India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges

India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

LESSON-3 NOTES NOTES dominance. The wake of history has seen India emerge as one of the largest
democracies and fastest-growing economic powers of the emerging world order.
INDIA AND THE USA, INDIA AND RUSSIA India’s policy in resolving these changes by recognising its historical experiences,
geopolitical imperatives and aspirations of becoming a global power has been
AND INDIA AND CHINA instrumental. In this lesson, we will look at India’s bilateral relations with three
major global powers, i.e., the United States of America, Russia and China, and
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
what they mean for India’s role in the world. India’s relations with the USA,
School of Open Learning Russia and China are full of variety, deeply rooted in history and motivated by
University of Delhi today’s geopolitical problems and advantages. These three locations are utilised
as power and influence models by three different nations, and in each of them,
Structure India has separately engaged depending on its strategic autonomy and varied
3.1 Introduction diplomatic strategies. As the world’s leading superpower, the USA provides
3.2 Learning Objectives
the opportunity for India to collaborate with the country in the field of defence,
3.3 India’s Foreign Policy and the Changing Global Power Equations
technology and economic growth but is also going to have challenges regarding
3.4 India and the USA
trade policies as well as geopolitical interests with India. While India’s long-
3.4.1 Historical Overview
standing defence procurement and energy security partner, Russia is central to its
3.4.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
3.4.3 Future Prospects
defence procurement and energy security, its closer ties with China and the West’s
3.5 India and Russia sanctions have complicated this partnership. India’s neighbour and regional
3.5.1 Historical Overview competitor, China, presents its own unique challenges in terms of unresolved
3.5.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges border disputes, trade imbalance, and two different strategic ambitions alike
3.5.3 Future Prospects creating opportunities for economic cooperation.
3.6 India and China In this lesson we will explore India’s relations with these three global
3.6.1 Historical Overview
powers, tracing their evolution over time, the strategic partnerships and challenges
3.6.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
that they present and their prospects in the context of a rapidly changing global
3.6.3 Future Prospects
landscape. Through the examination of these relationships, students will gain
3.7 Summary
an in-depth understanding of India’s strategies to safeguard its national interests
3.8 Glossary
and assert its influence in the global arena, ensuring that it makes it way in the
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions
complex arena of international relations. The students will derive information
3.10 References/Suggested Readings
about India’s foreign policy contours, the importance of maintaining equilibrium
among competing powers, and the function of diplomacy in tackling troubles and
3.1 INTRODUCTION grasping openings in a multipolar world through this analysis. Appreciation of the
complexities of India’s foreign policy necessarily depends on the understanding
of its fundamentals.
The post-Cold War era is eminent by the transformation of the global power
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
dynamics to new power centres, redefining alliances and the fall out of unipolar Material 51 52 Material

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India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES NOTES of the system is, however, the product not only of events in Washington but also
3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES of new challenges in global governance generated by emerging powers, regional
organisations, and transnational issues, including climate change, terrorism or
After reading this lesson, students should be able to: technological advancements.
• Analyse the historical trajectories of India's relations with major global In this context, the Indian foreign policy tries to strike between its
powers such as the USA, Russia, and China, identifying key turning points historically held commitments to non-alignment and strategic autonomy with
and milestones that have shaped these relationships what is functionally the consideration of national interest. On the other hand,
• Evaluate the strategic dimensions of India's engagements with the USA, India’s relations with the major global powers, i.e., the United States, Russia
Russia, and China in the context of changing global power dynamics, and China are critical to whether it can steer itself through this dynamic. The
focusing on areas of cooperation and friction in political, economic and relationships affect India’s economic growth, security policies and its standing
security spheres in the world. This lesson explores India’s engagement with three major powers
like United States, Russia, and China. In each case, history has written the
• Explore how India's interactions with these three nations are influenced background, and the present outlines the challenge and the future aspiration.
by broader geopolitical trends, including the rise of multipolarity, shifts By this analysis, students will have a little idea of how India is adapting to the
in global economic power, and evolving security architectures changing global power equations and how it is realising its significance as a lead
• Examine how India's relationships with the USA, Russia, and China player in world affairs.
align with its national priorities such as economic growth, technological
advancement, energy security and territorial sovereignty
3.4 INDIA AND THE USA
• Reflect on the potential pathways for India's foreign policy concerning these
three countries, including opportunities for strengthening partnerships,
addressing mutual challenges, and navigating regional and global tensions In the 21st century, India and the United States have transformed a Cold War-era
mistrust into a dynamic strategic and economic partnership. This transformation
is underpinned by shared democratic values, growing economic ties and mutual
3.3 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY AND THE security concerns. Trade and investment in both directions have been on the rise
CHANGING GLOBAL POWER EQUATIONS and there has been considerable cooperation in technology, energy and innovation.
India is now a key defence partner where we have deepened defence ties and
With the changing and multi-dimensional global power equation, India’s foreign have done agreements like COMCASA and BECA. In terms of strategy, the U.S.
policy has come a long way since independence. It moves the world from a regards India as absolutely critical for maintaining stability in the Indo-Pacific
unipolar order in the hands of the US to a multipolar configuration into which and shares concern with India regarding China’s assertiveness, as evidenced by
India enters the global stage as a pivotal actor in the international system. Driven cooperation in the QUAD. The relationship is still multifaceted and is shaping
by historical legacies, domestic aspirations, and changing global geopolitics, this global power equations.
transformation has occurred. The global order is changing offering opportunities This analysis provides insights into the strategic calculations and diplomatic
as well as challenges for India. Indian diplomatic engagement has found itself in manoeuvres of India vis a vis the USA, Russia and China, with reference to the
a complex environment due to the ongoing rise of China, resurgence of Russia Self-Instructional
Material 53 54
Self-Instructional
Material
larger power equations at the global level and India’s quest for strategic autonomy.
and enduring strategic importance of the United States. The increased partisanship
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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

