JSS 1 AGRICULTURE FIRST TERM

THE MEANING OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture, to many people, simply implies food production. The word agriculture came from
two Latin words- "ager" and "cultura", meaning field and cultivation, respectively. Hence, the
term agriculture, literally, implies field cultivation and production of livestock. On the other
hand, a concise definition of agriculture proposes that it is the science and art of cultivating the
soil, production and management of crops, livestock production- preparation and processing of
their products and byproducts for the use of man. It also involves the disposal of these products
through marketing.

SCOPE OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is a subject/course with a wide range of activities. It is an applied science, which

makes use of the principles of the basic sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics and
geography. It is therefore studied under the following specialized disciplines:

A. AGRONOMY

This is the study of the relationship between crops and soil. Agronomy can be further split into
soil science and crop science.

B. AGRICULTURAL BIOLOGY

This is another discipline related to crop as being affected by pests and diseases- and their
control, for increased agricultural production.

C. AGRICULTURAL BIOCHEMISTRY AND NUTRITION

This aspect involves the study of the biochemistry of all agricultural products and their
nutritional value. It also relates to the formulation/production of livestock feeds.

D. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

This is the application of basic economic principles in the operations of the agricultural industry.
It involves allocation of resources, organization of farms, availability of agricultural inputs,
pricing system of inputs and outputs and marketing of agricultural products.

E. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

The agricultural extension is the application of scientific research and new knowledge to
agricultural practices through farmer education, extension worker is mainly concerned with the
behavior of the rural populace and their attitudes toward changes. There are various methods of,
effectively, transmitting agricultural innovations to farmers. Where appropriate, agricultural
extension also he1ps to build up groups of local farmers and organizations, so that they can
benefit from extension programmed. Agricultural extension, therefore, provides the
indispensable elements that farmers need to improve their agricultural productivity.

F. ANIMAL SCIENCE

This discipline entails the production and management of animals (livestock) and their various
products.

G. VETERINARY SCIENCE

This is similar to animal science, but more inclined to specialized study of all the medical issues
relating to livestock and other domesticated animals including cattle, goats, sheep, dogs and
birds.

H. FORESTRY

This relates to the cultivation of economic trees for the use of man.

I. WILD LIFE

This is the discipline that deals directly with the production and management of wild life.

J. FISHERIES

This relates to the production and management of fish and their products.

K. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

This is the study that deals with farm machinery and mechanization. Agricultural engineers are
inventors of agricultural implements; they design, fabricate and maintain various agricultural
implements and equipment used within the agricultural sector.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

FOOD

Agriculture provides the basic food requirements for the teeming population of the world.
Owing to improved standard of living and improved medical and health services which have
increased life expectancy and reduced infant mortality, the population of the world is increasing
at a fantastic rate.

RAW MATERIALS

Agriculture provides the raw materials for local industries. It provides cocoa for the beverage
industry, cotton for the textile industry, timber and pulp for the wood and paper sectors, and latex
(rubber) for the tire and plastic industries etc.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE

Agricultural products produced in excess of local demands can be exported to earn foreign
exchange. This is of vital importance, because of a country's need for foreign exchange to
produce certain capital goods and services.

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

Agricultural sector provides job opportunities for all categories of workers, principally because
of its large size, compared with other sectors of service and industry within the country. The
agricultural sector absorbs a sizeable proportion of the population into the farming business; this
can range from the peasant farmer, farm labourers, agricultural officers, extension officer, to
researchers, to mention a few. In Nigeria, according to the 1953 census, over 80% of the
population is engaged in agriculture.

PROVISION OF CAPITAL

Agriculture provides some sort of financial backing to other sectors of the economy, through
savings and the purchase of goods and services from these sectors. Besides, the direct taxes paid
by the large number of small scale farmers and few large scale farmers constitute sources of
income for the government.

