3.

82 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

3.10.1 Uncontrolled Rectifier
3.10.1.1 Half-wave Rectifier
Figure 3.64(a) shows single phase half-wave rectifier circuit. It consists of
transformer, diode and load resistance. Here, diode act as a switch i.e., under
forward biased condition, it is a closed switch and for reverse biased condition,
it is a open switch.
The transformer is used to step down the input voltage. The sinusoidal AC
voltage is fed to transformer's primary winding. The voltage across the
secondary winding is v, = V sin ot. V.' is the maximum value of the input
voltage.
A D
on

O0000
V
Vp ,=Vmsinaot }R Vdc
0

B B
(a) (b)

Vst Vo +

RVG=0

(c)
Figure 3.64
Operation
During positive half cycle of the input voltage (0 to n), the point A is
positive with respect to point B. During this period, the diode becomes forward
biased and it acts as a closed switch. The entire positive input voltage is applied
across the load. The current path is A-D - R- B. It is shown in figure 3.64(b).
During negative half cycle (r to 2r) of the input voltage, the point B' is
positive with respect to point 'A'. During this period, diode becomes reverse biased.
Then it acts as an open switch. There is no output voltage across load. The
entire negative half cycle input voltage appears across the diode. There is no
current in the load. It is shown in figure 3.64(c).
ANALOG ELECTRONICS 3.83

The input and output waveforms are shown in figure 3.65.

Input voltage waveform

2 3r 4T

Vm
Output voltage waveform

Voc
0 D on ‘ 2 Don3r ot

Output current wavetorm

Lm

0 :2r :3 (ot

Figure 3.65
From these waveforms, the output voltage is not a steady state DC but
only a pulsating DC. Here, we are using only halfcycle of the input wave.
That is why, it is called a half-wave rectifier.
DC output voltage (V,)
Input voltage v, V, sin ot
2n

Ve =

21
sin ot d(ot)

2n

sin at d(at)+ jod(at)

jv.
2
sin ot- d(aot) Ym-cos ot]'
2
2n
[*1-(-1)]

where, V- maximum (or) peak value of input voltage.

m

- 2v,
 RMS Rms DC 3.84
AC DC
input output output
load output
power current current
power voltage
(P) V orms
orms orms
(Pa) orns
(orms (L)
RaR P, Pa. (V. dc
= = 2 orms V 2 |2rt m r)
4TVm? Vm?[ 2 |2rr
orm, R 2R,R, 4n
L m R,
Rdc V
R ot
-l
fsin'
d(ot) ot fV
-R V BASIC
cos sin' m
4 2
2 2
Sin 20t
2ot ot ELECTRICAL
Jo
7= d(ot)|
2
4n
AND
X 4rVm?
T
ELECTRONICS

sin2r
2

ENGINEERING
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
3.85
Rectifier efficiency (n)

Pdc
'n R, 4
n= x 100
P R
4

n= 40.6%
Ripple Factor (RF)
The ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value or rms
the ac component of voltage or current to the average value of value of
voltage or current.
2

It is RF= ms Lorms
given by -1
dc
We know for a HWR,

Iorms 2

2
Hence, RF = -1= -1

RF =1.21
The ripple frequency in a HWR is same as the
fundamental input frequency.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
This is the maximum voltage with which the
reverse biasing. In HWR, the peak inverse voltagerectifer has to withstand during
supply voltage. i.e., equals the peak value of the
PIV = V
Transformer Utilisation Factor (TUF)
It is defined as the ratio of DC
a transformer secondary. power delivered to the load to the AC rating of

TUF = DC power delivered to the load de

AC rating of a
transformer secondary Pac rated
ac rated ac rated
I
ac rated
ac rated
3.86 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

V2 2 2/2
m
P.dc R,
TUF =
Pac rated mm
2/2

[V,-I, RJ
2V2 R
2V2

TUF = 0.286 (or) 28.6%

Advantages
1. Simple circuit.
2. Low cost.

Disadvantages
1. Low rectification efficiency.
2. Low TUF.
3. High ripple factor.
4. DC saturation of transformer core occurs when the current in
the secondary side of transformer flows in the same direction which leads
to hysteresis losses and harmonics in the output.

