.
➢ When other nodes sharing the medium sense the CTS pkt, they refrain from
transmitting until the transmission from the sending node is complete. Every node
that hears the RTS and CTS messages defer their transmission during the specified
time period in order to avoid a collision.
The CSMA/CA scheme solves Hidden Terminal and Exposed Terminal problem:
➢ Before the start of its transmission, sender A sends a RTS. B receives the RTS that
contains the sender’s name and receiver’s name, length of the future transmission.
➢ In response to RTS, B sends CTS as acknowledgement. CTS contains the names of
sender and receiver and the length of the planned transmission. This CTS is heard by
C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the duration of the transmission.
➢ On receipt of CTS from B, C refrains from transmitting anything for the time indicated
in the CTS. Thus, collision cannot occur at B during data transmission, and the hidden
terminal problem is solved.
➢ On the other hand, if C wants to transmit to any other station D, it can freely do so
without waiting for the medium to become free. It learns from CTS that B is
communicating with some A and not to itself. Thus, the exposed terminal problem
also gets solved.
➢ If a packet (RTS / CTS) transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary
exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random interval of time before
retrying. The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might lead to
starvation of certain flows sometimes.
 ➢ Another problem of MACA is clearly the overheads associated with the RTS and CTS
transmissions – for short and time-critical data packets, this is not negligible.
6. Polling
Where one station is to be heard by all others (e.g., the base station of a mobile phone
network or any other dedicated station), polling schemes can be applied. Polling is a
strictly centralized scheme with one master station and several slave stations.
The master can poll the slaves according to many schemes: round robin or randomly or
according to reservations etc. The master could also establish a list of stations wishing to
transmit during a contention phase. After this phase, the station (master) polls each
station on the list.
11 b. Categorize and correlate the differences between TDMA< FDMA and CDMA.

Differences between FDMA, TDMA, CDMA.

12 a. (i) Explain the functions of authentication and encryption in GSM.

Authentication
➢ Before a subscriber can use any service from the GSM network, he or she must be
authenticated. Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual
authentication key Ki, the user identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for
authentication A3.
➢ Authentication uses a challenge-response method: the access control AC generates a
random number RAND as challenge, and the SIM within the MS answers with SRES
(signed response) as response.
➢ The AuC performs the basic generation of random values RAND, signed responses SRES,
and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this information to the HLR. The
current VLR requests the appropriate values for RAND, SRES, and Kc from the HLR.
➢ For authentication, the VLR sends the random value RAND to the SIM. Both sides, network
and subscriber module, pass these values to the authentication algorithm A3 to generate
SRES.
➢ The MS sends back the SRES generated by the SIM; the VLR can now compare both values.
If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise the subscriber is rejected.

Encryption
• To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in
GSM over the air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption
by applying the cipher key Kc.
• Kc is generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the algorithm
A8. The SIM in the MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based on the random
value RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface.
 ➢ MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the cipher key
Kc. The figure shows that Kc should be a 64-bit key – which is not very strong, but can
offer protection against simple eavesdropping.
12 a(ii) How a GSM network provides security to the customers?

GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AuC and
in the individual SIM. The SIM stores personal, secret data and is protected with a PIN
against unauthorized use. The security services offered by GSM are explained below:
➢ Access control and authentication: The first step includes the authentication of a valid
user for the SIM. The user needs a secret PIN to access the SIM. The next step is the
subscriber authentication. This step is based on a challenge-response scheme.
➢ Confidentiality: All user-related data is encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS apply
encryption to voice, data, and signaling. This confidentiality exists only between MS and
BTS, but it does not exist end-to-end or within the whole fixed GSM/telephone network.
➢ Anonymity: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and
user identifiers (which would reveal an identity) are not used over the air. Instead, GSM
transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is newly assigned by the VLR after each
location update. Additionally, the VLR can change the TMSI at any time.
13 a. Explain Bluetooth architecture and its working principles.

• Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. Bluetooth operates on 79 channels in the
2.4 GHz band with 1 MHz carrier spacing. Each device performs frequency hopping with
1,600 hops/s in a pseudo random fashion. Bluetooth applies FHSS for interference
mitigation.
• A Bluetooth piconet is a collection of Bluetooth devices which are synchronized to the
same hopping sequence. The below figure shows a collection of devices with different
roles.

• One device in the piconet can act as master (M), all other devices connected to the master
must act as slaves (S). The master determines the hopping pattern in the piconet and the
slaves have to synchronize to this pattern. Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern. If
a device wants to participate it has to synchronize to this pattern.