The theory is integrated with foreign policy practical cases of India’s NOTES NOTES joined the US-backed military alliances, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation
engagement with the USA, Russia and China to give a holistic understanding (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO).
of the subject, draw informed and reasoned projections of the ways in which The United States-Pakistan alignment resulted in a lot of friction in India-
India should steer its relations with the major powers so as to secure long-term US relations. Pakistan’s reliance on the military aid provided under these alliances
strategic and economic interests in an emerging global order. was viewed from India’s point of view as a very serious threat to the country’s
security, as it concerns the Kashmir dispute. Despite India’s protests, the US
3.4.1 Historical Overview
persisted in helping Pakistan because the support was directed against Soviet
influence, not India. A divergence grew deeper at times of regional conflict, as
It is discussed as follows:
the post-1965 and post-1971 Indo-Pak wars prove. This only served to heighten
1. India-USA relations during the Cold War India’s perception of the unevenness of US policies in South Asia, in India’s
favour, while the US alleged became more suspicious of India’s apparent move
India's decision to adopt a non-alignment policy had a great deal to do with
away from non-alignment, represented most emphatically by India’s 1971 Indo-
India's relationship with the United States during the Cold War. After gaining
Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Co-operation.
independence in 1947, India, under the leadership of its first Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru, did not formally tie itself to any of the two big powers India and the United States went in opposite directions on a variety of
belonging to the United States and to the Soviet Union. Underlying it was strategic and geopolitical questions during the Cold War. With India having a
India's colonial experience as well as its desire to defend its sovereignty and policy of non-alignment and the US allying with Pakistan, this created a kind of
foreign policy strategic autonomy. The Bandung Conference of 1955 was the suspicion and mistrust between India and the US. Nevertheless, the exchange of
representative venue of the principles of non-alignment and later institutionalised food aid under the PL-480 program was what shaped the most cooperation in the
into the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) explaining the aspiration of India relationship, although divergence was the norm. This historical legacy of India-
to develop an independent foreign policy. Instead, India wanted to be treated US relations in the post-Cold War era was shaped by the recalibration that both
like a neutral actor by avoiding the Cold War power play, preferring instead to nations underwent, as they tried to realign their interests on strategic apartment.
decolonise, develop economically and secure global peace.
2. Post-Cold War Shift
Initially, the United States liked India’s democratic model, but Washington
The wake of the end of the Cold War was a seismic call engaged in the making
became suspicious of India’s non-alignment policy, which it interpreted as a lack
of global dynamics and brought a big change to the way India approached its
of commitment to the Western bloc. Given India’s socialistic economic policies
foreign deals with. The Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, the emergence of the
and explicit opposition to American military alliances, India was often assumed
United States as the sole superpower, and growth of globalisation gave India new
to be tilting toward the USSR, and hence attempting to maintain equidistance
opportunities and challenges. It was the crucial period for a radical reorientation
between the US and the USSR.
of India’s external relations in connection with the most powerful countries of
Divergences Resulting from USA’s Ties with Pakistan the world, including the United States, Russia and China.
The strategic alliance of Americans to Pakistan was a central source of tension Convergence of Interests End of the Cold War
India shared with the United States during the Cold War. To contain the Soviet
India had taken a policy of non-alignment, playing both the USA and the Soviet
Union, the US wanted to strengthen alliances in South Asia. In 1954, Pakistan
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional Union against one another, and staying unaligned with any bloc during the Cold
Material 55 56 Material