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
Factors of production are the resources needed to produce something. The main ones:
1. LAND.
Land could be defined as a farm resource given by nature. Land resources include the following:
Soil, minerals, forests, fishing grounds and climates. All resources that exist naturally and
contribute to the production of farm output are classified as land. From the point of view of
agriculture, land is the most important factor of production. No agricultural production can take
place without land.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND
• Land is a gift of nature: Land exists naturally without the effort of human being. Since it is the
gift of God, man did not spend any amount to bring it into existence.
• Land is relatively immobile: Land cannot be moved from one place to another. That is why
land is generally scarce in urban centres and in less demand in rural areas.
• Land is fixed in supply: Since land cannot be produced by man, land supply is therefore fixed.
It cannot be increased to meet the rising demand.
• The reward for land is rent: The cost of producing land is zero since it is the gift of nature.
However, the money paid for the use of any parcel of land is what we call rent. • Land value
varies according to location: The denser the population of an area, the greater the demand for
land and hence, the higher the value. Therefore, land in urban areas commands a higher price
than land in rural areas.
A typical farm family may own or rent some land for cultivation. The farmer’s homestead may
also have land around it that could be used for growing food, fruit or forage crops. Many farmers
have the right to use what is called “communal land”. This is usually land used as a forest or for
cattle grazing.
2. WATER.
Farmers have access to water directly from rainfall and from springs, dams, wells and rivers or
from water collected from rainfall. This water may be on the land used by the farmer or it may be
from a communal source.
3. LABOUR
Labour may be defined as all human effort which may be physical or mental, skilled or unskilled
used in the production process. Labour as a factor of production involves human being. The
rewards for the use of labour are wages and salaries. Labour in combination with other factors of
production is utilized to produce product. Labour is almost the most difficult among the factors
of production to deal with because it involves man. In agriculture, skilled workers include farm
manager, Extension Officer, horticulturist, agronomist, animal scientist, e.t.c. The unskilled
workers perform general services such as farm attendants, gardeners and messengers. Farm
manager is interested in both the quantity and quality of labour. The quantity of labour refers to
the total supply of labour while the quality of labour determines its efficiency.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LABOUR
• No two individuals have equal productive ability. It is therefore, generally accepted that labour
varies in quality from one person to the other.
• Labour can be classified into productive and non-productive. Productive labour refers to any
human effort that could change the forms of raw materials thereby creating utilities out of them.
Nonproductive labour are those that engage in handling goods that were already produced.
• Another important characteristic of labour is that it is perishable.
• Labour productivity varies with time because of age and length of working.
• Labour is mobile. People move from one place to the other in search of job.
• Labour has feeling and its consent must be sought before it is used in production. • Labour
cannot be stored like capital. • Unlike land, labour is not fixed.
Labour is the work of farmers, their families and hired labourers. This is human effort and it is
needed on all farms. Farmers may have three different sources of labour: the farm family (family
labour), hired labour and labour provided through cooperation between members of the
community. A farmer may use any or all sources of labour on the farm, depending on the
situation. The total effort from labour is made up of people, skill and time available.
SOURCES OF LABOUR
In almost all Nigerian small farmer communities, one can distinguish between three sources of
labour for farm operations:
• Family labour
• Hired or paid labour
• Exchange or communal labour
In the peasant societies labour is provided by farmer and his family and this is one of the reasons
for having many wives so as to help on the farm. The size and type of farm depend on the
number of people in the family. Occasionally, there is communal labour before the advent of
hired labour. Usually, wages is determined by the type of farm operation embarked on. The
overall labour supply is affected by the following factors:
• The total population in the area
• The proportion of the population that is available for employment.
• The number of hours worked by each person per year. • The level of economic activities of the
area.

4. CAPITAL
Definition of Capital Capital is defined as the produced means of production. In essence, capital
represents resources that are not needed for their own sake but they are needed for the production
of other goods. Unlike land, capital is produced as a result of human efforts. Examples of farm
capital include: Farm buildings, farm machineries and equipment, fertilizers, farm land, seeds
and planting materials, breeding stock, crops, simple farm tools and more importantly, cash. The
reward of capital is interest.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITAL
• One of the major characteristics of capital is that it is man-made.
• Capital assets normally lose value with years. the lost in value is as a result of wear and tear
due to its use. • Capital asset is used to acquire other goods.
• Capital asset can be stored.
• Capital asset can be classified into fixed or variable capital. It can also be classified into short,
medium or long-term capital.
TYPES OF CAPITAL
There are many ways of classifying capital. Some of the classes of capital include the following:
i) Fixed Capital: The demand for this group of capital remained constant irrespective of the level
of production. Fixed capital refers to such farm assets that are acquired for the farm operation
irrespective of the level of production. Such capital include – farm building, tractor and
implements and other farm machineries.
ii. Variable Capital: This form of capital is acquired based on the level of farm operation. The
more the size of the farm, the more of such capital will be needed. Examples of variable capital
include: cash, seeds and planting materials, fertilizers, e.t.c
. iii. Long Duration Capital: Most of the fixed capital belongs to long duration capital. In
addition, any capital that stretched beyond five years may be regarded as a long-term capital.
Examples of such resources include: landed properties, farm buildings, perennial crops, e.t.c.
iv. Medium Duration Capital: Any farm asset whose life span stretched between two to five
years is normally classified as medium-term capital. In this group, we have heavy movable farm
assets such as farm machineries, tractor, farm equipment and breeding stock.
v. Short Duration Capital: These are capital needed for a short period on the farm. This capital is
completely consumed within a year of production cycle. Examples of short-term capital include:
planting materials, fertilizers, chemicals, feed, annual crops, fuel, e.t.c. vi. Constant Flow
Capital: This type of capital generates cash for the farm business on daily basis. Examples of
such capital include dairy cattle for the production of milk, layers for the production of eggs and
vegetables.

