also

was SUMMARY
itual
and a Vedas are the quintessential wisdom that
forms the foundation for the Santana dharma Upani_ads are philosophical treatises dealing
deas, with the ultimate problems of life that every
and is considered as the ultimate reference for one of us confronts.
both
every aspect of living in India. The common theme of the Upani_ads focuses
ed in
pects
The Rgveda represents the earliest sacred on the knowledge of the Brahman. The other
book of India and the biggest amongst all the related themes include the spiritual nature of
ught four Vedas. human beings, the study of human beings in
f an depth in terms,of their nature and psychology.
The Yajurveda is more pronouncedly a ritual
and Veda for it is essentially used by the Adhvaryu Knowledge of the six VedDgas helps one
to do all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. develop a corrèct understanding of the Vedic
The mantras of the Smaveda, have musical repository and its use.
was
ised Scales, similar to the seven scales of classical Zik_ essentially is the science of pronunciation
music. It can be considered as the origin of and it helps in preserving the Vedic text from
ngs. Indian classical music. any formn of corruption during oral transmission.
ects While the objective of VykaraFa is to ascertain
Amajor part of Atharvaveda is concerned with
ally a correct form of a word to express a certain
diseases and their cure, rites for prolonging word to
ties meaning, Nirukta analyses a given
life, rites for fulfilling one's desires, building extract its meaning.
s in construction, trade and commerce,
statecraft,
A chandas (metre) can be viewed using a
ces penances, and propitiatory rites. three-level hierarchy. The lowest building
Brhmana,
the Each Veda consists of Sarmhit, block of ametre is an ak_ara. A certain
number
Äranyaka, and Upani_ads. pda and a
They and pattern of ak_aras make up a
Mantras are also known
as samhits. certain number of pads make a metre.
ery portion of each Veda. In a guide or a
constitute the main º Kalpa can be thought of asinstructions and
as a are 10,552 mantras.
the Rgveda Samhit, there user manual that provides
commentaries of the of life including
hey
The Br hmanas contain directions to lead all aspects
dimensions.
tãs. explanatory notes pertaining personal, family, and social
mantras used and
gni describe different types
to the mantras. They
ritualistic details.
the of Yajfñas with all the
ing
eby REVIEW QUESTIONS 'apauru_eya'?
are the Veda called
understand by the
term Veda'? Why is classified?
What do you have been
basis on which these
Vedas? What is the their roles?
What are the four inyolved and what are
 System-An Overview 23
Indian Knowledge
SUMMARY
literature have
Buddhist and the Jain
The ancient knowledge in India was preserved from 500
significantly contributed to IKS
and transmitted 'orally' until a few centuries consists of
BCE. The Jain sacred literature
back. There was a rather abrupt end to this a portion of
process of knowledge transmission. canionical texts. 'GaFit nuyoga', mathematics.
their literature is dedicated to
It is very important to know the thinking there is a
patterns and the repository of knowledge w neach of the regional languages,
literature.
created by the forefathers as it provides huge corpus of sacred and other
San tana
numerous values to society. Aclassification framework for Caturda[a
Dharmaliterature, referred to as
Transforming knowledge into economic value
has been fully formalized with the intellectual Vidysthna, has organised the knowledge
property rights regulations and patent laws. repository under 14 major divisions.
The Vedas are the primordial source
of
This is one area where the ancient knowledge
system will benefit a country like India. knowlèdge in the scheme of IKS. VedDgas
Knowledge is asystematic body of literature provide complementary tools and skills to
emanating from the wisdom and insights
fully appreciate the content and also benefit
from the Vedas.
arising out of deep experiences, observation,
experimentation, and analysis and validated
Normal methods used to date literature are
and augmented over time. grossly inadequate and misleading in the case
of IKS.
The knowledge is available in both formal
literary sources and informal non-literary IKS literature shows that a single work
SOurces. çan provide simultaneously ideas on three
Among the literary sources, we can broadly streams seamlessly: Spiritual, Religious, and
identify three categories: Santana-Dharma Material.
literature, presented mainly in the Sanskrit On account of the oral_transmission, IKS
language, literature on other dharmic literature is fundamentally a çoncise piece of
traditions, and a large repository of knowledge work. To make it concise, specific structural
in other Indian languages and dialectics. aspects are deployed.
SUMMARY