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

War. However, the disintegration of the Soviet Union required a change in India’s NOTES NOTES Deal (US-India Civil, 2005) symbolised the increasing cooperation between
foreign policy. India realised that it had to do business with Washington more the two countries. India got a new status as an economic and strategic world
urgently than ever to defend its national interests. The US became a dominant player.
world power. • Shift in Global Perceptions: India’s liberalisation signalled that the
This convergence of interests between India and the US was driven by country was ready to open itself to the world and was no longer the
several factors, which are discussed as follows: protectionist inward-looking state that it was perceived to be. This helped
• Geopolitical Shifts: The international system became less bipolar, thereby Western powers to accept India as a partner more.
enabling India and the US to see that they had overlapping strategic The foreign policy of the post-Cold War removed the rigidity of an ideology
goals such as counterterrorism, regional stability and non-proliferation of and paved the way to a pragmatic approach. With the democratically achieved
weapons of mass destruction. credentials, economic promise and strategic location, India started to stake its
• Globalisation: However, with the growth of the global economies claim as a major player in the new emerging global order. This historical overview
becoming increasingly intertwined there were new opportunities for provides the context for understanding India’s relations with the major powers,
economic cooperation between the two nations. particularly the United States, Russia and China, in a fast-changing geopolitical
environment.
• Shared Democratic Values: A more ideological base was built to support
the bilateral ties between India and the US in as much as both started 3.4.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
highlighting their shared zeal for democratic principles, human rights and
the rule of law. India’s regional and global power structure is changing and the role of strategic
Bilateral Ties under the Impact of Liberalisation on India’s Economy partners plays a major role in this transformation. The Indo-US Civil Nuclear
Agreement (2008) is a landmark agreement that stands out in India’s foreign
India's engagement with the world began to change in 1991, when its economic
policy. Signed at a time when the world was watching India’s nuclear programmes
liberalisation, in response to a balance of payments crisis, began to transform
closely, this agreement ushered India into the global nuclear mainstream, despite
the country. Built around India's introduction of market-oriented reforms such
being a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). However,
as lowering trade barriers, deregulation of industries, and recruiting foreign
the agreement while it permitted India access to nuclear technology and fuel for
investment, India now more closely approximated the economic practices of the
civilian use strengthened India’s image as a responsible nuclear power. Beyond
West, particularly the United States.
that, the implications went beyond the effects of strengthened Indo-US relations
• Economic Engagement: India became an attractive destination for and global acceptance of India’s strategic autonomy. However, challenges persist.
American businesses because of liberalisation. A lot of interdependence India’s efforts to join the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) continue to be stymied
was created between the two nations through trade and investment flow as China and others oppose it, and geopolitical complexity around India’s nuclear
between them. With the structure of cooperation mainly concentrated in ambition. Domestic challenges such as land acquisition and local protest also
key sectors, such as information technology, pharmaceuticals and services, continue to hinder the implementation of these nuclear projects, often in balance
it became an economic pillar. with energy security and socio-political considerations.
• Strategic Partnerships: At the same time, economic reform took place India, for both strategic and historical reasons, now occupies a central role
alongside increased strategic collaboration. The US-India Civil Nuclear Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
in the Indo-Pacific world, bringing its strategic location and status as a historical
Material 57 58 Material