• Two additional types of devices are shown: parked devices (P) cannot actively participate
in the piconet (i.e., they do not have a connection), but are known and can be reactivated
within some milliseconds. Devices in stand-by (SB) do not participate in the piconet.

• Each piconet has exactly one master and up to seven simultaneous slaves. More than 200
devices can be parked. The reason for the upper limit of eight active devices, is the 3-bit
address used in Bluetooth.

• If a parked device wants to communicate and there are already seven active slaves, one
slave has to switch to park mode to allow the parked device to switch to active mode.

• The below figure gives an overview of the formation of a piconet. All active devices use
the same hopping sequence for getting synchronized.

• The first step involves a master sending its clock and device ID. All Bluetooth devices have
the same networking capabilities, i.e., they can be master or slave.

• There is no distinction between terminals and base stations, any two or more devices can
form a piconet. The unit establishing the piconet automatically becomes the master, all
other devices will be slaves.
 • The hopping pattern is determined by the device ID, a 48-bit worldwide unique identifier.
The phase in the hopping pattern is determined by the master’s clock.

• After adjusting its internal clock according to the master, a device may participate in the
piconet. All active devices are assigned a 3-bit active member address (AMA). All parked
devices use an 8-bit parked member address (PMA). Devices in stand-by do not need an
address.

• All users within one piconet have the same hopping sequence and share the same 1 MHz
channel. As more users join the piconet, the throughput per user drops quickly. This led
to the idea of forming groups of piconets called scatternet. Only those units that really
must exchange data share the same piconet, so that many piconets with overlapping
coverage can exist simultaneously.

13 b. Compare Bluetooth and WiFi in terms of working, range, speed and applications.
Bluetooth and WiFi are both wireless communication technologies, but they serve
different purposes and have distinct characteristics. Here’s a comparison based on
various factors:

Comparison of Bluetooth and WiFi:

Feature Bluetooth WiFi

Working Short-range wireless communication High-speed data transfer over larger
Principle using low-power radio waves distances via radio frequencies
 Feature Bluetooth WiFi
Up to 10–100 meters, depending on Typically, 30–300 meters, with better
Range
the version coverage in WiFi 6
Speed Bluetooth 5.3: up to 2 Mbps WiFi 6: up to 9.6 Gbps
Wireless peripherals (headphones, Internet access, streaming, gaming,
Applications
smartwatches, keyboards), IoT devices file transfers, smart home networks
Power Higher (requires more power for
Low (optimized for battery efficiency)
Consumption performance)
Point-to-point or small networks Supports local area networks (LANs),
Network Type
(Bluetooth mesh for IoT) allowing multiple devices to connect

Bluetooth is best for short-range, low-power connections, such as pairing devices like
headphones, speakers, and smartwatches.

WiFi is designed for high-speed internet access and works well for activities like
streaming, gaming, and large data transfers.

Bluetooth prioritizes energy efficiency, making it ideal for battery-powered devices.

WiFi offers higher bandwidth for more demanding applications, including home and
office networking.

14a. How would you analyze the challenges and advantages of Mobile IP in ensuring seamless
mobility while maintaining IP connectivity?
IP packet delivery
• The below figure illustrates packet delivery to and from the MN.
 CN to MN:
1. A correspondent node CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN. CN does not need to
know anything about the MN’s current location and sends the packet as usual to the IP
address of MN. The CN will be source and MN will be the destination address.
The internet routes the packet to the router responsible for the home network of MN
using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet.
2. The HA now intercepts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home network.
The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and tunneled to
the COA.
A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new destination and
HA as source of the encapsulated packet
3. The foreign agent now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional header, and
forwards the original packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN. The
MN receives the packet with the same sender and receiver address as it would have done
in the home network.
MN to CN:
4. The MN sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CN’s address
as destination. The router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet in
the same way as it would do for any other node in the foreign network.
Agent discovery
• One initial problem of an MN after moving is how to find a foreign agent. The MN needs
to know that it has moved. Mobile IP provides two solutions: agent advertisement and
agent solicitation.
Agent advertisement
• The foreign agents and home agents advertise their presence periodically using special
agent advertisement messages. These advertisement messages (ICMP packets) can be
seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet.
• The agent advertisement packet with the extension for mobility is shown in figure. The
upper part represents the ICMP packet while the lower part is the extension needed for
mobility.
• Mobile nodes must be reached with the appropriate link layer address. The TTL field of
the IP packet is set to 1 for all advertisements to avoid forwarding them.
• The IP destination address according to standard router advertisements can be either set
to [Link], which is the multicast address for all systems on a link, or to the broadcast
address [Link].
14 b (i). Illustrate DSR routing in detail.
Dynamic Source Routing

