Riphah International University Faisalabad

Assignment # 1
Assignment Topic:

CARBON FIBER
Subject: Advanced Polymer Chemistry

Course code: CHE (7026)

Level: M.Phil. Chemistry

Submitted By:
Sameeka Mehboob

Roll #: 33303

Semester: 2nd Semester (Spring 2025)

Submitted To:

Prof. Dr. M. Zuber

 Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Carbon Fibre
2. Chemical Structure of Carbon Fibre
3. Polymer Chemistry of PAN (Polyacrylonitrile)
4. Polymer Chemistry of Pitch-Based Precursors
5. Polymer Chemistry of Rayon-Based Precursors
6. Comparative Analysis of Carbon Fibre Precursors
7. Carbon Fibre Manufacturing Process
8. Role of Polymer Chemistry in Each Manufacturing Step
9. Advanced Polymer Modifications for High-Performance Fibre
10.Significant Properties of Carbon Fibre
11.Applications of Carbon Fibre
12.Environmental and Economic Considerations
13.Recent Advances and Innovations
14.Future Prospects and Conclusion
15.References
1. Introduction to Carbon Fibre
Carbon fibre is a high-performance material composed primarily of carbon atoms organized in a
crystalline structure. These fibres exhibit exceptional mechanical properties, particularly high
tensile strength, light weight, thermal stability, and chemical resistance, making them ideal
for use in demanding engineering applications such as aerospace, automotive, military, and
sports equipment (Kumar & Dixit, 2014). The growing demand for stronger and lighter materials
in modern industries has positioned carbon fibre as a critical innovation in materials science and
polymer chemistry.

The origin of carbon fibre lies in the controlled thermal decomposition of specific organic
polymers, which undergo a series of chemical transformations—namely stabilization,
carbonization, and sometimes graphitization—to produce carbon-rich fibrous structures. The
success of this conversion process depends greatly on the chemical nature of the precursor
polymer, which must be rich in carbon content and capable of forming a stable ladder-like or
aromatic structure upon pyrolysis (Liu et al., 2020). The most commonly used precursor
polymers include polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch, and rayon, each of which contributes
different physical and chemical characteristics to the final carbon fibre product.

Among these, PAN is the most dominant precursor, accounting for over 90% of the global
carbon fibre production due to its ability to yield high-strength, stable fibres after undergoing
complex thermal reactions (Baker & Rials, 2013). PAN’s linear structure, containing nitrile
groups (–CN), facilitates cyclization and dehydrogenation during heat treatment, enabling the
formation of a thermally stable, conjugated ladder polymer. In contrast, pitch, which is derived
from petroleum or coal tar, is inherently rich in aromatic compounds, and thus provides an ideal
platform for producing high-modulus carbon fibres with highly ordered graphitic structures.
Rayon, a cellulose-based precursor, though less common today due to its lower carbon yield, was
historically significant and is still used for applications requiring high surface area and porosity,
such as in activated carbon fibres (Morgan, 2005).

From a polymer chemistry perspective, the chemical composition, molecular weight, and
functional group distribution of the precursor polymer directly influence the effectiveness of
the carbon fibre formation process. For instance, the presence of polar or reactive groups like
nitriles or hydroxyls aids in stabilizing the polymer during pyrolysis and reduces the formation of
volatile by-products (Liu et al., 2020). Moreover, the polymer's chain alignment and crystallinity
affect the microstructure of the resulting fibre, determining its tensile strength, modulus, and
thermal conductivity.

In conclusion, carbon fibre is not merely a product of physical spinning and heat treatment but is
deeply rooted in the chemistry of the raw polymer. A comprehensive understanding of the
molecular interactions, thermal transformations, and chemical reactivity of precursor
polymers is essential for tailoring the final properties of carbon fibre for specific industrial
applications.
2. Classification and Types of Carbon Fibre Based on
Polymer Precursors
Carbon fibres are categorized based on the type of precursor polymer from which they are
derived. This classification is fundamental because the molecular structure, chemical
composition, and thermal behavior of each polymer precursor determine the physical,
mechanical, and thermal properties of the resulting carbon fibre. The three principal precursor
types used in industrial carbon fibre production are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch, and rayon.
Each of these precursors has a distinct chemical nature and transformation pathway during
carbon fibre fabrication, resulting in unique fibre characteristics and applications (Morgan,
2005).

2.1 PAN-Based Carbon Fibre

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is the most widely used precursor in carbon fibre manufacturing,
responsible for more than 90% of global production (Baker & Rials, 2013). PAN is a linear
polymer with a repeating unit containing a nitrile group (–CN), which plays a crucial role in fibre
formation. During heat treatment, PAN undergoes cyclization, dehydrogenation, and
oxidation, converting the linear polymer into a highly crosslinked, ladder-like structure. This
stabilized structure is then carbonized at high temperatures (800–1600°C), where non-carbon
atoms are eliminated, leaving behind an ordered carbon matrix.

The superior mechanical properties of PAN-based carbon fibres, including high tensile strength
(up to 5.5 GPa) and moderate modulus (230–300 GPa), stem from the uniform molecular
orientation and stable conjugated structure formed during thermal conversion (Liu et al., 2020).
Because of their strength and versatility, PAN-based fibres are widely used in aerospace,
automotive, construction, and sports equipment.
2.2 Pitch-Based Carbon Fibre

Pitch, a complex mixture of aromatic hydrocarbons derived from petroleum or coal tar, serves
as another significant precursor for carbon fibres. Unlike PAN, pitch has a naturally high carbon
content and contains pre-formed aromatic rings, making it an ideal candidate for producing high-
modulus and high-thermal-conductivity carbon fibres. The pitch is first purified and
isotropized to ensure uniformity, then melt-spun, stabilized, and finally carbonized or
graphitized.

Pitch-based carbon fibres exhibit extremely high modulus (up to 900 GPa) and excellent
thermal conductivity (up to 1000 W/m·K), due to their highly graphitic structure. However,
they typically possess lower tensile strength than PAN-based fibres. These fibres are commonly
used in thermal management systems, spacecraft components, and electrochemical devices,
where stiffness and conductivity are prioritized over tensile strength (Park & He, 2012).

2.3 Rayon-Based Carbon Fibre

Rayon is a regenerated cellulose polymer derived from natural sources such as wood pulp or
cotton. Historically, rayon was one of the first polymers used for carbon fibre production. During
pyrolysis, the hydroxyl groups (–OH) in cellulose undergo dehydration and aromatization,
forming a porous carbon structure. However, the carbon yield from rayon is relatively low
(~20–25%), and the resulting carbon fibres lack the mechanical strength and modulus of PAN-
or pitch-based fibres (Morgan, 2005).