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

partner to bear on ensuring regional stability and prosperity. India’s de facto NOTES NOTES Challenges in India and the Changing Global Power Equations
participation in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), coupled with the At a time when the world is increasingly being dominated by trade disputes and
Indo-Pacific Strategy, signifies its commitment to a rules-based order both in this economic protectionism, India must deal with the dynamics of its increasing
contested region, and more so within the Indo-Pacific. The QUAD, i.e., India, relationship with major countries like the US, Russia and China. Hurdles for
the US, Japan and Australia, has come to the forefront as a vehicle to push back Indian exports have been created by rising protectionist tendencies, especially in
against China’s rabble-rousing. Areas in which cooperation extends are maritime the advanced economies, from which it does not have access to critical markets.
security, supply chain resilience, climate change and infrastructure development. Added to that have been disputes over tariffs, intellectual property rights and trade
Joint naval exercises like Malabar are one more way in which India is proving imbalances, in which India has not always enjoyed harmonious relations with,
itself in the game of regional security. However, these engagements come with such as its disputes with the United States. In addition, if its interests are not well
their own problems. The QUAD, China perceives, is a containment strategy, protected in the regional trade agreements and bloc-based economic strategies,
which has only served to heighten tensions along India’s northern borders. Also, India may end up mistreated in global trade negotiations. The challenge is to
India has to strike a balance between its QUAD commitments and its engagement combine safeguarding domestic industries with the attainment of competitiveness
in the ASEAN cantered frameworks which have an emphasis on inclusivity. in the global market by India. Pursuing both regional value chains and multilateral
This is critical to India’s vision of an open, free and inclusive Indo-Pacific in the trade mechanisms, promoting the strengthening of such multilateral mechanisms
context of an increasingly economically interdependent region. as well, can also mitigate the destructive effect of protectionism.
In fact, India’s defence relations with the United States have become
Global Governance and Human Rights: Diverging Views
quite deep through the foundational agreements CONCASA (Communications
Compatibility and Security Agreement), LEMOA (Logistics Exchange India’s interactions with global powers are characterised by divergences in the
Memorandum of Agreement) and BEC (Basic Exchange and Cooperation way it views global governance and human rights. So, for instance, a multipolar
Agreement). Together, these agreements strengthen interoperability, secure world is what India speaks for, but not without trying and advocating for reforms
communications and geospatial intelligence sharing between the two nations in institutions like the UN Security Council. However, other powers may resist it
and help India’s defence modernization efforts. Secondly, they also indicate a to stay relevant. Also, India's stress on sovereignty and non-interference can also
strategic convergence between India and the US in dealing with the same threats be a contrast to Western approaches to promoting human rights and democracy
and in the Indian Ocean region (IOR) and beyond. But this new alignment with even if these efforts sometimes provoke the tensions that New Delhi faces with
the US is problematic. India’s reliance on Russia for military hardware has always the USA and European countries.
been a delicate balancing act. India must maintain its historical ties with Moscow Indeed, these divergences have the potential to undermine India’s capacity
while growing closer to Washington. Added to these partnerships are concerns to form agreements on crucial international concerns inside and outside the
about India’s over-dependence on the US for crucial defence technologies, as UN, for example, climate change, migration, and conflict resolution. To strike
well as apprehension about the impact on India’s strategic autonomy. Among this balance, India will have to hone its diplomatic acumen and, within its own
other indicators of political resistance and failures of bureaucratic delays, the boundaries, strike a balance between asserting the principles that define it and
defence agreement implementation can also be delayed painstakingly, which presenting itself constructively to other viewpoints that differ from its philosophy.
makes systemic reforms necessary to take full advantage of this collaboration. Harnessing its Global South leadership presence in the G20 (and beyond) can
The complexity of strategically partnering in a fast-moving global environment provide a space to advocate its vision of inclusive and equitable global governance
is underscored by these challenges. Self-Instructional Self-Instructional through a strengthening of partnerships in the Global South. How India navigates
Material 59 60 Material