The word dar[ana is derived from the school is its detailed inquiry of knowledge
Sanskrit root, dr[, to see, suggesting that (Pram) and valid cognition and its means
these philosophical systems provide a true (PramFa).
worldview and a vision for life and help us
The main aim of Pürva-m+mms school is
resolve the issues that we face in our life
to ascertain the meanings of the Samhit
The philosophical inquiry in India gave rise and BrähmaFa portions of Veda which lay
to several schools, each developing its own importance on the karma, performing rituals,
understanding of the world. Each of these and thereby attaining dharma as a means for
schools presents its view with rigorous liberation.
intellectual exercise and uncompromised The Vednta schools of philosophy rely on three
importance on the self-experience. major texts: Brahma-Sktras, Bhagavadg+t, and
While the Hindu schools of philosophy rely the Upani_ads, known as prasthnatraya, for
on the Vedic text as the ultimate authority establishing their tenets.
and means for valid knowledge, the Jaina Sankara propounded a monistic philosophy,
philosophy relies on their canonical texts. known as Advaita, with the conception of the
The schools differ in presenting how to get attribute-less God (NirguFa-brahman) as the
the right knowledge and use it as the means ultimate reality.
for the ultimate liberation of the soul. The Matter, J+va and I[vara are three entities
context for the philosophical discussion is the recognised in the Vi[i_dvaita school. Though
three inter-related concepts of God-Universe allthe three are ultimate, the first two have an
Individual. absolute dependent relationship with l[vara.
According to the Smkhya system, two basic The Dvaita school clearly admits three
elements constitute everything in this world, independent and mutually irreducible
matter (Prakrti) and spirit (Puru_a). Puru_a is substances that make up the Universe: the
the pure consciousness, sentient, changeless, J+va, the Jagat and the T[vara.
eternal, and passive. Prakrtion the other hand Several concepts of the Jain school of thought
is the root cause of all activities including the is in line with the Vedic schools of philosophy.
entire creation. With syd-vda, Jain philosophers are able
The unique thing that establishes Yoga as to analyze claims made by various systems
distinct among the other dar[anas is that of thought and show them to be relative
its emphasis on understanding the mind, assertions of the truth as understood by the
its various states, its cognitive activities, Jain tradition.
and methods to control it. Yoga provides a Buddha's philosophy focuses on the means of
structured and practical eight-step process to ending the suffering of the individuals. It is
gradually reach a stage of complete cessation based on four noble truths. The ultimate goal
of the activities of Citta. in Buddhist philosophy is to reach Nirvna.
Both Nyya and Vai[e_ika set out in their NirvFa is not a state reached after death, but
journey of the 'knowable' and define various something that is attainable in this very life.
categories to describe the same. The first is Cârvka school of thought closely maps to the
about the 'ways of knowing the reality' and trait of materialism, which emphasises a life
the second is about the 'objects in the reality of enjoyment based on certain principles and
that is knowable'. assumptions about life. The concept of rebirth
PIhe Nyya system, placed enormous emphasis and other world is completely dismissed in
On the means of obtaining right knowledge'. this system.
Iherefore, the unique contribution of Nyya
 Applications
System-Concepts
and
104 Introduction to Indian Knowledge
SUMMARY towards personal,
history, India has a
one's duty
societal obligations, but have takenfarmily, and REVI
With a long civilisational
rich body of knowledge
and experience that approaches. dif erent 1.
the society from time beautifully
has developed within The Välm+ki Rmyana depicts
through a variety of
literary
dharma of personal life, family life,
the 2.
to time, captured and
social
works. order. The anecdotes, the conflicts, and 3
repository provides
valuable
situations discussed in the epic are the 4.
The purnic and the real
history of philosophy nuggets of wisdom for the people. 5.
insights into the deep
storehouse that provides depictsthe trials and
religion and is a
insights into allaspects
society, culture,.
of the
Mahbhrata
tribulations,Went
that various kings of the lunar dynasty
6.
7.
medieval
ancient and
and living during the through. The story is interspersed
throughout
times in India. with a variety of topics including lay 8.
can be broadly divided philosophy, religion, custom, and to some
The purFic repository (Major PurFas),
into three; Mah -pur Fas extent, geography and cosmography. 9
Upa-purFas (Minor PurFas), and Sthala N+tis are the guidance to take a person to 10
purFas.
and they are the path of Dharma by providing the rieht 11
There are 18 mah -pur Fas perspectives about lite and life goals. They
estimated to contain among them
about
do not take the approach of storytelling but 1
4,00,000 verses. The number of Upa-purFas
utilizes verses set in poetic metres to concisely
cannot be established with certainty, though communicate the message.
about 100 of them can be enumerated from
Smnya-n+ti focuses on the good aspects of
different sources. There are many Sthala
purns, in different languages of India, most living andprovides helpful insights on the code
of them in Sanskrit. of conduct, differences between a wise person
and others, good and evil, and success and
The purFas containseveral discussions related
to the plant kingdom and its role in addressing failure in life pursuits.
food, medicine, and other requirements of º Rja-n+ti focuses on the political and
society. Since one of the themes of the purFas administrative tasks and provides ideas on
is to describe the creation process, there are several do's and don'ts for a king.
discussions on the stages of childbirth from
The concise poetry which communicates the
the embryo. valuable message for the society with some
Several purFas have discussions on astronomy, interesting examples is called Subh_ita.
which consists of ideas in the pre-telescope These are nothing but a systematic collection
age. The purFas have material on geography of insightful observations, examples, ano
as they discuss topics related to modern-day principles of life from a wide range of existina
Concepts such as cosmogony, cosmology, and repositories of literary works.
cosmography. Ihe messages contained in the subh_itas are
Itihsa is not merely a collection of stories relevant to all the ages in the Indian tradition;
related to some past events but an attempt
to see the events through the lens of the four these are specially taught to the children so
that they can imbibe these ideas while they
puru_rthas. a e dre young and can make use of this wisdon
The two epics, Rmyana and Mahbhrata all through their life.
address the core issue of dharma and
several devel (including
and have generators
linguistics
of word r e s o u r c e s .
includes avariety lexical
creating
parsers, and