Despite these limitations, rayon-based carbon fibres are still valuable in activated carbon fibre
(ACF) applications, particularly in air and water filtration, gas adsorption, and biomedical
uses, where high surface area and porosity are more critical than mechanical strength (Baker
& Rials, 2013).
2.4 Comparative Analysis

The table below summarizes the properties and key features of each carbon fibre type based on
their precursor chemistry:

Precursor Primary Functional Tensile Modulus Key Applications

Groups Strength (GPa) (GPa)
PAN –CN (nitrile) 3.5–5.5 230–300 Aerospace, automotive,
construction
Pitch Aromatic 2.0–3.5 600–900 Thermal systems, space
hydrocarbons structures
Rayon –OH (hydroxyl) <2.0 <200 Filtration, gas adsorption

This classification highlights how the chemical backbone and polymer structure of each
precursor determine the performance profile of the resulting carbon fibre. In advanced polymer
chemistry, tailoring these precursors through copolymerization, functionalization, or molecular
design opens avenues for next-generation carbon fibre materials with customizable properties
for specific high-performance applications.

3. Polymer Chemistry of PAN as Carbon Fibre Precursor

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is the most commonly used and technically favored polymer precursor
for producing high-performance carbon fibres. Its linear molecular structure, high carbon
yield (~50–60%), and stabilization chemistry make it particularly suitable for transformation
into strong, stable carbon fibres. Understanding the polymer chemistry of PAN is essential to
controlling the thermal reactions during fibre processing and achieving desired mechanical and
structural properties in the final product (Baker & Rials, 2013).

3.1 Molecular Structure and Synthesis of PAN

PAN is a synthetic semicrystalline polymer composed of repeating acrylonitrile units (CH₂=CH–

CN). The polymer is typically synthesized via free radical polymerization of acrylonitrile (AN)
monomers in aqueous or solvent-based systems. Initiators such as azobisisobutyronitrile
(AIBN) or potassium persulfate are used to initiate the reaction. The general reaction proceeds
as follows:

n CH₂=CH–CN → –[CH₂–CH(CN)]–ₙ

This polymerization yields high molecular weight PAN chains, which may be copolymerized
with small amounts of methyl acrylate, itaconic acid, or acrylic acid to enhance solubility,
spinnability, and thermal stability (Liu et al., 2020). These comonomers introduce polar or acidic
groups that improve fibre formation and affect the cyclization kinetics during the stabilization
process.
The nitrile group (–C≡N) plays a central role in PAN’s transformation into carbon fibre. During
thermal treatment, the nitrile groups undergo intramolecular cyclization, dehydrogenation, and
aromatization, forming a thermally stable, conjugated ladder-like structure. This molecular
rearrangement is the backbone for achieving high carbon yields and graphitic microstructures
(Morgan, 2005).

3.2 Stabilization Process: Cyclization and Ladder Polymer Formation

The first and most critical chemical transformation in PAN-based carbon fibre production is
oxidative stabilization, conducted in air at 200–300 °C. In this step, the nitrile groups (-C≡N)
undergo cyclization to form fused-ring structures, converting the linear PAN into a ladder
polymer with enhanced thermal stability. This reaction is exothermic and requires careful
control to avoid fibre degradation.

The primary cyclization mechanism involves nucleophilic attack by methylene (-CH₂-)

hydrogens on adjacent nitrile groups, forming six-membered rings containing nitrogen atoms.
This leads to a structure rich in conjugated C=N and C=C bonds, as shown below:

–CH₂–CH(CN)– → –CH=CH–C=N–C=N–CH=CH–

Additionally, oxidation reactions introduce ketone and carboxylic acid groups, improving the
rigidity and resistance to melting. Simultaneously, dehydrogenation removes hydrogen atoms
and promotes cross-linking. The resulting stabilized polymer becomes infusible and highly
resistant to thermal degradation (Fitzer et al., 1986).
3.3 Carbonization: Formation of Graphitic Carbon Structures

After stabilization, PAN fibres are subjected to carbonization at 1000–1600°C in an inert

atmosphere (usually nitrogen). During this phase, non-carbon elements like hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen are expelled in the form of volatile gases (e.g., HCN, NH₃, CO, CO₂), and a highly
conjugated carbon backbone remains.

Chemically, carbonization results in the conversion of the ladder polymer into a turbostratic
carbon structure—layers of graphene-like sheets without perfect stacking. The degree of order
depends on temperature and time. If processed above 2000°C, graphitization can occur, further
aligning the layers into true graphite-like crystallites, increasing modulus but reducing strength
due to brittleness (Morgan, 2005).

The final carbon fibre thus formed retains much of the alignment and molecular orientation of
the original PAN polymer. Its high degree of orientation and crystallinity is critical for achieving
tensile strengths above 5 GPa and moduli exceeding 300 GPa (Liu et al., 2020).

3.4 Role of Comonomers and Additives

The chemical behavior of PAN can be finely tuned through copolymerization with comonomers
like itaconic acid, methyl methacrylate, and vinyl acetate, which influence the cyclization
temperature, improve processing conditions, and reduce exothermicity. For example, itaconic
acid introduces carboxylic acid groups that catalyze cyclization and enhance oxidative
stabilization (Wiles & Scott, 2006).

Furthermore, additives such as nanoparticles (e.g., silica, graphene oxide), plasticizers, or

flame retardants can be incorporated into PAN to modify fibre morphology, reduce
flammability, and tailor the final microstructure of carbon fibres (Park & He, 2012). These
modifications are increasingly important in advanced applications where multifunctional carbon
fibres are required.

4. Polymer Chemistry of Pitch and Rayon as Carbon Fibre

Precursors
While PAN dominates the carbon fibre industry, alternative precursors like pitch and rayon also
play crucial roles, especially in applications requiring specialized properties such as high
modulus, high thermal conductivity, or large surface area. The polymer chemistry of these
materials significantly influences the fibre's conversion pathway, microstructure, and
performance. Understanding their chemical transformations during carbon fibre production is
essential for optimizing processing conditions and tailoring material characteristics.

4.1 Chemistry of Pitch-Based Carbon Fibre

Pitch is a complex, high-molecular-weight polymeric material primarily composed of polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). It is derived from either coal tar or petroleum residues, and
its polymeric nature lies in the presence of large, condensed aromatic ring systems with aliphatic
and alkyl side chains (Morgan, 2005).

4.1.1 Structure and Composition

Pitch consists of a polydisperse mix of molecules with molecular weights ranging from a few
hundred to several thousand Daltons. Its structure includes:

• Aromatic rings (C₆H₆ units) linked by methylene bridges or fused systems.

• Variable aliphatic and heteroatomic content (e.g., sulfur, nitrogen).
• Amorphous or semi-graphitizable macromolecular components.

Raw pitch is chemically unstable and unsuitable for fibre spinning. Therefore, it undergoes
purification and polymer modification, known as isotropization, to remove volatiles and
increase softening point and molecular uniformity. For high-performance applications,
mesophase pitch is used—a highly ordered liquid crystalline form of pitch with discotic nematic
alignment that enhances molecular orientation (Fitzer et al., 1995).

The process of pitch-based carbon fiber production

4.1.2 Thermal Transformation

Pitch fibres are produced through melt spinning, followed by oxidative stabilization in air at 200–
300°C. During stabilization:

• Aromatic cross-linking occurs, increasing molecular rigidity.

• Hydrogen atoms are removed (dehydrogenation).
• Oxygen bridges may form, helping to retain fibre shape.