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

these challenges will play a huge role in how well it suits and moulds the new NOTES NOTES trust and strategic convergence, and has evolved into a partnership that adapts
global power equations. to changing global power equations while retaining its special character. Today,
the India-Russia relationship has gone from defence cooperation and energy
3.4.3 Future Prospects partnerships to space technology and multilateral forums collaboration.
Despite changes in international alignments (notably since the Cold War
India’s participation in the changing global power equations is set to determine
ended and new power centres arose), the bilateral relationship hews to the normal
its role in the international arena in future. In terms of deeper collaboration with
state of alliance relations. This lesson examines the foundations of the India-
major powers in new areas such as technology, artificial intelligence (AI) and
Russia partnership, areas of cooperation, and challenges and opportunities for
climate change, this is a large area of potential. By partnering with the USA, India
the India-Russia partnership in light of India’s foreign policy objectives.
can utilize frameworks such as the Indo-US Critical and Emerging Technologies
(iCET) to promote AI, quantum computing and cybersecurity innovation, and 3.5.1 Historical Overview
build India’s skilled workforce to match America’s technological leadership, for
instance, there is the opportunity to establish partnerships in space exploration, During the Cold War, it was a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy based on
nuclear energy and digital or cyber technologies with Russia. Strategic rivalries mutual trust, strategic alignment and developmental collaboration between
notwithstanding, cooperation for green technologies and adaptation to climate India and the then-Soviet Union. The proposed partnership was a product of a
is a possibility with China, even if it means under specific circumstances. At the polarized world order where shared goals of resisting Western domination and
heart of India’s global strategy is addressing mutual concerns about China’s rise promoting divergent development were constructed. It was during this time that
and Indo-Pacific stability. India and the USA are in sync on countering China’s India found the Soviet Union as a predictable partner that did not preach to it, but
assertiveness through QUAD and maritime security initiatives, but India’s was supportive and constructive in defence, economic and diplomatic spheres, a
relationship with Russia is about reorienting Moscow’s presence in South Asia. useful ally out of the East. This relation was founded in the 1950s during which
Improved infrastructure investments, defence partnerships and a rules-based India asserted its sovereignty and instilled its strategic position in the South
order and confidence-building measures with China can help create Indo-Pacific Asian region. Their bond was formalized in the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of
stability, which is a shared interest among QUAD’s nations, and prevent further Peace, Friendship and Cooperation through which the USSR promised Indian
escalation. When India pursues these goals, its balancing of democratic values support in crucial moments, such as the Bangladesh Liberation War, when the
brings a nuanced layer of commitment to its relations with the authoritarian USSR stood in the role of checkmating the US and China pressures against India.
powers of Russia and China, to safeguard national interests in a pragmatic
Defence collaboration between Indo-Soviet was one of the most defining
manner. To contribute to India’s strategic autonomy and global stability and
aspects of Indo Soviet relations. Advanced weaponry, and often technology
sustainable development, India is fostering such collaborations and addressing
transfer, were provided by the Soviet Union and supplied at favourable terms;
their shared challenges.
the Soviet Union was India’s principal supplier of military equipment. The MiG-
21 fighter jets which were of crucial significance in terms of key acquisitions,
3.5 INDIA AND RUSSIA revolutionised the air defence of India. The USSR also helped India kick off its
defence manufacturing by supporting joint production. Arms supply was not
the only thing this partnership involved; it also had strategic backing in military
India and Russia have had a time-tested and multi-dimensional relationship since
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional conflicts. In the 1971 war, the USSR dispatched naval forces to the Indian
the days of the Cold War. The partnership is based on historical ties, mutual Material 61 62 Material