5. ENTREPRENEUR:

Entrepreneur or Enterprise or Organization describes the function of taking decision about what
to produce and who combines the other factors of production to produce what has been decided
on. He combines and organises land, labour and capital in such a way as to obtain maximum
production of goods and services at minimum costs. The entrepreneur is normally the person
who risks his capital in establishing a business whose profitability cannot be determined at that
time. The reward for entrepreneur is profit or loss.
 WHY ENTREPRENEUR IS SEPARATED FROM LABOUR

Entrepreneur involves human efforts similar to labour and yet it is separated from labour
as a factor of production. The reason for separating entrepreneur from labour is based on the
crucial functions which entrepreneur performes which labour does not perform. These functions
are as follows: • Provision of Capital: This is one of the most important functions performed by
entrepreneur which labour does not perform. He provides the capital for the formation of the
business. He also provides capital for carrying out production activities of the business. It is from
this capital provided that other factors of production like labour can function. • Risks Bearing:
Entrepreneur bears all the risks that occur in business. As the provider of capital if the business
fails, he bears the loss all alone. That is why his reward is either profit or loss. It is pertinent to
mention here that labourers will collect their wages whether the business succeeds or not, he
does not share in the risk of the business. • He Takes Decisions: Decision taking is another
important function of entrepreneur. There are many decisions confronting business organization.
In farm business, entrepreneurs are confronted with such decisions as what to produce, how
much to produce and how to produce. The success or failure of the business depends greatly on
the good or bad decisions taken by the entrepreneur. •

Entrepreneur describes the managerial ability of the owner of the firm or its manager.
The entrepreneur is responsible not only for deciding what method of production shall be
adopted but also for organizing the work of others, he has to make many other important
decisions such as what to produce and how much to produce. Perhaps the primary function of the
entrepreneur is to bear the risk and uncertainty of production.
AGRICULTURAL FARMING SYSTEMS
1. ARABLE FARMING
In this system of farming, the farmer grows only crops. Crops he produces include annual crops
eg. Vegetables, plantain, cassava, grains and legumes etc. You can practice this system either on
a small scale or on a commercial scale.

FEATURES OF ARABLE FARMING

 The farmer grows only crops.

 You need specialized skills and know-how.

2. MIXED FARMING
Mixed farming is an agricultural farming system where the farmer grows crops and raise animals
at the same time on the same piece of land. He grows different crops with different maturity
 periods at the same time. There is continuous cropping the whole season. You can practice this in
areas with good rainfall or irrigation facilities.

FEATURES OF THE MIXED FARMING SYSTEM

 Mostly done on a small to medium scale

 The farmer uses the droppings of animals as manure. Therefore, less use of synthetic fertiliser.
 The farmer raises and uses some farm animals as farm traction.

3. SUBSISTENCE FARMING
With subsistence farming, the farmer produces food for himself and his family. Farming is
usually done small landholding with simple farm tools. People usually think the farmers in this
system are poor. They do not use fertilisers and improved seeds as much as they should.
Productivity is usually low. Moreover, electricity and irrigation are mostly not available to them.
The farmers and their household use most of the food they produce.

FEATURES OF SUBSISTENCE FARMING

 The family works on the farm.

 Most of the work is done manually.
 The farms are small.
 Farmers follow traditional ways of farming.
 Yield is not very high.
 The family consume most of the yield.

4. SHIFTING CULTIVATION
With this system, the farmer clears a piece of forest land. He fells and burns the vegetation
residue including the tree trunks and branches. Then, he uses that piece of land to grow crops for
three to five years. The land loses its fertility. Then the farmer leaves to allow the land time to
regain its fertility. That period is the fallow period. He moves with his household to a new area to
farm on new fertile land. He repeats the process. And, the farmer may come back to cultivate
former lands after it has regained its fertility.Fertile lands are becoming scarce. So, shifting
cultivation becomes difficult to practice. The government also discourages the practice. Because
it poses a danger to forest reserves and nature. It is not a sustainable agricultural practice

FEATURES OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION

 Clearing and burning of the trees.
 Production levels keep going down after a couple of years.
 The land loses its fertility and its left to fallow.
 Households/families move to a new area for fertile lands.
5. PLANTATION FARMING
Plantation farming is also known as tree crop farming. This is where the farmer grows one type
of crop on a relatively large piece of land. Crops include rubber, tea, coffee and cocoa. Also,
spices, coconut, apples, grapes, oranges, mangoes, avocado etc. It is usually done on commercial
 bases with a substantial amount of capital investment. The system requires good management
and technical know-how. It may also need the use of machines, fertilizers, irrigation and other
facilities. Some commercial plantations have a processing factory attached to the farm.