The stabilized pitch is then carbonized at 1000–1500°C under inert atmosphere. Due to its
aromatic-rich backbone, pitch carbonizes with high yield and easily forms highly graphitic
domains. At above 2500°C, graphitization yields near-single-crystal graphite, providing
moduli up to 900 GPa and thermal conductivities over 1000 W/m·K (Park & He, 2012).

4.1.3 Key Features of Pitch Chemistry

• Naturally, high aromatic content promotes graphitic structure formation.

• Requires less chemical modification than PAN but more physical purification.
• Tends to form anisotropic microstructures, ideal for thermal and stiffness-based
applications, but more brittle than PAN-based fibres.

4.2 Chemistry of Rayon-Based Carbon Fibre

Rayon is a regenerated cellulose polymer, originally derived from natural sources such as
wood pulp or cotton. It is composed of β-1,4-linked D-glucose units, making it an organic
polymer with hydroxyl (-OH) functionalities. Rayon was the first carbon fibre precursor used
historically but has been largely replaced due to its low carbon yield and poor mechanical
properties (Morgan, 2005).

4.2.1 Molecular Structure and Behavior

The repeating unit in cellulose (and hence rayon) is anhydroglucose, with the molecular formula
(C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ. Each glucose unit contains:

• Three hydroxyl (-OH) groups.

• A linear configuration with intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
• High crystallinity and extensive hydrogen-bond networks.

Rayon fibres are spun from viscose solution and solidified into regenerated cellulose, retaining
the high –OH content, which is key to subsequent thermal reactions

.
4.2.2 Thermal Chemistry During Fibre Conversion

The transformation of rayon to carbon fibre involves pyrolysis in multiple stages, typically:

1. Dehydration (200–300°C):
Hydroxyl groups (-OH) are removed, forming water and initiating ring opening and
rearrangement reactions. This results in intermediate furans, aldehydes, and
aromatics.
2. Volatilization and carbon formation (300–1000°C):
Cellulose chains break down, releasing gases such as CO, CO₂, CH₄, and H₂O.
Simultaneously, aromatic ring systems form, which fuse into amorphous carbon.
3. Carbonization (above 1000°C):
Further rearrangement leads to a turbostratic carbon structure, though with less order
compared to PAN or pitch fibres.

The final product has low graphitization and poor tensile properties. However, it has
exceptional porosity and surface area, making it suitable for activated carbon fibres used in
adsorption, filtration, and catalysis (Baker & Rials, 2013).

4.2.3 Limitations and Advantages

• Low carbon yield (~20–25%) due to high oxygen content.

• Poor mechanical strength but excellent for surface-dependent applications.
• Complex thermal degradation path requiring precise control.

4.3 Comparative Polymer Chemistry Insights

Precursor Polymer Backbone Carbon Graphitizability Notable Chemistry

Yield (%)

PAN –CH₂–CH(CN)– (linear ~55 Medium Cyclization of nitrile →

with nitrile groups) ladder polymer

Pitch Aromatic hydrocarbons ~70–85 High Graphitization of

(fused rings) aromatic domains

Rayon (C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ (cellulose) ~20–25 Low Dehydration and

aromatization of glucose

This comparative analysis highlights how the polymer chemistry and thermal reactivity of
each precursor governs the microstructural evolution, carbon yield, and final fibre
performance. While PAN provides a balance of strength and process control, pitch offers
superior thermal and modulus characteristics, and rayon enables cost-effective production of
porous carbon structures.
5. Stabilization Process – Chemistry and Mechanism
The stabilization process is a critical intermediate step in the production of carbon fibres,
particularly from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursors. It involves controlled thermal oxidation
of the polymer in air at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 300°C, during which the
thermoplastic PAN fibre becomes thermoset and chemically cross-linked. This transformation
ensures that the fibre retains its structural integrity during subsequent carbonization at high
temperatures, preventing melting or fusion. The stabilization process is heavily dependent on
the underlying polymer chemistry, and its mechanism is complex and multi-staged, involving
several simultaneous reactions such as cyclization, dehydrogenation, oxidation, and cross-
linking.

5.1 Chemical Changes During Stabilization

5.1.1 Cyclization of Nitrile Groups

The most important chemical transformation during stabilization is the intramolecular

cyclization of the nitrile groups (–C≡N) along the PAN backbone. PAN, composed of repeating
–CH₂–CH(CN)– units, undergoes a heat-activated process wherein adjacent nitrile groups react
to form conjugated ladder-like cyclic structures. This process begins around 200–220°C and is
exothermic.

The reaction can be simplified as follows:

–CH₂–CH(CN)– → –[C=N–C=N–C=N]– (ladder polymer)

This cyclization transforms the linear PAN chain into a ladder polymer, which is more
thermally stable and resistant to melting. The formation of six-membered rings (often aromatic
or pseudo-aromatic in nature) gives the fibre the rigidity needed for high-temperature
carbonization (Rahaman et al., 2007).

5.1.2 Dehydrogenation

Simultaneously, dehydrogenation occurs, particularly on the methylene (–CH₂–) groups. This

involves the removal of hydrogen atoms and leads to the development of conjugated double
bonds and unsaturated systems, enhancing the stability of the forming ladder structure.
Dehydrogenation increases as temperature rises toward 300°C and is vital for enhancing
oxidative resistance and forming aromatic-like regions in the polymer matrix.

5.1.3 Oxidation and Cross-Linking

The stabilization process is conducted in air, enabling oxidative reactions. Oxygen molecules
diffuse into the fibre and react with various reactive sites:

• Hydrogen abstraction: leads to the formation of peroxy radicals and hydroxyl

intermediates.
 • Cross-linking: new C–O and C–C bonds are formed between adjacent polymer chains.
• Carbonyl and carboxyl group formation: some –CN and –CH₂ groups are converted
into –COOH and C=O functionalities.

These oxidation steps promote inter-chain cross-linking, thereby "locking" the molecular
arrangement and making the fibre infusible. Additionally, oxidation introduces heteroatoms
(mainly O), which are partially removed during carbonization but temporarily contribute to
dimensional stability.

Reactions involved in PAN thermal stabilization

5.2 Kinetics and Control of Stabilization

The kinetics of stabilization must be carefully controlled because the cyclization reaction is
highly exothermic. If the heat is not dissipated uniformly, local overheating can occur, leading
to fiber fusion or surface defects. The rate and depth of stabilization depend on several factors:

• Heating rate: Slow ramping of temperature allows for uniform chemical

transformations.
• Fibre tension: Mechanical stretching during stabilization controls shrinkage and orients
the molecules.
• Atmosphere: Air (oxygen content), humidity, and flow rate influence oxidation.
• Comonomers: The presence of itaconic acid or methyl acrylate in PAN copolymers
affects the rate and extent of stabilization.
Typically, multi-zone furnaces are used, where fibres pass through regions of gradually
increasing temperature. The total stabilization time ranges from 30 minutes to several hours,
depending on fibre diameter and desired quality.

5.3 Structural and Physical Changes

As a result of the stabilization process, several important structural modifications occur in the
PAN fibre:

• The colour of the fibre changes from white to yellow to brown, indicating increasing
cyclization and oxidation.
• The polymer loses its thermoplasticity, becoming rigid and insoluble.
• The fibre's density increases (from ~1.18 to 1.35 g/cm³).
• New aromatic-like conjugated structures form, setting the stage for graphitic
development during carbonization.