According to Sanskrit grammar, two

SUMMARY phonerne,
prowess
computing considered to be homogenous if
and better are they are
technology develop produced with the same articulatory effor
As able to
improves, we are Intelligence (AI)
using Artificial and at the same place of pronunciation
applications develop
requires us to The entire scheme for word generatin
techniques. This Processing (NLP)
Language follows a highly modular approach.Two basi.
efficient Natural
capabilities. components form a word: base (prakrti a
creation of
considered a fine suffix (pratyaya).
A_t dhy yi is available
intelligence and is the best base (verbal r
human Each word is formed out of a
language. suffiyes
descriptive model of a nominal root). To this, one or more
3,983 rules (known as word.
Pnini developed are added to generate the
most of the patterns the
Sktras) to accommodate One of the distinguishing aspects of
variations in the Sanskrit language and Sanskrt
and PFinian approach to linguistics and
chapters. several features,
arranged them in eight grammar is the use of
According to earliest Indian texts,
the sound certain
of the throat which in modern parlance map to
primarily arises at the junction computational concepts.
of the
and the chest due to the movement grammatical
breath in the body and manifests in the oral Panini's system of applying
works exactiy like
cavity at different locations resulting in various conditions to derive words
conceivable
sound patterns. arule-based engine. Every
 Linguistics 135

in the S
language can be derived using Each synonym for a word is often derived from
of rules in a strict algorithmic fashion. a dhtu.
a set
Astdhyy+ employs recursive logic to process Prefixes, known as upa-sargas, are appended
to the verb forms in order to create additional
prammatical applications. One such example
creating words.
is the logic of samsa, a method of could be
nouns. There are 22 upa-sargas and these
Compound words from a group of upa
linguistic prefixed to a verb form. By adding the
On account of the kraka conceptsand the meaning
has sargas, it is possible to express
arrangements, the sentence formation in many ways.
very little scope inherent advantages
robust structure and leaves Studies show that certain
language. of the Sanskrit language and
for ambiguity in the Sanskrit in the structure
forms and noun an attractive candidate
grammar makes it
Most words (both the verb the intelligence-related work.
dhtus. In Sanskrit, artificial
forms) originate from the for NLP and
find several synonyms for a word.
we often

A_t dhy y+?

REVIEW QUESTIONS rulesare
there in
How many
st dhy yi. by Pänini?
 Number System and Units of Measurement
15T
SUMMARY

The contribution of ancient Indians to the

development of mathematical concepts laying Three generic measures are used in the
the foundation for great scientific discoveries ancient Indian system pertaining to length,
both within India and the rest of the world is weight, and time.
significant. Several measures have been in vogue to
Anumber of archaeological excavations and measure the length in ancient times in India.
Artha[stra has elaborate measurements for
linguistic evidence provided by the early length suiting different requirements.
writers(indicate the maturity and supremacy Time is an important aspect to ancient Indians
of the Indian mathematical foundations. as they were interested instudying the origin of
The Indian numeral system has a long history the Universe. Furthermore, studies pertaining
as is evident from the historical artifacts and to Jyoti_a (Astrology and Astronomy) also
archaeological evidence. The origin and the requires measures pertaining to time.
evolution of the numbers could be traced from Adetailed description of weights is an
the time of the Vedic period. essential requirement for Ayurveda to mix
The concept of zero was established in India the ingredients correctly while formulations
during the period 500-300 BCE and was fully are prepared.
developed by 600 CE. When dealing with mathematical concepts
Ancient Indians developed a systematic and numbers, poetry is freely used to
cOmmunicate the same. Unique methods to
approach to the number-names that they
represent numbers were developed for this
developed to describe large numbers.
purpose.
gIhe method of using a limited set of numerals Chandah-[ stra introduces some mathematical
but assigning them unique names depending definition of the
concepts including, aformal
on which place they occupy in the number fundamentals of
word '[knya' to denote zero,
System is an age-old practice in India. some interesting
the binary number system, and
mathematics.
The decimal number system originated in India concepts in combinatorial
much before its use in the West.