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

Ocean to prevent the US or British intervention during the war. Its security was NOTES NOTES esteem, non-interference and shared fundamental ideals. Secondly, in 2000,
strengthened, even as India's strategic autonomy was enhanced, in a volatile the Declaration on Strategic Partnership represented the zenith of the bilateral
regional environment, by this comprehensive defence cooperation. relations institutionalized through regular high-level dialogues and expanded to
The Soviet Union helped India’s defence but it also helped a lot in India’s all sorts of sectors, especially the defence, energy and space exploration.
economic and industrial development. The USSR recognised India’s need for Through stone layers, Russia continued to be the key supplier of military
self-reliance in certain key sectors and provided financial assistance, soft loans hardware to India. It made alliances like this, only the defence projects like the
and technical expertise. Only iconic projects like Bhilai and the Bokaro Steel BrahMos missile system or Sukhoi fighter jets serve as icons here. At the same
Plants forged in Soviet collaboration would act as a symbol of how committed time, energy partnerships were blossoming, with India putting money into Russian
the USSR was to India’s industrialization. India’s economic growth was not the oil and gas ventures and Russia backing India's search for energy security. India
only benefit; these initiatives helped create technological self-sufficiency. The and Russia have been on the same page by all means in multi-lateral forums
Soviet cooperation in the fields of energy, metallurgy and space exploration also on the global stage. Both nations have been working in harmony in the BRICS
helped India develop the groundwork for long-term technological development. framework, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and the United Nations
The rupee rouble trade mechanism thus further locked their economic ties and to fight for a multipolar world order grounded in sovereignty and law.
enabled India to do mutually beneficial trade without exhausting its foreign The source of such resilience and the enduring strategic convergence
exchange reserves. between India and Russia are to be found in the post-Cold War period. Occasional
On critical issues, the USSR came out as a steadfast supporter of India, divergences on several issues notwithstanding, the partnership remains a
diplomatically. The Kashmir dispute served as an example of where absolutizing fundamental aspect of India's foreign policy and proof that India and its portfolio
had the worst effects, given that the Soviet Union routinely vetoed inappropriate share an identical vision to promote a stabilised and wholesome worldwide
resolutions at the United Nations Security Council freeing India from facing framework.
international pressures. The USSR also encouraged India’s bigger thrust to
keep away from the global supremacy contests of the superpowers. The Soviet 3.5.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
Union lent diplomatic backing while recognizing India’s regional aspirations,
which helped raise the whole country on the world stage. The presence of this India and Russia have a time-tested relationship that has now become a multi-
multifaceted partnership during the Cold War laid the strong foundation of the faceted strategic partnership. The partnership is rooted in historical links,
immutably growing relationship between India and Russia which streamlines in mutual trust and common interests, and has been based on strong defence
accordance with the variable global situation. cooperation, energy cooperation and a common vision of a multipolar world
order. Nevertheless, this relationship has come under pressure arising from
India and Russia faced a highly complex political and geopolitical
changes in global power equations and the increasing India's engagements with
environment in the post-Cold War period, characterized by the unipolar world of
other major powers. India-Russia strategic partnership that was formalized in
the United States and the rise of new extra-regional powers. The historical warmth
2000 is in the domains of defence, energy, space, science and technology. The
between the two nations did not want the transformation of Russia’s domestic and
two countries hold regular high-level dialogues through mechanisms such as
foreign policy priorities. Instead, the strategic interests of the two countries were
the Annual Summit, Inter-Governmental Commission and through BRICS and
recalibrated with the relationship. Substantial events during what turned out to be
SCO platforms. This relationship has a strategic depth of shared positions on
a long period of good relations included the signing of the Treaty of Friendship
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
and Cooperation in 1993, recalling another fundamental principle of mutual Material 63 64 Material

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

global issues, such as counter-terrorism, non-proliferation and advocating for a NOTES NOTES • Geopolitical Shifts: India’s foreign policy calculus has been transformed
multipolar world order. by the rise of India’s growing strategic ties with the United States, especially
The India-Russia partnership has been based on defence cooperation for through platforms like the QUAD. It has raised concerns in Moscow that
decades. India is still one of the largest importers of Russian defence equipment, the partnership may be diluted.
taking about 20 per cent of Russia's total defence exports. Notable collaborations • Russia-China Relations: With the draping of Western sanctions, Russia's
include S-400 Missile Systems, which represent the high level of trust and forging of ties with China could make things complicated for its relationship
strategic alignment between the partners. These air defence systems have been with India. However, India is cautious about this alignment because it is a
dubbed the S-400 Triumf. In 2018, India said it had inked a $5.43 billion deal border-issue country, and there is also strategic competition between China
for five S-400 systems, bolstering its air defence capabilities after US CAATSA and India.
(Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) could result in • Sanctions and Economic Constraints: Since the same Ukraine conflict,
sanctions. India has bought a lot of Russian military hardware: Sukhoi fighter western sanctions on Russia have particularly hit Russian defence and
jets, T-90 tanks and naval platforms such as submarines. Successful defence energy sectors including complicating bilateral trade and collaboration.
technology collaboration is shown by the joint production of the BrahMos
• Diversification of Partners: India’s efforts to diversify its defence
supersonic cruise missiles.
imports from countries such as the US, France and Israel aim to reduce its
Energy Cooperation reliance on Russian military hardware. In the wake of all this, India assures
Another important pillar of the partnership is energy collaboration. India Russia that its partnership with it will be strengthened. Potential areas for
is a large energy-required country in South Asia, and Russia is a very important deepening cooperation include Making in India initiative on expanding
partner in terms of energy security, and we have been cooperating in the nuclear defence co-production, supporting collaboration in emerging technologies,
as well as the hydrocarbon sectors. artificial intelligence and cybersecurity, long-term supply agreements and
joint ventures in renewable energy, and leveraging platforms such as the
• Nuclear Energy: The flagship project of the India-Russia civilian nuclear International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), and the Eurasian
energy collaboration is India's Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP) Economic Union (EAEU) as a way to promote trade and investment.
in Tamil Nadu. Units 1 and 2 have been built with Russian assistance and
are operational, units 3 and 4 are under construction. Further expansion All in all, the India-Russia partnership continues strong, but it must work
of nuclear energy cooperation is under discussion. itself up to the changes in the global power equation and the open consideration
that national priorities face. It will be important for both nations to balance a
• Hydrocarbons: India has bought Russian oil and gas assets, including traditional tie to each other with nascent opportunities to sustain and further their
Sakhalin-1 and Vankor. In return, Russia has become India's main crude strategic partnership. There are several challenges to the India-Russia partnership
oil and natural gas supplier. The two countries are looking at enhanced that need to be well managed to keep it from losing its strategic relevance.
cooperation in LNG projects and the Arctic energy resources.
Russia’s growing alignment with China, which is a product of Western
Challenges sanctions and the changing global order, is one of the biggest issues. In the defence
Despite the robust partnership, India-Russia relations face several challenges and energy sectors, the deepening of the Russia-China nexus complicates Indian
stemming from evolving global dynamics and domestic priorities: strategic calculus because it has an adversarial relationship with China. It has also
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional become necessary for India to strike a fine balance between its rapidly growing
Material 65 66 Material