• When only some user data has to be transmitted in DSDV, the nodes exchange routing
information to keep track of the topology. Routes between all the nodes are always
maintained, although there may currently be no data exchange at all. This causes
unnecessary traffic and prevents nodes from saving battery power.
Dynamic source routing (DSR) divides the task of routing into two separate problems:
Route discovery: A node only tries to discover a route to a destination only if it has to send
something to this destination and there is currently no known route.
➢ Route maintenance: If a node is continuously sending packets via a route, it has to make
sure that the route is held upright. As soon as a node detects problems with the current
route, it has to find an alternative.
Dynamic source routing eliminates all periodic routing updates and works as follows:
• If a node needs to discover a route, it broadcasts a route request with a unique identifier
and the destination address as parameters. Any node that receives a route request does
the following:
➢ If the node has already received the request (which is identified using the unique
identifier), it drops the request packet.
➢ If the node recognizes its own address as the destination, the request has reached its
target.
➢ Otherwise, the node appends its own address to a list of traversed hops in the packet and
broadcasts this updated route request.
➢ Using this approach, the route request collects a list of addresses representing a possible
path on its way towards the destination. As soon as the request reaches the destination,
it can return the request packet containing the list to the initiator in reverse order.
➢ One condition for this is that the links work bi-directionally. If this is not the case, and the
destination node does not currently maintain a route back to the initiator of the request,
it has to start a route discovery by itself.
➢ The destination may receive several lists containing different paths from the initiator. It
could return the best path, the first path, or several paths to offer the initiator a choice.
14 b(ii) Show the working of DSDV routing in detail.
Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)
• DSDV routing is an enhancement to distance vector routing for ad-hoc networks. Distance
vector routing is used as routing information protocol (RIP) in wired networks. It performs
extremely poorly with certain network changes due to the count-to-infinity problem.
• The strategies to avoid this problem which are used in fixed networks do not help in the
case of wireless ad-hoc networks, due to the rapidly changing topology. This might create
loops or unreachable regions within the network. DSDV now adds two things to the
distance vector algorithm:
• Sequence numbers: Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number. Within
ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many paths. Sequence numbers
help to apply the advertisements in correct order. This avoids the loops.
• Damping: Advertisements containing changes in the topology currently stored, are not
forwarded immediately. A node waits without forwarding as these changes may be
probably unstable. Waiting time depends on the time between the first and the best
announcement of a path to a certain destination.
• The routing table for N1 in figure would be as shown in the table below:
• For each node N1 stores the next hop toward this node, the metric (number of hops), the
sequence number of the last advertisement for this node, and the time at which the path
has been installed first. The table contains flags and a settling time helping to decide when
the path can be assumed stable.

• Router advertisements from N1 now contain data from the first, third, and fourth column:
destination address, metric, and sequence number. Besides being loop-free at all times,
DSDV has low memory requirements and a quick convergence via triggered updates.
15 a. Analyze the problems of HTTP van WSP solve? Why are these solutions especially needed
in wireless mobile environments?
• The wireless session protocol (WSP) has been designed to operate on top of the
datagram service WDP or the transaction service WTP. For both types, security can be
inserted using the WTLS security layer if required.
• WSP provides a shared state between a client and a server to optimize content transfer.
WSP tries to replace the stateless HTTP protocol. Client users can continue to work from
where they left the browser or when the network was interrupted, or users can get their
customized environment every time they start the browser.
• Content providers can customize their pages to clients’ needs and do not have to
retransmit the same pages over and over again. WSP offers the following general features
needed for content exchange between cooperating clients and servers:
1. Session management: WSP introduces sessions that can be established from a client to
a server and may be long lived. Sessions can also be released in an orderly manner. The
capabilities of suspending and resuming a session are important to mobile applications.
Session lifetime is independent of transport connection lifetime or continuous operation
of a bearer network.
2. Capability negotiation: Clients and servers can agree upon a common level of protocol
functionality during session establishment. Example parameters to negotiate are
maximum client SDU size, maximum outstanding requests, protocol options, and server
SDU size.
3. Content encoding: WSP also defines the efficient binary encoding for the content it
transfers. WSP offers content typing and composite objects.
 • While WSP is a general-purpose session protocol, WAP has specified the wireless session
protocol/browsing (WSP/B) which comprises protocols and services most suited for
browsing-type applications.
• In addition to the general features of WSP, WSP/B offers the following features adapted
to web browsing:
1. HTTP/1.1 functionality: WSP/B supports the functions HTTP/1.1 offers, such as extensible
request/reply methods, composite objects, and content type negotiation. WSP/B is a
binary form of HTTP/1.1.
HTTP/1.1 content headers are used to define content type, character set encoding,
languages etc., but binary encodings are defined for well-known headers to reduce
protocol overheads.
2. Exchange of session headers: Client and server can exchange request/reply headers that
remain constant over the lifetime of the session. These headers may include content
types, character sets, languages, device capabilities, and other static parameters. WSP/B
will not interpret header information but passes all headers directly to service users.
3. Push and pull data transfer: Pulling data from a server is the traditional mechanism of
the web. This is also supported by WSP/B using the request/response mechanism from
HTTP/1.1.
Additionally, WSP/B supports three push mechanisms for data transfer: a confirmed data
push within an existing session context, a non-confirmed data push within an existing
session context, and a non- confirmed data push without an existing session context.
4. Asynchronous requests: Optionally, WSP/B supports a client that can send multiple
requests to a server simultaneously.