Stabilized PAN fibres contain a partially aromatized, cross-linked structure that is crucial for
producing high-strength carbon fibres with good carbon yield (~55%). If stabilization is
incomplete or uneven, the carbonization step may produce defective or brittle fibres.

5.4 Reactions Summary

Reaction Type Description Effect

Cyclization Nitrile groups form ladder-like Thermostability, rigid backbone
conjugated rings
Dehydrogenation Removal of hydrogen atoms Enhances conjugation and oxidative
stability
Oxidation Incorporation of oxygen, formation of Cross-linking, infusibility
C–O and C=O
Cross-linking Chains connected via new covalent Dimensional integrity
bonds

6. Carbonization – Chemistry and Microstructural

Evolution
After the successful stabilization of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibres, the next crucial step in
carbon fibre production is carbonization, which transforms the stabilized, cross-linked polymer
into a carbon-rich material with a highly ordered, graphitic microstructure. This process occurs
under an inert atmosphere (typically nitrogen or argon) at elevated temperatures ranging from
1000°C to 1600°C, depending on the targeted properties of the final fibre. The primary goal is to
eliminate non-carbon elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) from the polymer matrix, resulting
in a material that is predominantly carbon (typically >90% carbon content). The carbonization
process is highly dependent on the polymer chemistry formed during stabilization and influences
the mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and microstructure of the carbon fibre.

6.1 Key Chemical Reactions During Carbonization

During carbonization, several concurrent pyrolytic reactions take place. These are non-
oxidative decomposition reactions, meaning they occur in the absence of oxygen to prevent
combustion or oxidation of carbon.

6.1.1 Elimination of Non-Carbon Elements

The stabilized PAN structure, which contains nitrile rings, oxidized groups (C=O, –COOH), and
other heteroatoms, undergoes further chemical decomposition:

• Dehydrogenation: Additional hydrogen is removed as H₂ gas.

• Denitrogenation: Nitrogen is released in the form of HCN, NH₃, or N₂.
• Deoxygenation: Oxygen is removed as CO, CO₂, or H₂O vapor.

These reactions lead to a significant weight loss (~40–50%) and a gradual enrichment of carbon
content:

CₓHᵧO_zN_w → C + gases (H₂, CO, CO₂, HCN, NH₃)

The precise decomposition products depend on the stabilization quality and comonomers used in
the PAN precursor.

6.1.2 Aromatization and Formation of Graphitic Domains

As heteroatoms are removed, the carbon atoms in the fibre begin to rearrange and form
aromatic and graphitic domains. This rearrangement leads to a progressive transformation of
the disordered carbon into sp² hybridized planar structures (graphene-like sheets). These
planes begin to stack and align in a turbostratic arrangement, which is a partially ordered
structure with short-range graphitic order but misaligned layers due to defects or curvature.

The general sequence can be described as:

1. Amorphous carbon →
2. Aromatic clusters →
3. Layered graphitic sheets (partial ordering)

This transformation is crucial for imparting mechanical strength and stiffness to carbon fibres,
as the aligned graphitic planes efficiently distribute load along the fibre axis.

6.2 Microstructural Changes

The structural evolution during carbonization results in the following significant changes:
 • Increased Carbon Content: Rises from ~55–60% (in stabilized fibres) to >90% after
carbonization.
• Graphitic Domain Formation: Random carbon atoms start to arrange into graphene-
like sheets.
• Fibre Shrinkage and Densification: The fibre shrinks slightly (~5–10%) but becomes
denser and more oriented.
• Loss of Voids and Amorphous Regions: Non-crystalline regions are eliminated, and the
fibre becomes more uniform.

The interlayer spacing between carbon planes (d₀₀₂ spacing) decreases, approaching the ideal
graphite value of ~0.335 nm, although complete graphitization requires even higher temperatures
(>2500°C).

6.3 Process Parameters and Their Control

To ensure high-quality carbon fibres, the carbonization process is carefully controlled using
multi-zone furnaces with gradual heating profiles. Key process parameters include:

• Temperature Zones: Typically 1000–1200°C for low-modulus fibres; up to 1600°C for

high-modulus ones.
• Atmosphere: Inert gas (N₂ or Ar) prevents oxidation.
• Heating Rate: Must be slow enough to avoid fibre breakage due to volatile evolution.
• Tension Application: Fibres are kept under slight tension to maintain alignment and
reduce curl or defects.

Controlling these parameters ensures uniform carbonization, which is critical for optimizing
tensile strength and modulus.

6.4 Resulting Properties After Carbonization

Property Effect of Carbonization

Carbon Content Increases to >90%, enhancing conductivity and strength

Crystallinity Partial graphitic ordering achieved

Modulus and Strength Improved due to better load-bearing alignment

Thermal Stability Excellent, suitable for high-temperature use

Electrical Conductivity Increases with graphitic content

These carbonized fibres are typically termed as carbon fibres (not yet graphite fibres), with a
balance of high tensile strength (~3–5 GPa) and moderate modulus (200–300 GPa), making
them ideal for aerospace and structural composites.
6.5 Chemical Structure Before and After

Stage Structure
Stabilized PAN Ladder polymer with heteroatoms (N, O, H)
Carbonized Fibre Disordered/partially ordered aromatic carbon with high carbon content

7. Graphitization – High-Temperature Treatment and

Structural Perfection
Graphitization is the final thermal treatment step in the production of high-performance carbon
fibres, following carbonization. While carbonization produces fibres with high carbon content
and partially ordered structures, graphitization takes this further by exposing the carbonized
fibres to extremely high temperatures (2500–3000°C) in an inert atmosphere (usually argon).
This process enhances the crystalline order, reduces defects, and aligns graphene layers,
leading to the formation of graphitic carbon fibres with ultra-high modulus and superior
electrical and thermal conductivity.

7.1 Purpose of Graphitization

The graphitization process is not necessary for all carbon fibre grades. It is primarily used for
producing:

• High-modulus carbon fibres (HM-CF)

• Ultra-high modulus carbon fibres (UHM-CF)
• High-conductivity applications (e.g., heat spreaders, electronics)

The main goals of graphitization are:

• To improve crystallinity and orientation of the carbon planes

• To reduce turbostratic disorder (misaligned graphene layers)
• To reduce defects such as voids, dangling bonds, and amorphous regions
• To increase modulus, conductivity, and thermal stability

7.2 Chemical and Structural Changes

Graphitization involves solid-state transformation rather than any further chemical reaction.
However, important microstructural evolution takes place due to atomic rearrangement:

7.2.1 Crystallite Growth and Alignment

• Graphitization causes sp²-bonded carbon atoms to rearrange into more perfectly

aligned graphitic layers.
 • Crystallite size increases in both the a-axis (within layers) and c-axis (layer stacking
direction).
• Interlayer spacing (d₀₀₂) reduces closer to the ideal graphite value of 0.3354 nm.

7.2.2 Reduction in Turbostratic Disorder

• The turbostratic carbon in carbonized fibres has randomly stacked, misaligned

graphene layers.
• Graphitization decreases rotational and translational disorder, producing more regular
stacking.