REVIEW QUESTIONS Mathematical tradition

based on
the Indian
 proper study
for example, living beings need water to
include, Survive alreaty
accepted. These water, etc. ana severa
when there is
living beings exist
of siddh nta,
known Abhyupagama-siddhnt.
There is afourth type fashion, on account of
the details that we which gt,
established in an implied
we accept phenomena such as eclipses, solar
analyze
abaur
an issue. For example, when and
that the Sun and the Moon have:
have a relative lunat
months, etc. it is already implied circular
Earth.
orbital motion with respect to the
Awareness of these concepts is very important for
the development of tthe
right knowledge.
They help in positioning the knowledge in the right context and ensure that unintended
fallacies do not hinder the process. Moreover, it helps to take adequate support from
existing body of knowledge in building several aspects of the new knowledge.
SUMMARY
Avalid knowledge corresponds to the reality Six sub-categories constitute existence. The
and not anything other than that and is indeed first three, Dravya, Guna, and Karma are
produced by some valid means.
objective aspects. The other three categories
Typically, in the Indian tradition, the aspects Smnya, Vi[e_a, and Samavya are outcomes
of valid knowledge could be best
understood of intellectual discrimination.
from the notion of a knowledge
consisting of three triangle, G
The basic building blocks of the physical reality
Prameya, and Pramna) components (Pramtr, are the Dravya in the framework of Vai[e_ika.
Vai[e_ika mainly confines The basic atomic nature of the substance
exposition of reality' and Nyyaitself to the allows the creating of many different things
the issue of 'right focuses on using the principle of Samavya.
Vai[e_ika knowledge of reality'. There are nine types of substances identified
to describe presents a
all the systematic framework in Vai[e_ika. These include Prthiv+, Ap, Tejas,
entities. 'n ameable and knowable' Vyu, k[a, Dik, Kla, Atman, and Manas.
 Knowledge: Framework and Classification 185
Attributes are the inherent. properties In Nyya, comparison and analogy obtained
acsociated with the substances. Seventeen on account of the similarity of the unknown
attributes have been enumerated in Vai[esika to another thing previously well-known are
and the subsequent works expanded it to known as Upamna.
twenty-four. These are either physical or `abda is the verbaltestimony of an authoritative
psychological. expert in the subject.)
Vai[esika has discussed several observed The quest for new knowledge invariably begins
phenomena in the physical world concerning with the need to seek clarityon certain issues.
action and motions and establishes certain According to Nyya ambiguity in knowledge
properties of motion. OCcurs on account of five reasons.
Sixteen factor have been identified in Nyäya Nyya utilises two key aspects to establish
and a Correct understanding of these
and new knowledge; One is a deductive/
appropriate use of them is critical
in the inductive reasoning framework and the
process of establishing knowledge. other is a structured approach to debaté
there are four (argumentation).
According to Nyya-[stra,
the right Central to the process of establishing new
means available for obtaining
knowledge (Pratyak_a, Anumna, Upamna, knowledge is afive-step deductive/inductive
reasoning framework proposed in Nyya
and Zabda). (known as Avayava).
perception,
Prtayak_a is nothing but direct
knowledge from In the course of establishing new knowledge,
whích enables one to obtain of the
its object. the knowledge seeker must be aware
the contact of a sense organ with potential fallacies that can crop up and
ensure
Anumna points to the knowledge
that follows Nyàya-[ stra has
arrived at in a that these are avoided.
Something pre-existing and identified five potential fallacies
(Hetvbhs).
reasons and
structured manner by relating to
logic.
 (c) Findl ghl1ghted cells in Figure 8.11(d)).

sUMMARY
Ancient Indians developed |several concepts of mathematical works have several
mathematics primarily because they needed problems of day-to-day importanceinteresting
described
problems that they
lot of real-life
as agame in poetic verses.
a
tosove
the
during the Vedic period. Right from the Vedic period, there has been
facing even
were