15b. Analyze which WTP class reflects the typical web access best? How is unnecessary
overhead avoided when using WSP on top of this class of web browsing?
WTP Class 2
• WTP class 2 transaction service provides the classic reliable request/response transaction
known from many client/server scenarios. Depending on user requirements, many
different scenarios are possible for initiator/responder interaction.
• The below figure shows the basic transaction of class 2 without-user acknowledgement.
Here, a user on the initiator’s side requests the service and the WTP entity sends the
invoke PDU to the responder.
• The WTP entity on the responder’s side indicates the request with the [Link]
primitive to a user. The responder now waits for the processing of the request, the user
on the responder’s side can finally give the result UD* to the WTP entity on the responder
side using [Link].
• The result PDU can now be sent back to the initiator, which implicitly acknowledges the
invoke PDU. The initiator can indicate the successful transmission of the invoke message
and the result with the two service primitives [Link] and [Link].
• A user may respond to this result with [Link]. An acknowledgement PDU is then
generated which finally triggers the [Link] primitive on the responder’s side. This
example clearly shows the combination of two reliable services (TR-Invoke and TR-Result)
with an efficient data transmission/acknowledgement.
• The wireless session protocol (WSP) has been designed to operate on top of the
datagram service WDP or the transaction service WTP. For both types, security can be
inserted using the WTLS security layer if required.
• WSP provides a shared state between a client and a server to optimize content transfer.
WSP tries to replace the stateless HTTP protocol. Client users can continue to work from
where they left the browser or when the network was interrupted, or users can get their
customized environment every time they start the browser.
Content providers can customize their pages to clients’ needs and do not have to
retransmit the same pages over and over again.
 Part C
16a. Optimize the resource allocation using SDMA, TDMA, FDMA and CDMA for a mobile
network. Assume the following conditions:
The network has 5 users, each with different data rate requirements:
User 1: 2 MBPS
User 2: 4 MBPS
User 3: 6 MBPS
User 4: 8 MBPS
User 5: 1 MBPS
The total available bandwidth is 100 MHz, and each user requires different amounts of
bandwidth and time to transmit.
Assumptions (for simplicity):
1. Shannon Capacity approximation is not strictly applied — allocations are proportional.
2. Each access technique is used independently for comparative optimization.
3. Spectral efficiency is assumed to be 1 bps/Hz (i.e., data rate = bandwidth).
4. Time is normalized to 1 second per scheduling unit (for TDMA).
5. No overlap in resource domains (FDMA = frequency orthogonal, TDMA = time orthogonal,
etc.)
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Each user is allocated a portion of the 100 MHz frequency band proportional to their data rate.
Bandwidth per user (assuming 1 bps/Hz):
• User 1: 2 MHz
• User 2: 4 MHz
• User 3: 6 MHz
• User 4: 8 MHz
• User 5: 1 MHz
Total = 21 MHz used, remaining 79 MHz unused (can be reallocated or considered guard
bands).
 Advantage: Simple, low interference.
Disadvantage: Inefficient spectrum usage.

Each user receives bandwidth directly proportional to their data rate.

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
Each user shares the full 100 MHz bandwidth but is allocated a time slot proportional to their
data rate.
Total rate = 21 Mbps, so fraction of time assigned:

User Data Rate Time Slot (%)

U1 2 Mbps 9.52%

U2 4 Mbps 19.05%

U3 6 Mbps 28.57%

U4 8 Mbps 38.10%

U5 1 Mbps 4.76%

All use full bandwidth in turn.