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

relations with the USA, including defence pacts and the QUAD. Added to this NOTES NOTES Another area where India and Russia can pick up from their previous
complexity is the possibility that India may have already fallen foul of CAATSA projects is space exploration and reach greater levels. Russia has historically
sanctions, for procurement of Russian defence equipment. Furthermore, trade ties been a very important partner in India’s space program, and this partnership can
between India and Russia are quite underwhelming, disadvantaged by logistical be taken forward to undertake more ambitious joint space missions. Russia’s
barriers and little diversification, albeit despite ambitious trade targets. Finally, experience in manned spaceflight and India’s burgeoning cost-effective space
the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict has intensified further with the subsequent missions could be put to collaborative use in lunar and interplanetary exploration.
partition of global alliances, and India’s involvement is required to find its This can be integrated and expanded in the compatibility between India’s NavIC
strategic autonomy while staying at a balanced distance from Russia and the West. satellite navigation system and Russia’s GLONASS to obtain a better navigation
Historical ties, mutual strategic interests and a shared range of global solution for civil as well as military purposes.
objectives continue to keep the India-Russia relationship alive. However, these However, there is also a great opportunity to commercialize the space
competitive relationships are increasingly driven by emerging challenges, such industry as it is growing and both nations can develop a cost-efficient launch
as Russia’s pivot to China and India’s balancing act with the USA, which call vehicle and space technology and capitalize on the growing demand for space-
for proactive or adaptive diplomacy. To maintain this partnership, it will be a based services. Not only would such a line of endeavour enhance bilateral
key to strengthening economic engagement, diversifying defence cooperation relations, but it would also put both countries on the map in the world’s space
and developing people-to-people connections. industry. India and Russia have some promising things going on but with a
changing global power dynamic and a rapidly changing world few things are
3.5.3 Future Prospects staying the same, both countries are at the tipping point where they too will have
to exert adjustment to keep the strong playing traditional relationship. Among
The technology and space exploration domains can be one of the most promising the biggest obstacles is the shifting geopolitical environment, more specifically
areas of future collaboration between India and Russia. New opportunities the opposing interests of the world’s leading nations.
for collaboration arise beyond old areas such as defence and energy with
The paradox of a growing strategic partnership between India and the
technological advancements and the growth of the digital economy. Both
United States, especially through the QUAD, with Russia is a challenge. At the
countries have recognised the transformative potential of Artificial intelligence
same time, Russia’s growing closeness to China is a source of strategic worry
(AI), cybersecurity, and green technologies. India and Russia can mutually
for India, as India and China are already at loggerheads. Both nations, though,
strengthen their specialities by engaging in joint ventures and shared research to
have repeatedly reaffirmed the need for strategic autonomy, the ability to pursue
solve world problems and develop new cutting-edge innovations. For example,
national interests without the rigidity of alliance nor global axes of power.
Russia’s advanced scientific research experience and India’s fast-growing tech
Maintaining such a relationship both pragmatic and independent of the Western
industry can be combined to develop AI applications for healthcare, agriculture
cooperation appears possible for India and Russia if they adhere to this principle.
and defence. Likewise, cybersecurity cooperation can also help both nations build
their digital ecosystems by protecting data and strengthening the cyber resistance Defence cooperation has been a cornerstone of India-Russia relations for
against cyber threats. As the world’s focus gradually moves toward sustainable long, but it has been hit by India’s diversification of its defence procurement in
development, collaboration on green technologies like hydrogen energy, nuclear recent years. India has expanded its relationship with Western countries through
power, and carbon capture could have an immense role to play in the global defence partnerships but has not distanced itself from Russia for many of its
energy transition and a solution to climate change challenges. critical defence technologies. BrahMos missile initiative is an example of joint
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
Material 67 68 Material development programs wherein India and Russia can get benefits from such