Mathematical
concepts were developed by a continuous evolution of the approximation
living
from Gndhra (modern-day of t till the 20th century. Mãdhava estimates
those welI as by T Using an infinite series with end correction,
Afghanistan) to those in Bengal, as
Kerala. which is accurate to eleven decimal places.
Kashmir to
those from
Brahma-sphuta Aryabhata has provided two methods to derive
Arahmagupta, in his work
description of working the sine tables. Ageometric method, and an
siddhnta, gives a good positive, analytical method which is very unique and not
with fractions, calculations with found in works of any other
mathematician, till
with zero.
negative numbers, and about 15th century.
ancient Indian texts Pingala
Several sources in the
Chandah-[ stra,
to In Chapter 8 of
attempts and methods problems related to
point to multiple
imperfect square.
has analysed a host of
sequences. The concepts
obtain the square root of an handling binary relevant
indication that 200-300 BCE are
developed during
Aryabhat+ya gives a good well-developed
computations
involving

ancient Indians had a

modern-day
for the
problem-solving and binary numbers.
algorithmic approach to of magic
squares has been
Were able to utilise recursive algorithms. Bhadra
construction
The very early times.
Kalpa part of
from
the known in India of magic
Zulba-sütras, a section of name for the study tradition.
the subject of the
ganita is
ne Vednga, have dealt with
mathematical

Indian
squares in the
Beometry in detail.
Indian
other
Aryabhatiya, Lilvat+ and
examples?
some
them with
 o u l d
h a v

sUMMARY
of
astronomy
was widely used by The Vednga Jyoti_a gives
Knowledge
Indian society, not
no just by the some astronomical rules for calculating
allsections o f
Sun and the Moon. The
quantities related to the
astronomical texts of
subject matter experts.

of astronomical concepts of the siddhnta period are far more

and elaborate, with procedures sophisticated
kndowledge

Good
Hìndus is also evident from several to calculate
ancient
planetary positions, eclipses, etc.
Vedic texts.

is the first
text on astronomy Around 1500 CE, N+lakanha Somayj+ modified
Aryabhat+ya

established the framework for the procedure based on a detailed scientific

It
in
India,
mathematical
astronomy in India. It contains analysis and proposed a revised planetary
treatment of all the traditional model in his and other
s y s t e m a t i c

works.
a
astronomical p r o b l e m s .
There are several regional versions of
time for the Sun to the same
elapsed
of the Pañcnga throughout the country to cater to
is nothing but the period
The
star,
which
around the Sun, is the
the local requirements. They all employSkrya
revolution of the Earth siddhnta to compute the PañcDga. In recent
Solar year. times, Graha-lghava of Gane[a Daivajña
is
the Moon
that the Sun and used to make pañcDga calculations.
the *had been noticed position in
nearly the same Indian astronomy
on return together to The instruments used in
years. The (ghai-yantra), gnomon
stars, after five include the water clock
, if the framework of introduced to synchronize cross-staff (ya_i yantra),
armillary
([anku),
de concept of Yuga was calendars. (gola-yantra), board for the
sun's
Lunar sphere (kapla
te. the Solar and (phalaka-yantra), and sundial
(c§ndra-m sa) is the time altitude
ns
Alunar month (Am v sy ), yantra).
new Moons is just
es interval between twO It consists of astronomical
instrument
(PürFim ). The simplest which has
it or two full Moons stick ([aDku)
(bright fortnight) from a straight, vertical
called a
'gnomon' in
ss, two pak_as; Zukla-pak_a Kr_na-pak_a pointed tip. This is
of to Pkrnim , and the a
Amavsy Amvsy. is a
Pürnim to astronomy.
sphere
(dark fortnight) from
armillary
ar, divided simplest form, an equator.
ecliptic is In its plane of the
In the Indian system, the nak_atras. ring of bronze
fixed in the Jaipur
in divisions, known as Raja Sawai
Jai Singh of
into 27 equal associated with a
nak_atra. The efforts
of observational

of scientific
a. tach day would be separation
between towards the
fostering
combined
use of
Indian,

Tithi capturesthe angular during practices

with the advances in
astronomy
time-unit
of
E. the Sun and the Moon. It is a history
European

Sun and
the Arabic, and milestone in the
nt which the angle between the increases mark a
significant

Earth)
viewed from the
Indian astronomy.

Moon (as
h precisely by 12°.
e
 Applicatione

and
System-Concepts
K n o w l e d g e

Indian
Introduction
to
276 Ancient craftsmen coould subject
spanning bar to
SUMMARY heritage
gold metal metalworking he purfet
two
rich last such as forging, punching,
civilisation
has a of the
history other that ornaments of intricate designs
several
Indian
ermbossitneg,chriet.gue,so
recorded

there
are that
the resources produced.
over Moreover,

literary c o m m u n i t y

millennia.