7.2.3 Density and Purity Improvement

• The carbon content may rise slightly (from ~92–94% to >99%) due to removal of
residual heteroatoms.
• Fibre density increases, which correlates with improved modulus.

7.3 Graphitization Process Conditions

The transformation occurs in high-temperature furnaces with the following parameters:

Parameter Typical Range

Temperature 2500°C – 3000°C

Atmosphere Argon or nitrogen (inert gas)

Duration Short (few minutes) to avoid degradation
Tension Usually applied to maintain orientation

Note: Special graphite furnaces made of graphite insulation and graphite electrodes are used
due to the extreme temperatures involved.

7.4 Types of Carbon Fibres Based on Graphitization

Fibre Type Heat Treatment Properties

Temperature (HTT)
Low Modulus CF < 1200°C High strength, low modulus,
turbostratic structure
Intermediate ~1500–1800°C Moderate graphitic structure, good
Modulus CF strength and modulus
High Modulus CF ~2500°C Highly aligned graphitic layers, high
stiffness
Ultra-High Modulus > 2800°C Near-perfect graphite, extremely high
CF stiffness, low strength
7.5 Effects on Final Properties

Graphitization significantly enhances the following characteristics:

Property Effect
Modulus (Stiffness) Increases up to 900 GPa (almost triple that of carbonized fibres)
Thermal Conductivity Improves due to graphitic structure (~500 W/m·K or higher)
Electrical Conductivity Approaches values close to pure graphite

Tensile Strength May decrease slightly due to increased brittleness

Structural Order Almost crystalline, with highly oriented graphene planes

7.6 Trade-Off Between Strength and Modulus

A key trade-off arises during graphitization:

• High tensile strength (found in carbonized fibres) tends to decrease because high-
temperature treatment induces microcracks, grain boundary growth, and loss of
flexibility.
• In contrast, modulus increases sharply due to improved atomic alignment and graphitic
ordering.

Thus, fibres for structural composites (like aircraft) often use intermediate or high-modulus
carbon fibres, not ultra-high modulus ones, to maintain strength.

7.7 Graphitic Structure: Schematic Representation

Before Graphitization:
| | | | |
Disordered, misaligned layers
(turbostratic structure)

After Graphitization:
||||||||||||||||||||
Highly ordered, aligned graphene sheets
(crystalline graphite-like structure)
8. Surface Treatment and Sizing – Interfacial Compatibility
Carbon fibres possess exceptional mechanical properties like high tensile strength and stiffness.
However, their inert surface, poor wettability, and low chemical reactivity create a major
issue when bonding with matrices (especially in composites like epoxy resins). To resolve this,
surface treatment and sizing processes are conducted to enhance fibre–matrix adhesion,
increase interfacial shear strength, and protect the fibres during handling.

These processes play a crucial role in determining the overall performance of carbon fibre-
reinforced composites (CFRCs).

8.1 Importance of Surface Treatment

Without surface modification, carbon fibres often suffer from:

• Poor interfacial bonding with the resin matrix

• Weak load transfer, leading to delamination and failure
• Low composite toughness and durability

Surface treatment creates functional groups (like –COOH, –OH, –C=O) on the fibre surface,
enabling chemical bonding or mechanical interlocking with the matrix.

8.2 Types of Surface Treatments

There are two primary types of surface treatments applied to carbon fibres:

8.2.1 Oxidative Surface Treatment

This is the most common method and involves oxidizing the surface using chemicals or
electrochemical processes.

(a) Chemical Oxidation:

• Uses nitric acid, chromic acid, or ozone to oxidize the fibre surface.
• Generates carboxylic acid (-COOH), hydroxyl (-OH), and carbonyl (C=O) groups.

Example Reaction:

C (graphitic) + HNO₃ → C–COOH + NO₂↑ + H₂O

(b) Electrochemical Oxidation:

• Fibres are passed through an electrolyte (e.g., ammonium bicarbonate solution).

• An electric potential causes surface oxidation without harsh chemicals.
Advantages:

• Precise control over surface properties

• Environmentally cleaner than chemical baths

8.2.2 Plasma Treatment

Involves exposing fibres to a plasma discharge (O₂, N₂, Ar) in vacuum. It modifies the top few
nanometers of the surface without affecting bulk properties.

• Plasma introduces polar groups and nano-scale roughness.

• Allows fibre–resin interaction through mechanical interlocking and van der Waals
bonding.

Advantages:

• No chemicals used
• Very uniform treatment
• Preserves tensile strength

8.3 Surface Characterization After Treatment

After treatment, fibres are characterized to ensure effectiveness:

Property Measurement Method

Surface Functional Groups XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy)

Surface Energy Contact angle analysis

Surface Roughness Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), SEM

Interfacial Strength Single fibre pull-out / microdroplet test

8.4 Sizing – Fibre Coating for Protection and Compatibility

Sizing is the application of a very thin polymeric coating (0.5–2% by weight) onto the treated
carbon fibre. It serves multiple functions:

• Protects fibres during handling, weaving, and storage

• Improves adhesion with the resin
• Reduces fibre–fibre friction
• Prevents micro-damage and fuzz formation
Common Sizing Agents:

• Epoxy-based for epoxy resin matrices

• Polyamide or polyester for thermoplastic matrices
• Urethane-based for compatibility with multiple resins

The sizing chemistry is tailored to match the matrix resin used in the final composite.

8.5 Industrial Surface Treatment Workflow

Carbonized Fibre
↓
Electrochemical/Plasma Oxidation
↓
Surface Rinsing & Drying
↓
Sizing Application (spray or immersion)
↓
Drying/Curing
↓
Winding & Packaging

Each step is optimized for uniformity, adhesion, and preservation of mechanical properties.

8.6 Effect of Surface Treatment and Sizing on Composite Performance

Property Improved Reason

Interfacial Shear Strength Functional groups improve chemical bonding with matrix

Composite Toughness Better fibre–resin load transfer reduces crack propagation

Environmental Resistance Proper sizing provides barrier against moisture, chemicals, UV

Processability Sizing improves handling, weaving, and reduces electrostatic issues

8.7 Challenges and Optimization

• Over-treatment can cause fibre damage and loss in tensile strength.

• Under-treatment results in poor adhesion.
• Sizing must be compatible with matrix resin; mismatched sizing can reduce
performance.
 • Surface treatments are optimized using design of experiments (DOE) and statistical
process control (SPC) in industry.

9. Properties of Carbon Fibres – Structure–Property

Relationships
The exceptional performance of carbon fibres is linked to their chemical structure,
microstructure, and the processing conditions they undergo. This section highlights the
correlation between fibre morphology, crystalline structure, and the mechanical, thermal,
and electrical properties of carbon fibres, explaining why they are uniquely suited for high-
performance composite applications.

9.1 Microstructure of Carbon Fibres

Carbon fibres are not purely graphitic. Instead, they exhibit a turbostratic structure — a
disordered stacking of graphene-like layers. The structure varies based on the precursor material
and processing temperatures:

• PAN-based fibres: Exhibit small crystallites with high orientation.