3.10.1.2 Centre Tapped Fullwave Rectifier

Figure 3.66 shows centre tapped D,
fullwave rectifier circuit. It consists of
two diodes, one centre-tap transformer
and load resistor. SO0000) R
AC
By centre tapping, the input tB V,
impedance of the two halves of
windings are equal. Thus, the voltages
in the two halves are 180° out of
D,
phase or when point A of secondary is
maximum positive value, C is at Figure 3.66
maximum negative value.
ANALOG ELECTRONICS 3.87

Operation
When AC input is applied to primary winding of transformer, as per the
principle of transformer theory, it is transferred to the secondary winding without
changing the supply frequency. During the positive half cycle of the input
poltage, the terminal A is more positive than terminal 'C', thus diode D, becomes
more forward biased than diode D,. Thus diode D, acts as a closed switch and
diode D, acts as a open switch. The current path is A’ D, -R, ’ B. Therefore,
we can get positive output voltage across load. It is shown in figure 3.67.
D, ON D,OFF

R,
+B
Rh. -8
2n
C
C D, OFF D,ON
Figure 3.67 Figure 3.68

Vs
Vm
Input voltage
waveform
0 2 3 4T

V
Output voltage
acro_s R due to D,
2t 3r :4T ot

Vm
Output voltage
across R due to D,
:2 37 :4T ot

Vo
Output voltage
across R, due to
Vác D,&D,
D, on Dfon D, on D, on

Load current

ot

Figure 3.69
3.88 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal C is
more positive than terminal 'A, thus diode D, becomes more forward biased than
diode D,
Thus, diode D, acts as a closed switch and diode D, acts as a open switch.
Then thecurrent path is C - D, - R, - B. Here, we can get positive output voltage
across load. It is shown in figure 3.68. The input and output waveforms are shown
in figure 3.69.
the
The ripple frequency of a single phase fullwave rectifier is twice
supply requency i.e., 2f. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, ripple frequency of
this rectifier is 2 x 50 = 100 Hz.

Average output voltage (,)

Input voltage v, = V sin ot
Input current i= I, sin ot

DC or average voltage is of same form in the two

halves of the AC cycle
hence it is calculated for half cycle of input only.

sin ot d(ot) -a sin wt d(ot)

- Yn - cos ot); =n- coST - (- cos 0)] =( l +1]

2 Vm
Vdc

Average output current (I,)

sin ot d(ot)

2m Vdc
dc
R

RMS output voltage (V orm)

sin' ot dl(at)
ANALOG ELECTRONICS 3.89

sin 2ot
2n 2

sin 21
2 2

V
m
V
orms
V2

RMS load current (Iorm)

V
orms

R V2 R,
DC output power (PJ
42
P I R- R
AC input power (P,)
P, Im R, =nR,
2
Efficiency
41
Rectifier efficiency n= Pac
P.
x 100 = x 100 = x 100
in m
2 R
n = 81%

Ripple Factor (RF)

The ripple factor of full wave rectifier is defined as the ratio of AC or rms
value of ripple component to average or DC component present in the output.

RF =
ms ons -
do

orms
3.90 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

The form factor is given by

FF =
2.m 2/2 =1.11
Hence ripple factor,
RF /FF' -1
RF =1.11? -1
RF = 0.48
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Peak inverse voltage is defined as the maximum or peak voltage that a
diode can withstand under reverse biased condition.

In this case, peak inverse voltage is calculated as follows. Assume during

positive half cycle of input, D, is in conduction and D, is off. The maximum
voltage at the lower part of the transformer is V, and the voltage drop across the
m

R ue to diode D, conducting is V Hence the total voltage applied across diode

D, is V + V, = 2V.
m

Thus, PIV = 2V
The samne procedure is repeated when diode D, is off and D, is ON.
Transformer Utilisation Factor (TUF)
In this case, TUF is found by considering primary and secondary VA rating
separately and take the average of two halves. TUF for secondary or Secondary
Utilisation Factor SUF can be calculated as

SUF = PA
(TUF),
Pac rated
21
R,
Voms orms V
m

2lm
8
-x100
I/2
2

= 81.1%
 ANALOG ELECTRONICS 3.91

Transformer primary supplies input for both half cycles of input, thus
TUF for primary - (TUF),- 28.6 % (As calculated in halfwave rectifier)
= 2x 28.6% = 57.2%
81.1+57.2
% TUF
(TUF), +(TUF), = 69.15%
2 2

TUF = 0.692

Advantages
1. High output voltage and transformer efficiency.
2. Low ripple factor.
3. High transformer utilisation factor.
4. The DC saturation of the core is avoided as current flows through the
two halves of the centre tapped secondary of the transformer in opposite
direction.