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
and vibrant Studies on the Zawar zinc
existence
of a
mines provide ich
insights into zinc mining in
point to the c o n t r i b u t i o n s
ancient India
i n antiquity. Indian's
Ancient Indians adopted a novel
ancient terms technique
general
technology, downward drift reduction
more
In and in are
distillation proces.f
metalworking,
science for zinc production, which is a precursor to the
material
to and
metallurgy modern processes adopted all over the World
to
noteworthy. technology
and steel
The compound HgS is referred to as Rasa-
status of iron in
The high medieval India
is reflected sindkra in the text Caraka-samhit
and numerous
large
in ancient and use of Hg, as wellas HgS, have been extensively used
manufacture cannons.
the forge-welded
including in the preparation of Ayurvedic medicines.
iron objects, of the copper
flourishing tradition Ancient Indians have been extracting iron from
Along and inferred from
India can be ore deposits and producing sponge iron
industry in ancient specimens.
archaeological
a number of wrought iron using avariety of furnaces.
excavations conducted
Extensive archaeological The carburisation of hot spongeor bloom could
clearly show that of cuting
in parts of Rajasthan
several be done by selective carburisation
an appreciable application of
the earliest artifact containing world is from edge of the implements by the
amount of zinc anywhere in the to 950°C to
carburising paste and reheating
India. followed by ancient
1000°C. This method was
to cutting edges such 35
The Vedic corpus has multiple references Indians to develop sharp
iron, copper, gold, silver, and tin. There are a surgical knives and swords.
few important treatises pertaining to the 5th alchemy works belongNS
century CE to 13th century CE that deal with A closer look at the Common Era

to the early centuries of the C laboratory

metallurgy and metalworking. how a
indication of
Ancient Indians developed skills to explore gives us a good what type
scientist looked like and and
ore deposits and mine portions that are of a fabricated by thhem
remunerative. apparatuses were and chemicals

various
Rasa-ratna-samuccaya has mentioned many used for extraction of
metallic components. during the
made
using
processes for obtaining pure copper from
icons bronze
chalcopyrite by smelting small charges in º The beautiful idols and
crucibles. In Äyurveda, copper in produced using
form (bhasma) is used the powder Chola era were technique.
formulations. for therapeutic the lost wax casting

REVIEW Q
 Engineering and Technology: Other Applications 305

SUMMARY

ancient
science. There are several references in our
Literary sources dealing with different colours
very texts about dyed fabrics with
engineering and technology are not indicate that
and geometrical designs. These
detailed and specific in nature. Perhaps of the use of
ancient Indians were aware
substantive aspects of knowledge transmission fabrics such as
mordents for dyeing difficult
continued in the oral tradition.
cotton.
and
Astudy of the archaeological remains Su[ruta is considered as
the father of Indian
to 12th
literary works during 5th century CE surgery. In his work
Su[ruta-samhit , he has
aspects of
century CE points tocertain unique provided a clinical approach to
some major
metalworking and metallurgy in
India during
surgical operations.
times.
ancient and medieval
º In Su[ruta-samhit , one finds descriptions of
monuments
long-standing architectural performing several
The surgical instruments for
forts) that dot the
(temples, pillars, and surgical operations.
breadth of the Indian sub to about 11th
entire width and engineering Yukti-kalpataru, a work dated
continent bear testimony
to the deals with ships
judicious use century CE, in two chapters,
geometrical accuracy, and their construction,
skills, and gives details about
of building materials.
varieties, measurements,
sizes, decoration,
Nadu is the
Grand Anaicut in Tamil and accommodation.
The
use" dam. Mauryans tradition, there is a
world's oldest "still in concept In the ancient Indian
sophisticated
had developed a concept of 64 kals (known as
catuh-_a_ti-kalã
harvesting and
irrigation
essence of various
for rainwater
as the
"Ahar-Pyne" or vidy) which captures the develop.
management, known
practiced in the regions useful skills that individuals can
system, which is still
and Chhota Nagpur.
of southern Bihar

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Enumerate them.
 in South Indian (Drävida)
temples
storeys
1-12
No. of storeys in North Indian (Ngara) temples
3 1-16 storeys
Square (Vair ja), Circular (Kailsa), Rectangular
Vim na (Manika), Octagonal (Trivi_tapa)
(Pu_paka), Elliptica
4 Shapes of the