• Pitch-based fibres: Can develop highly ordered graphite structures (after high-
temperature graphitization).
• Rayon-based fibres: Often have a less ordered structure and are rarely used today.

Key Microstructural Features:

Feature Influence on Properties

Crystallite size (La, Lc) Determines modulus and electrical conductivity
Degree of orientation Affects tensile strength and stiffness
Defect density Controls toughness and strain to failure
Porosity and voids Reduce strength and increase moisture uptake

9.2 Mechanical Properties

Carbon fibres are well-known for their exceptional mechanical performance, particularly in
tensile strength and modulus.

Property PAN-Based CF Pitch-Based CF

Tensile Strength 3.5 – 7.0 GPa 1.0 – 3.5 GPa
Modulus of Elasticity 230 – 600 GPa Up to 900 GPa
Strain to Failure 0.5 – 2% < 1%
Density 1.75 – 1.95 g/cm³ 1.90 – 2.20 g/cm³
Explanation:

• High tensile strength arises from aligned polymer chains and strong covalent bonds
(C–C).
• High modulus is due to graphitic crystallites aligned along the fibre axis.
• Low strain to failure indicates brittle fracture, common in highly ordered materials.

9.3 Thermal Properties

Carbon fibres exhibit excellent thermal resistance and stability, owing to their carbon-rich,
aromatic structure.

Property Value/Range

Decomposition Temp. > 3500°C in inert atmosphere

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) –0.5 to +1.5 × 10⁻⁶ /K (very low)

Thermal Conductivity 10 – 1000 W/m·K (anisotropic)

Heat Resistance Retains 90% strength up to 300°C

Note:

• Pitch-based fibres with higher graphitization exhibit superior thermal conductivity

(~1000 W/m·K) — comparable to copper.
• Negative CTE in the axial direction makes them dimensionally stable under heat.

9.4 Electrical Properties

Carbon fibres are electrically conductive due to the presence of delocalized π-electrons in the
graphene-like structure.

Parameter Value/Range

Electrical Conductivity 10³ – 10⁵ S/m

Resistivity 10⁻⁵ – 10⁻³ Ω·m

• Higher conductivity in pitch-based fibres due to better crystalline order.

• This makes carbon fibres suitable for EM shielding, lightning strike protection, and
sensors.
 9.5 Chemical Resistance

Carbon fibres are chemically inert, especially in acidic and alkaline environments.
However, under oxidizing conditions at high temperatures (>400°C in air), they begin
to degrade:

• Stable in most solvents, acids, and bases

• Oxidation in air:

C+O2→CO2↑

To improve long-term environmental resistance, sizing agents and coatings are often used.

9.6 Structure–Property Relationships

Structural Feature Affects

Graphite layer orientation Tensile modulus, electrical & thermal conductivity

Crystallite size & defects Strength, toughness, strain to failure

Surface functionalization Interfacial bonding with matrix

Degree of graphitization Thermal and electrical conductivity

10. Significant Properties of Carbon Fibre

Carbon fibre exhibits a unique combination of mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical
properties, which makes it superior to traditional materials such as metals and polymers. These
properties are largely influenced by the molecular structure of the precursor polymer, the
degree of graphitization, and the manufacturing process. This section presents the major
technical properties of carbon fibre in detail.

10.1 High Tensile Strength

Carbon fibre shows extremely high tensile strength, typically ranging from 3.5 to 7.0 GPa,
depending on the fibre type and processing conditions.

• Reason: Strong covalent bonds in carbon atoms arranged in graphitic planes.

• Applications: Critical in structural components like aircraft wings, bridges, and sports
equipment.
• Comparison: ~10 times stronger than steel per unit weight.
10.2 High Modulus (Stiffness)

Carbon fibres possess high Young’s modulus, ranging from 230 to 900 GPa depending on
whether they are high-strength (HS), intermediate modulus (IM), or high modulus (HM) fibres.

• Why important: Provides rigidity and dimensional stability under stress.

• Uses: Aerospace, robotics arms, precision machinery, satellite frames.

10.3 Low Density

Carbon fibres have a density of about 1.75 to 2.0 g/cm³, making them much lighter than metals
like aluminum (2.7 g/cm³) and steel (7.8 g/cm³).

• Result: Superior strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios.

• Benefit: Ideal for applications requiring weight savings (e.g., automotive, aerospace).

10.4 Thermal Stability

Carbon fibre can withstand extremely high temperatures (up to 3000°C) in inert environments.

• Oxidation threshold: Begins to degrade in air above ~400°C.

• Applications: Rocket nozzles, heat shields, and furnace insulation.

10.5 Electrical Conductivity

Carbon fibre is electrically conductive, especially in highly graphitized forms.

• Why: π-electrons in the graphite structure allow for electron movement.

• Applications: EMI shielding, antistatic components, electric heating elements.

10.6 Chemical Resistance

Carbon fibres are highly resistant to acids, solvents, and corrosive environments.

• Reason: Stable carbon-carbon bonds and low reactivity.

• Benefit: Suitable for marine, chemical processing, and outdoor applications.

10.7 Fatigue Resistance

Carbon fibre composites demonstrate excellent fatigue resistance, retaining strength over
repeated loading cycles.

• Comparison: Performs better than steel and aluminum under cyclic loading.
• Applications: Aircraft wings, wind turbine blades, and sporting goods.
10.8 Dimensional Stability

Carbon fibre does not significantly expand or contract with temperature changes due to its low
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).

• CTE: Close to zero or even negative in some orientations.

• Uses: Precision instruments, space telescopes, and optical benches.

10.9 Vibration Damping and Acoustic Properties

Although inherently stiff, carbon fibre composites can be engineered to absorb and dampen
vibrations when combined with suitable matrix materials.

• Application: Audio equipment, drone frames, and car interiors.

10.10 Tailorability and Anisotropy

Carbon fibre properties can be tailored by:

• Changing precursor type (PAN, pitch)

• Adjusting orientation (unidirectional, woven)
• Controlling processing parameters (temperature, tension)

Anisotropy:

• Properties vary with direction (strong along fibre axis, weaker perpendicular).
• Design advantage: Can be engineered to meet specific load conditions.

11.Applications of Carbon Fibre-Based Composites

Carbon fibre-based composites have revolutionized modern material science due to their
outstanding mechanical strength, low weight, thermal stability, and chemical
resistance. The incorporation of carbon fibres into polymer matrices (usually
thermosetting or thermoplastic resins) results in carbon fibre-reinforced polymers
(CFRPs), which are widely used across high-performance sectors.

11.1 Aerospace and Aviation

Carbon fibre composites are extensively used in aerospace structures, replacing metals like
aluminum and titanium due to superior strength-to-weight ratio.

Applications include:

• Aircraft fuselage, wings, and tail sections (e.g., Boeing 787 contains ~50% CFRP)
• Satellite structures and components
Benefits:

• Weight reduction (up to 30%) leads to fuel efficiency

• Improved fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance
• High dimensional stability under thermal stress

11.2 Automotive Industry

In modern high-performance and electric vehicles, CFRPs are used for weight reduction
without compromising safety and strength.