Disadvantages
1. Usage of additional diode and bulky transforner is needed, and hence,
it cost's high.
2. The peak inverse voltage of diode is high (i.e., 2V,).
3.10.1.3 Full wave Bridge Rectifier
The full wave rectifier usesa centre tap transformer, whose secondary
voltage is twice the output voltage. The diode must also have ratings of twice
the peak inverse voltage of those used in half wave rectifier circuits.
In the bridge rectifier circuit, O0000
P
the centre-tap transformer is
D,
eliminated and also the PIV rating
of diodes is not so large. AC input
voltage
Construction
D3
Figure 3.70 shows the circuit N
diagram of bridge rectifier circuit.
It consists of transformer, 4 diodes Figure 3.70
and a load resistor.

Operation
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal 'A' is
positive with respect to B. Thusdiodes D, and D, are forward biased and diodes D,
and D, are reverse biased.
3.92
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Then the current flows
P
through diode D,, load R, and
through diode D, back to the AC input
negative polarity of voltage
transformer secondary. It is
shown in figure 3.71. The N
entire positive input voltage is
applied across the load.
Figure 3.71
During negative half
cycle of the input voltage, the rOO00
terminal B' is positive with 2T
D
respect to terminal A'. Thus AC input
diodes D, and D, are forward voltage
biased and diodes D, and D,
reverse biased. The current N

path is B - D, - R, - D, - A. It
is shown in figure 3.72.
Figure 3.72

Vm
Input voltage
waveformn
0 2n {4n
3 ot

Output voltage
across R, due to
0 2 :3 :4n ot D,& D,
Vm

Output voltage
across R due to
:2r :37 :4 ot D, &D,
Vot
V

Output voltage
wavefom
:2r :3 :4 ot
D,DD,D,
on on
D,.D,
on on

'm
Output current
waveform

ot
Figure 3.73
ANALOG ELETRONIS
3.93
The entire negative input voltage is applied across the load. During positive
and negative half cycle, the output voltage and output current is always positive
(i..e., unidirectional). The input and output waveforms are shown in figure 3.74.
The waveform of the load current is essentially the same as in the case of
full wave rectifier. The ripple frequency of the output is twice that of the
fundamental frequency. The derivations for bridge rectifiers are sane as that of
centre tapped FWR, except TUF., TUF can be defined as the ratio of DC power to
the rated AC power.

21. m2
TUF = Pec R,
P ac rated
Vmsorms
412 41
m- R, m R.
8
x100 = 81%

TUF = 0.81

In this case, centre tapped transformer is not required hence secondary

utilisation factor itself defines the TUF. Ripper factor and efficiency remain
as in full wave rectifier i.e., 0.483 and 81.1% Here, same
the TUF is very high i.e.,
0.812, because secondary carries normal ac. The peak inverse voltage of
diode is V. The ripple frequency is twice the supply each
rectifier circuit can be used without a transformer byfrequency. The diode bridge
choosing the correct diode
ratings to the supply voltage.
Advantages
1. Transformer with centre tap in secondary is not
required.
2. As two diodes are connected in series, in each
conducting cycle of positive
and negative, the path peak inverse voltage is shared by both the diodes
equally, hence it is suitable for high voltage application.
3. The transformer which is connected to bridge rectifier, can be
small in
size for a given output and current flows in both primary and
during both positive and negative cycle of the input voltage. secondary
4. Better transformer utilisation factor.
3.94 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Disadvantages
1. Additional two diodes are required.
2. The rectifier efficiency slightly reduces than the FWR, because the
additional voltage drop and losses are higher as the two diodes are
connected in series.

3.10.2 Controlled Rectifier

3.10.2.1 Single phase half wave Controlled rectifier
In its simplest form, phase control can be described by considering the half
wave controlled thyristor circuit with resistive load R shown in figure 3.74.
The circuit is energized by a line voltage or transformer secondary
voltage v, = V sinot. It is assumed that, the peak supply voltage never exceeds
the forward and reverse blocking ratings of thyristor. The various voltage and
current waveforms for this circuit are shown in figure 3.75.

1-¢
AC V,= Vm Sin ot R
supply

Figure 3.74 Single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R load
The firing angle is also defined as, the angle between the zero crossing
of the input voltage and the instant the thyristor is fired. The firing angle is
denoted as 'a'. Hence the most efficient method to control the turning 'on' of a
thyristor is achieved by varying the firing angle of thyristor. Such a method of
control is called as phase-angle coatrol.
During the positive half-cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor anode
is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is said to be forward biased.
When thyristor T, is triggered at ot = a, thyristor T, conducts and the input voltage
appears across the load. During the period a< ot < n, we can get output voltage and
output current.