SUMMARY
processes, is the notion of a
Mandala. Any site on which
collective set of
Town planning is a a proposed structure needs to be built is
using science and
ideas, and methods Conceived in terms of squares.
available land for
technology to deploy the The planning and architectural aspects detailed
other uses in the
human habitation and
Architecture addresses in vstu can be viewed using an eight-part
most efficient way.
designing, and classification of the concepts. These could be
the process of planning, referred to as the limbs of vstu.
constructing buildings for human use.
References to Sthpatya (Architecture and There is a group of people responsible for
Planning) are mentioned in the Vedic literature, the construction of the structure, headed by
epics, PurFas, BrhmaFas, Ägamas, Sktras, Sthapati. Sktragrhin, Tak_aka, and Vardhaki
and Ziipa-[stras. support Sthapatiin the prOcess of construction.
The extensive archaeological explorations º Mnasra describes eight kinds of villages,
of the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization and the which primarily differ in terms of the shape
analysis of sites such as Dholavira, Lothal, of the layout and the network of roads
Harappa, and Mohenjo-Daro points to a well established. Vstu texts have proposed
deveioped town planning. different types of roads required, their size,
Vstu-[str is essentially an art of correct and number.
setting whereby one can align the structure to Vstu-[stra discusses finer aspects of a varieuy
the pañca-bhïtas, and the rotational influence of individual buildings that make up a town O
of the sun, moon, and the other planets avillage. Broadly three categories of buildings
surrounding the earth. can be identified: Residential building5,
At the core of the design using Vstu principles Temples, and other public infrastructure.
 Town Planning and Architecture 331

The north Indian style of temple architecture such as furniture, sleeping couches, and doors
is known as Ngara and the South Indian style, are alsO subject matter of discussion in v stu
Drvida. The vstu texts have considerably [stra.
discussed several aspects of temple building The art of idol making requires a good
of these styles. understanding of the relative proportions of
Details pertaining to the design of paintings different parts of the image (such as eyes, ears,
and sculptures in temples and public halls are chin, neck, forehead, and limbs). lconography
part of Vstu-[stra. Other artistic elements is a subject discussed in the vstu-[stra texts.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
 Health, Wellness and Psychology 369

SUMMARY
wants lead a healthy life
to
acomprehensive frarnework by which the
who
follow the ideas psychological and physical aspects of stress
keen desire to
person
A
show a can be understood and eliminated.
must
according to Caraka,
provided in and practiced by Several mediation practices are taught as part
must be studied
yurveda
society. of the training for the yoga way of living. It will
individual in the and
every
aspects also induce achange in the intellectual
borrows the philosophical individual.
Äyurveda Vai[esika somatic functions of an
schools of thought: has long
from two major The Indian approach to psychology
and S mkhya. contemplation,
testing,
consists years of introspection,
treatment framework in Ayurveda learning. It draws its
The (hetu), Symptoms and experiential
Cause tools, and techniques
of three generic steps:(au_adha). frameworks, concepts,
(linga), and Remedy from arich repository
of diverse knowledge
Vta, Pitta, and Kapha traditions starting from
the Upani_ads.
When the three do_as, to
state the body is said
overarching
provides an
are in an equilibrium when } The Tri-guFa system
understand the
physical
condition. By contrast, to
be in a healthy framework
vitiated it causes disease.
of a human being.
the dosas are
infrastructure
manifestation
with physical
specific relationship the
The do_as have a diet one The gross body is the form of the visible
of the day and the type of of an individual
(in The
the time have of the five bhktas.
Ayurvedic scholars organs) which are made
constitutes
takes. Moreover, do_as an individual
identified the organs where these psychological part of
also the subtle body. the manifestations of
predominantly exist.
digestion process
plays a vital role in the Understanding
possible by self
Agni strength, health, is only
responsible for contemplation of
consciousness

and it is also breath. Agni

manifests experimentation and deep
longevity, and
vital
one's experiences.
through the Pitta
in the body. consciousness and
first gets
converted
A framework to describe the discussed
we consume manifestations is
The food that it gets
process, its multi-faceted
four
and in a gradual
the fat to and pertains to
into plasma and fat. From widely in the Upani_ads undergoes.
into flesh being
states that a human
bone-marrow
converted
(antahkaraFas) is
bone-marrow,

bones to
bones, The
body-mind-intellect
instrument,
mind interfacing
to semen. including the considered as the physical
organs
natural state consciousness with the
To keep the internal balanced and connecting the mediates
intellect in a and
seasonal reflected
consciousness
and routines body. The and enables the
follow daily internal organs
one must Ayurveda. through these
prescribed in of knowledge and awareness.
routines quantity
the mind to have importance of
¤yurveda,
to depend highlight the
According daily will Indian scriptures cutivating
one must take being, An (abhysa) and
water that (prakrti) of a continuous practice towards the
constitution
the water mental dispassion
on the and reduce a sense of world
individual
must boil the do_a
according to objects and entities
in the outside
degree of mental
to develop a high
consumption
before body. (vairgya)
in the provide
of Yoga
predominance
concentration.
practice
principles and
The