FEATURES OF PLANTATION FARMING

 High levels of production of a particular crop.

 High use of mechanization.
 It involves a huge capital investment.
 Commercial in nature.

6. PASTORAL/LIVESTOCK FARMING
Pastoral farming produces only livestock and not crops. Example; dairy farming, raising beef
cattle, and raising sheep for wool. In this system, farmers make use of the available feed
resources to feed the livestock. They do not move livestock, like in the case of nomadic farming.
Farmers set up pasture lands for the livestock.This system is not sustainable. It becomes very
expensive. Too much grazing destroys all-natural grazing fields. The farmer would have to buy
feed for the herd.

FEATURES OF PASTORAL FARMING:

 The farmer only raises livestock.

 The farmer can use the animals as farm traction.
 Manure of animals used to fertilize grazing fields.

7. NOMADIC FARMING
This is a type of agricultural farming systems similar to pastoral farming. But, herdsmen move
their animals around in search of suitable grazing fields and water. They usually move animals
like cattle, sheep, goats, camel, horses and donkeys.In Africa, there are incidences of nomadic
herdsmen leading their cattle into farmlands and destroying them. This has caused various
conflicts between the herdsmen and other farmers.

FEATURES OF NOMADIC FARMING

 Movement of herds.
 Herdsmen and their herd settle on fresh grazing fields for as long as it lasts.
 In West Africa, they encroach crops farms and destroy them.
These agricultural farming systems are the major ones but not all. There are other systems and a
combination of them. They come from factors like the availability of some natural resources,
landscape etc.

FARM IMPLEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

Farmer needs to undertake a number of activities on a routine basis. The activities take a toll on
the time and money of the farmer. Fortunately as mankind has evolved, more and more
systematic methods of farming have evolved. These depend on a number of tools, implements
and equipment. We shall discuss only some of the more important ones.
Tools and equipment are terms that are often used interchangeably without knowing the actual
difference between tools and equipment, but in fact, they have different definitions.
FARM TOOLS:
What is meant is a simple type of equipment which is used manually by the farmer. The tools are
all hand held and operated manually.
Tools examples:

Spade

Mattock

sickle
 shovel

wheel borough

hoe

1. Hoe: this tool is to be used for loosening, lifting and turning over soil by gardeners or
farmers.
2. Spade and shovel: this tool is to be used to break any lumps in soil. The tool is angled
forward for digging and scooping.
3. Sickle: this tool is used for harvesting. It has a curved blade and wooden handle.
4. Cutlass: this tool is a flat metal long blade with a wooden handle with one sharp edge for
clearing of bushes, cutting of tree branches, etc.
5. Water can is used for artificial application of water to the plants usually in the nursery or
garden

IMPLEMENTS:
Are meant as appendages to mechanized machinery and add more value to that piece of
machinery. Implements when added allow the machine to be used for different type of usages.
Implements would be pulled or pushed by the machinery to be able to perform its designated
purpose. The implements need to be pulled manually, by bullocks or by tractors and made
accordingly. Now a days tractors are used extensively though there are places where by necessity
oxens or manual method has to be used.

Implements examples:

1. Cultivator: This implements is used for removing weeds, preparing soil for planting.
 cultivator

The use of this implement allows soil to be aerated and also water can penetrate down to
roots.
2. Harrow: This implements is used after ploughing operations. It will smooth out the field
surfaces.
3. Plough: This implement lus used for turning over the upper layer of the soil so that fresh
nutrients are brought up, buried weeds and remains of previous crops.

MACHINERY
Used by farmers by definition is a mechanized equipment which can run on electric or
diesel or petrol or hydraulic. Machinery is to apply force and control movement for an
intended action. Most of farm machinery is still operated by human but there is a gradual
introduction of machinery which is smart and can run according to program pre fed into
its computer. A common machinery used extensively on farms is TRACTOR.
Examples of Machines:
1. Tractor: Probably the most used and most important machinery in a farm. It is used for
pulling or pushing agricultural for planting, tilling, ploughing, harrowing etc.
2. Harvester: Mechanical harvesting is the order of the day these days due to problems of
farm laborers. Larger amount of crop can be harvested quickly and most efficiently.
3. Knapsack Sprayer: this machine could be manual, electric or petrol driven. It is used to
apply soluble pesticides to plants. A much used piece of equipment.