Efficient bandwidth use, but with latency due to time scheduling.
Each user gets full bandwidth for a fraction of time, represented here as effective bandwidth.
3. SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
In SDMA, users are spatially separated, possibly by using beamforming or multiple cells.
Assuming ideal spatial reuse (users don’t interfere):
• The same 100 MHz is reused in different spatial zones.
• You can serve all users simultaneously, using all bandwidth in different beams.
For example:
• User 1–5 can all transmit at the same time and at full bandwidth in different
directions/zones.

Highly efficient, but depends on spatial separation and antenna technology (like MIMO).
Maximizes reuse if physical separation is feasible.
 All users get the full 100 MHz bandwidth due to ideal spatial reuse.
4. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
All users transmit simultaneously over the full 100 MHz, distinguished by unique spreading
codes.
Assuming equal spreading gain, user bandwidth needs to be proportional to rate:
• Assign spreading codes such that user data rate is supported over full spectrum.
• With 100 MHz and 21 Mbps, each bit needs ~4.76 MHz (on average).
• So, spreading factor (SF) = bandwidth/data rate.

User Data Rate Spreading Factor

U1 2 Mbps 50

U2 4 Mbps 25

U3 6 Mbps 16.67

U4 8 Mbps 12.5

U5 1 Mbps 100
 All users share the same spectrum simultaneously.
Needs good power control and synchronization.
Can degrade as users increase (code collisions, noise rise).

Users share the full spectrum, with bandwidth effectively allocated based on spreading gain and
data rate.
16b. Evaluate the impact of mobility on the GSM, GPRS, and UMTS networks.
Mobility has a significant impact on mobile networks like GSM, GPRS, and UMTS. As users move
across cell boundaries, the network must ensure service continuity, maintain QoS, and efficiently
manage resources. Below is a detailed evaluation of mobility's impact on each technology:
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

Mobility Management in GSM:

GSM was designed primarily for voice with basic mobility support.
• Location Update: Mobile devices periodically update their location (Location Area
Update).
• Handover: GSM supports hard handovers — the call is transferred to another cell with a
brief disruption.
Impact of Mobility:

Mobility Scenario Impact

Low-speed users
GSM handles well — predictable handovers and minimal call drops.
(pedestrians)

High-speed users More frequent handovers, increased signalling load, higher risk of
(vehicles, trains) call drops.

Relies on standard roaming agreements and requires location

Cross-border roaming
updates, which may introduce delay.

Challenges:
• Hard handover delay affects call quality.
• Limited handover intelligence (no soft handovers like in CDMA/UMTS).
2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

Mobility in GPRS:
GPRS adds packet-switched data on top of GSM.
• Maintains two location registers: Routing Area (RA) and Location Area (LA).
• Mobility handled via Routing Area Updates for packet data.

Impact of Mobility:

Mobility Scenario Impact

Stationary/slow
Stable data session continuity, good performance.
movement

Moderate movement Acceptable handover and session persistence (e.g., web browsing).

Increased latency, possible session interruptions, especially for real-

High-speed movement
time apps.

Challenges:
• Session interruption during cell reselection.
 • No real-time QoS — latency-sensitive apps (e.g., VoIP) suffer under mobility.
3. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)

Mobility Features:
UMTS is a 3G network with integrated circuit-switched and packet-switched domains.
• Supports soft and softer handovers using WCDMA (multiple base stations maintain the
connection).
• Includes RNC (Radio Network Controller) to manage mobility efficiently.

Impact of Mobility:

Mobility
Impact
Scenario

Pedestrian users Excellent — soft handovers ensure seamless connectivity.

Vehicular users Maintains session quality even at high speeds.

High-speed More complex, but better managed than GSM/GPRS due to advanced
trains handover techniques.

Advantages:
• Soft handover improves call reliability.
• Better QoS control for data and voice under mobility.
• Fast cell reselection for packet services.
Summary Comparison

Feature GSM GPRS UMTS

Designed for Voice Data over GSM Integrated voice and data

Handover type Hard Hard (GSM-based) Soft & softer

Mobility support level Basic Moderate Advanced

Real-time data under

Poor Weak Good
mobility
Feature GSM GPRS UMTS

High-speed mobility Call drops, signal Session drop, Handled well with soft
impact loss delays handovers

Routing Area (RA) +

Location tracking method Location Area (LA) Cell ID + RNC coordination
LA

Conclusion
• GSM: Handles mobility well for voice at low to moderate speeds but struggles at high
speeds.
• GPRS: Adds basic data mobility but is not well-suited for real-time or high-mobility
environments.
• UMTS: Offers the best support for mobility, especially with high-speed users and data-
intensive applications.

Prepared by: Dr. L. Javid Ali, Professor / IT

Verified by: Mr. P. N. Karthikayan, Assistant Professor / IT