REVIEW QUESTIONS
same?
'wellness. Do they mean the
 Governance and Public
Adrninistration 401
will ensure economic prosperity for
u n h i n d e r e d

engaged in social festivities

them. He also wanted
happily. These are good to know if men and
women were

prosperity
and citizen welfare. indicators of economic
SUMMARY

Artha[stra is the body of knowledge Constitute the settled territory,

pertaining to state affairs dealing with both Janapada. known as
the internal issues as well as external matters Durga represents the fortified capital of
affecting the state. The main issues discuSsed state, where the king, if hard-pressed the
in the text include statecraft, economic policy, by a
strong enemy, can erntrench hirnself and
and military strategy. withstand a siege over a long period, during
The Kauiliya Artha[stra contains fifteen which diplomatic moves can be made to ease
books or adhikaraFas. Of these, the first five the enemy's pressure and avert a calamity.
deal with the internal administration of the The wealth of the state was the totality of
state, the next eight with its relations with the surplus stored in the king's treasury, the
neighbouring states, and the last two are commodity warehouse, the granary, the store
miscellaneous. for forest produce, and the ordnance depots.
Artha[stra at the outset establishes four All these will constitute the ko[a.
branches of knowledge that a king must be The state is sustained by the revenue it
fully conversant with, Philosophy ( collects from its subjects, who mainly engage
The three Vedas (Tray+), Economics (Vrt) and in three principal vocations: agriculture, cattle
Governance (Dandan+ti) so that he gains the tending, and trade. Based on these activities
forms the
right knowledge, perspectives, attitude, and they pay taxes to the state which
head main revenue for the state.
strength to discharge his duties as the
of the state. The king's three duties concerning internal
of the public administration include protection of the state
A Bood understanding
governance laid out in from external aggression,
maintenance of the
administration and the
Law and Order in the state, and ensuring
the Artha[ stra can
be obtained using the symboi
elements that make up
welfare of the citizens. Danda is a
framework of seven ruler's authority and a mechanism to
of the
the state. achieve these objectives.
a native of the
has identified 13 categories of
Kau ilya, being
According to Artha[ stra
the [stras,
territory, following
the teaching of departments,
people including the head of administration,
diseases and
strong and of
being free from requirements of those belonging to the judicial
the desirable corrupt and may resort
noble birth are etc. who are likely to be
extorting money.
a ruler.
one is the to accepting bribes or to
connotations:
Methods to lay down traps
for catching them
has two
Am tya sense, he is the have been proposed.
chief minister, and in this ministers when they are doing so the
group of his allies and vassals,
the other is the The conqueror with
circle of kings, other
kingmaker, functionaries
highest set of
who represent the administrative enemy with a similar and neutral
counselling and like the middle
providing able interested parties
the king. kings are the actors in
the drama of diplomacy
support to land,
different types of use are the six methods
Artha[ stra identifies mines, and and war. The tools they Artha[ stra.
forts, irrigation works, forest,
together of foreign policy, defined in
road networks that
trade routes, and
 902 tYôdactio to hdi§n KAOWEGgEY gystem-Concepts and Applications
bAs We findoRl desgipÑobaRf gelaborate the rule of law, the institution of kingship.
bin admini_tratiyA:BAshiRSY HN, Atha[stra the duties and powers of the Rj, topics
with details on salary to be paid to different such as taxation and the way to collect the
government employees. taxes, strategies for battle and the method of
One of the significant contributions of selecting ministers and counsellors.
Artha[stra is in the area of foreign policy. In the "kaccit sarga" of RmyaFa, Rma
.jnthe, text have useful displays his administrative prowess and acumen
a
WSTofh3in the ol792; field of world and uses the opportunity to teach Bharata
politics and h¡ve the potential to provide new the art and science of governance using a
perspectivs on simple methodology of asking questions. The
76 verses cOver a wide range of topics on
Bhisma'$ cQunsel to Yudhi_hira on governance which Räma triggered some thoughts in the
Ís presented in the [ nti
3ninuoNarata. Several issues related mind of Bharata on certain aspects of public
administration.
to,Räja-dharma were expounded by Bhi_ma
including the origin and purpose of the state,

REVIEW QUESTIONS
administration?