Applications include:

• Car body panels (e.g., hoods, roofs, bumpers)

• Structural reinforcements
• Driveshafts, suspension arms
• Battery enclosures in electric vehicles

Benefits:

• Enhanced acceleration and braking

• Reduced fuel consumption and emissions
• High crashworthiness due to energy absorption capacity

Example: BMW’s i-series (i3, i8) extensively uses CFRP components.

11.3 Sports and Recreational Equipment

Carbon fibres offer lightweight and durable solutions in sports gear, enhancing performance
and comfort.

Applications include:

• Tennis racquets, golf clubs, baseball bats

• Racing bicycles and helmets
• Skis, snowboards, surfboards
• Fishing rods, archery bows

Why Carbon Fibre?

• High stiffness improves control and accuracy

• Reduced fatigue for athletes due to lower weight
• Superior vibration damping
11.4 Civil Engineering and Construction

CFRPs are increasingly applied in construction for structural rehabilitation and new design
innovations.

Applications include:

• Strengthening of beams, columns, and bridges

• Earthquake-resistant retrofitting
• Rebar replacement and crack repairs
• Lightweight architectural elements (e.g., domes, panels)

Benefits:

• Non-corrosive alternative to steel reinforcements

• Long life span with minimal maintenance
• Easy to apply (wraps and laminates)

11.5 Renewable Energy Sector

Carbon fibre plays a vital role in wind energy and energy storage systems due to its stiffness
and fatigue resistance.

Applications include:

• Wind turbine blades (longer and lighter for higher efficiency)

• Hydrogen storage tanks (CFRP pressure vessels)
• Structural parts of solar panel assemblies

11.6 Electronics and EMI Shielding

Carbon fibre’s electrical conductivity makes it suitable for electromagnetic shielding and
lightweight casings.

Applications include:

• Laptop casings and mobile phone components

• Aerospace electronics housings
• EMI shielding for sensitive devices

11.7 Biomedical and Prosthetics

Due to biocompatibility, strength, and customizability, carbon fibre is increasingly used in the
biomedical field.
Applications include:

• Prosthetic limbs (lightweight and durable)

• Orthopedic braces
• Surgical instruments and medical equipment supports

11.8 Military and Defense

CFRPs are widely used in defense applications where high strength, stealth, and durability are
required.

Applications include:

• Ballistic panels and body armor

• Vehicle and aircraft components
• UAV and missile parts
• Radar-absorbing structures (stealth technology)

11.9 Marine Industry

Carbon fibres are increasingly used in boats and marine structures due to corrosion resistance
and lightness.

Applications include:

• Racing yacht hulls

• Masts, booms, and deck fittings
• Submersible components

11.10 Emerging and Future Applications

• 3D printing of CFRPs for rapid prototyping

• Smart structures with embedded sensors
• Flexible electronics and wearable devices
• Space elevators and deep-space exploration components

12 Environmental and Economic Aspects of Carbon Fibre

Production and Recycling
Carbon fibre production offers tremendous benefits in lightweight, high-strength applications,
but it also comes with environmental and economic challenges. Understanding the life-cycle
impact of carbon fibre—especially during precursor synthesis, energy-intensive processing,
and end-of-life disposal—is essential to developing more sustainable and cost-effective
technologies.
12.1 Environmental Challenges in Carbon Fibre Production

Carbon fibre production is energy-intensive, particularly due to high-temperature stabilization

and carbonization steps. These steps significantly contribute to carbon emissions and resource
consumption.

Major Environmental Impacts:

1. High Energy Consumption:

o PAN-based fibre processing requires temperatures up to 1500–3000°C,
consuming 200–400 MJ/kg of fibre.
o Energy use is largely from fossil fuels, contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
2. Toxic Emissions:
o Stabilization of PAN releases nitriles and ammonia, which are harmful if
untreated.
o VOCs (volatile organic compounds) from pitch or solvent recovery also require
scrubbing.
3. Waste Generation:
o Off-cuts, process scrap, and degraded precursor polymers contribute to non-
biodegradable waste.
o Waste carbon fibre is often landfilled or incinerated, with limited recycling
options.
4. Resource Use:
o PAN is derived from acrylonitrile, a petrochemical product.
o Pitch and rayon sources also involve heavy chemical processing, limiting
sustainability.

12.2 Economic Challenges

Despite its advantages, the cost of carbon fibre remains a significant barrier to widespread
adoption, especially in mass-market sectors like construction and automotive.

Factors Affecting Cost:

• Raw material (precursor) cost: PAN accounts for nearly 50% of production cost.
• Process energy cost: Electricity and fuel for thermal treatment is expensive.
• Production yield: Conversion efficiency from PAN to carbon fibre is ~50%.
• Labour and facility costs: Specialized facilities and equipment increase capital
investment.

Estimated Cost per kg (as of 2023):

• PAN-based carbon fibre: $20–$35/kg

• Pitch-based carbon fibre: $35–$60/kg
• Recycled carbon fibre: $5–$15/kg
 12.3 Recycling of Carbon Fibre

Recycling is essential to improve the sustainability and economics of carbon fibre use,
especially in aerospace and automotive sectors, where end-of-life management is increasingly
regulated.

Recycling Methods:

Method Description Pros Cons

Mechanical Shredding and milling into short Simple, low- Loss of mechanical
fibres cost strength
Thermal Heating to remove matrix and High fibre Emissions, energy-
(Pyrolysis) retain fibre retention intensive
Chemical Use of solvents to dissolve Cleaner fibres Complex and costly
(Solvolysis) matrix

Recycled Carbon Fibre (rCF):

• Can be reused in non-structural parts, such as battery trays, interiors, and filler
components.
• Ongoing efforts focus on retaining fibre orientation and minimizing damage during
recycling.

12.4 Sustainability Approaches and Green Alternatives

To mitigate environmental impacts, research focuses on sustainable precursors and process

optimization.

Green Approaches:

• Bio-based PAN: Derived from renewable acrylonitrile sources (e.g., from biomass)
• Lignin-based carbon fibre: A renewable, low-cost precursor from wood and plant
material
• Improved energy recovery: Using waste heat or microwave processing for
carbonization
• Closed-loop recycling: Integrating manufacturing scrap reuse into fibre production

Industry Initiatives:

• EU Horizon 2020 and DOE (USA) are funding projects to reduce carbon fibre cost by
50% and emissions by 60%.
• Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) help industries benchmark environmental performance
and guide improvements.
12.5 Economic and Environmental Trade-offs

While carbon fibres reduce fuel usage, emissions, and maintenance in end-use products (e.g., in
planes and cars), their initial footprint is significant. Trade-offs must be carefully balanced:

Benefit in Use Phase Environmental Cost in Production

Fuel savings in aircraft High GHG emissions during carbonization

Lightweight in EVs Resource-intensive precursor synthesis

Long service life Difficult end-of-life disposal/recycling

13 Recent Advancements in Carbon Fibre Technology

The demand for lighter, stronger, and more sustainable materials has accelerated innovations in
carbon fibre technology. Researchers and industries are focused on enhancing performance,
reducing production costs, developing sustainable precursors, and improving recyclability.
These advancements are making carbon fibres more versatile for both high-end and mass-market
applications.

13.1Advanced Precursor Materials

The precursor polymer defines the structure, cost, and environmental footprint of the resulting
carbon fibre. Recent research has introduced alternative precursors to replace conventional
PAN and pitch.

a. Lignin-Based Carbon Fibre

• Lignin, a by-product of paper and bioethanol industries, is abundant and renewable.

• Offers potential cost reduction and environmental sustainability.
• Challenges include controlling molecular weight and achieving high mechanical
properties.

Reference: Baker, D. A., & Rials, T. G. (2013). Recent advances in low-cost carbon fiber
manufacture from lignin. Journal of Materials Science, 48(1), 184–195.

b. Bio-Based PAN

• Synthesized from biomass-derived acrylonitrile using microbial fermentation.

• Reduces dependence on petrochemicals.
• Companies like Anellotech and Solenis are developing pilot-scale production of bio-PAN.
13.2 Nanostructured Carbon Fibres

Nano-engineered carbon fibres exhibit superior properties by integrating nanomaterials like

carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, or nanosilica during processing.

Benefits:

• Increased modulus and tensile strength

• Enhanced thermal and electrical conductivity
• Better matrix adhesion in composites

Applications:

• Aerospace shielding materials

• Smart textiles
• Next-gen electrodes for energy storage

Example: CNT-reinforced PAN fibres show 25–50% improvement in tensile properties after
carbonization (Kim et al., 2017).

13.3 Automated and Energy-Efficient Processing

New processing methods aim to reduce energy consumption and cycle time during stabilisation
and carbonisation.

a. Microwave-Assisted Stabilization

• Reduces stabilization time from hours to minutes

• Provides uniform heating and lower emissions

b. Plasma Carbonization

• Uses ionised gases instead of direct heat

• Offers lower energy input and rapid conversion

c. Advanced Control Systems

• AI-based process control for real-time monitoring

• Minimises defects and improves fibre quality

13.4 Recyclable and Thermoplastic-Based CFRPs

Conventional CFRPs use thermosetting resins, which are hard to recycle. Recent innovations
are introducing thermoplastic matrices (like PEEK, PEI) and reversible thermosets.
Advantages:

• Thermal remouldability allows reshaping and repair

• Easier mechanical or chemical recycling
• Higher toughness and impact resistance

Reference: Pickering, S. J. (2020). Advances in recycling of fibre-reinforced composites.

Journal of Composite Materials, 54(1), 25–38.

13.5 Smart and Functional Carbon Fibres

Functional carbon fibres are now being developed with embedded sensing, actuation, or
energy storage capabilities.

Smart Functions:

• Self-sensing: Monitor stress, strain, temperature

• Self-healing: Damage recovery via embedded healing agents
• Energy storage: Carbon fibre as structural supercapacitor electrodes

Example: Researchers have developed carbon fibres that double as battery electrodes,
contributing to ―massless energy storage.‖

13.6 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing

Advances in 3D printing now allow integration of continuous carbon fibre into thermoplastic
matrices during printing.

Benefits:

• On-demand fabrication of custom parts

• Lightweight, high-strength prototypes
• Reduced material waste

Companies involved:

• Markforged: 3D printers using continuous carbon fibre reinforcement

• Arevo: Producing complex CFRP parts with robotic 3D printing arms

13.7 AI and Digital Manufacturing Integration

The use of machine learning and simulation tools is transforming carbon fibre production and
composite design.
Applications:

• Process optimisation using predictive models

• Failure prediction in CFRP components
• Digital twins for composite structures

14 Future Prospects and Conclusion

Carbon fibre technology is advancing rapidly, driven by the need for high-performance materials
in sectors such as aerospace, automotive, energy, infrastructure, and consumer electronics. While
the current production methods are effective, they are also energy-intensive, expensive, and
reliant on non-renewable feedstocks. Therefore, future research is focusing on scaling up
production, reducing environmental impact, improving affordability, and integrating
multifunctional features. This section outlines key future directions, along with a summarized
conclusion of the entire assignment.

14.1 Future Prospects in Carbon Fibre Development

a. Cost-Effective and Sustainable Precursors

• Bio-based acrylonitrile and lignin are expected to replace petroleum-derived PAN in the
long term, significantly reducing environmental impact and cost.
• Research into hybrid precursors that combine synthetic and bio-based polymers is
ongoing to achieve high performance with sustainability.

b. Green Manufacturing Technologies

• Low-energy carbonization techniques such as plasma, microwave, and solar heating

are in development.
• Integration of closed-loop recycling within production facilities will reduce waste and
resource demand.

c. Mass Production Capabilities

• Automated production lines using Industry 4.0 principles (sensors, robotics, AI) will
allow high-volume, consistent-quality carbon fibre production.
• This will enable penetration into mass-market applications, such as automotive,
construction, and renewable energy components.

d. Multifunctional and Smart Carbon Fibres

• Carbon fibres with embedded sensors, self-healing, or energy storage capabilities are
in early development.
• These smart composites will serve dual roles, such as structural support and real-time
monitoring, in aerospace and military systems.
e. Recyclability and Circular Economy Integration

• More efficient chemical recycling methods are being developed to recover high-quality
fibres from composites.
• Integration of recycled fibres into low-cost consumer goods will expand the carbon fibre
market while reducing landfill burden.

14.2 Final Summary and Conclusion

Carbon fiber has emerged as one of the most valuable and high-performance materials in the
field of advanced composites due to its unique combination of lightweight, exceptional
mechanical strength, high stiffness, thermal stability, and chemical resistance. The production of
carbon fiber is a technically intricate and energy-intensive process that primarily utilizes
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch, or lignin as precursor materials. Among these, PAN remains the
most dominant due to its favorable molecular structure and ability to yield high-strength fibers
upon controlled thermal treatment involving stabilization, carbonization, and sometimes
graphitization.

Advancements in precursor chemistry, particularly in the use of sustainable and low-cost

alternatives like lignin and pitch, have opened new pathways for making carbon fiber more
economically viable and environmentally sustainable. Research in this domain is progressively
focusing on improving precursor quality, optimizing thermal processes, and reducing
manufacturing costs without compromising performance. Similarly, innovations in surface
treatment, sizing, and nanomaterial incorporation have significantly enhanced the interfacial
bonding of carbon fibers with matrix resins, thereby improving the performance of carbon fiber-
reinforced composites (CFRCs).

The role of carbon fiber in high-end applications such as aerospace, automotive, construction,
sports equipment, and renewable energy sectors (like wind turbine blades) continues to grow,
driven by its superior strength-to-weight ratio. Moreover, ongoing efforts in recycling
technologies and life-cycle analysis are critical for addressing the environmental concerns
associated with carbon fiber waste and contributing to circular economy models.

In conclusion, carbon fiber represents a crucial material in modern material science and
engineering, offering a blend of strength, versatility, and performance. However, challenges
remain in terms of cost-effective production, environmental sustainability, and scalability. Future
progress in precursor development, energy-efficient processing, composite recycling, and
application-specific customization will determine the trajectory of carbon fiber technology in
industrial and research contexts. The field remains vibrant with innovation, and the outlook for
carbon fiber as a next-generation material is promising.
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