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

ventures' mutual development of technology, India’s quest for modernizing NOTES NOTES India as a major voice of developing nations have redrawn their interactions
its defence efforts and Russia’s ability to expand its defence exports. Looking in terms of new global power configurations. Despite working together in
forward, they can be a model for how to attack challenges in the defence industry multilateral regimes, BRICS, SCO and G20, there is a strategic rivalry brewing
while maintaining a strong and resilient relationship. in trade imbalances, border tensions and reaching into the Indo-Pacific and the
Another area of great potential for economic cooperation between India South Asian regions. To assess the impact of dynamics between India and China
and Russia is that which has to be planned strategically to overcome challenges. on regional stability and broader international system, we should understand
Trade in energy continues to be a cornerstone of their economic relationship, but them well. Their relationship is a key lens through which we can analyse how
the need is growing to diversify trade beyond energy. Both nations can further the future trajectory of global power shifts.
cooperate in areas which have not been fully explored, such as pharmaceuticals,
3.6.1 Historical Overview
agriculture and information technology. The imposition of Western sanctions on
Russia has made bilateral trade such a complicated affair that innovative solutions
The cultural and economic exchange between India and China is long-standing,
like the Rupee-Ruble mechanism have been introduced for local currency trade
dating back to what we might now call ancient times. An example of an important
arrangements. They can be such measures to ease external pressures and maintain
extended relationship was established through trade along the Silk Road, with
the stable growth of economic ties.
the propagation of Buddhism, and intellectual exchanges. However, with new
Finally, the future of India-Russia relations hinges on the development of dynamics both nations were out of colonial and semi-colonial experiences
such opportunities and their resolution of challenges on a balancing and pragmatic and became independent states. The historical connection was the basis for
basis. Technology and space exploration can together enhance cooperation, and cooperation in the first few years after India's independence in 1947 and the
become a catalyst for innovation and joint growth, whereas strategic autonomy formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. At first, both countries
for international affairs is a principle to navigate the global power dynamic. saw themselves as leaders of the postcolonial world, espousing nonalignment
India and Russia can take their historic ties and mould them into a relationship and resisting imperialism.
which is mutually beneficial and enduring in the years in future by building on
their shared history. The strategic partnership with Pakistan will not only further India-China relations before and after 1962
enhance the Pak-China partnership but will also bring other parts to crafting a A significant milestone in their relations was the Panchsheel Agreement of
more balanced and multipolar world order. 1954, which outlined five principles of peaceful coexistence: non-aggression,
non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit,
3.6 INDIA AND CHINA peaceful coexistence, mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity. It
was an agreement of a spirit of cooperation and mutual trust. Unresolved border
disputes still existed behind disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.
Though India and China are two of the world's largest countries in terms of The relationship was strained by these territorial disagreements on China's side
population and age, they have a complicated multi-layered relationship impacted (they claimed Tibet) as well as India later accepting the Dalai Lama in 1959, as
by historical, geopolitical and economic factors. The bilateral evolution of their a refugee. Their bilateral ties hit a turning point in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.
ties, though, has been one of cooperation and competition, with the shared borders It cited Indian incursions into the disputed territories as the reason for launching
disputes, regional aspirations, and global governance roles interlaced. The input a military offensive. It was a huge loss for both India and China which exposed
Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
of China as an economic as well as military superpower and the playing out of Material 69 70 Material the real character of Chinese expansionist policy and filled a huge mistrust. In the

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

war, diplomatic relations broke down and there was a long streak of hostility. It NOTES NOTES 3.6.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
sealed a course in Indo-Chinese relations, whose legacy continues to bespeckle
bilateral perceptions. After the 1970s, relations became increasingly cautious with Let is discuss this in detail.
both nations being aware that it was time to talk and work together. Diplomatic
Cooperation
ties were restored in 1976 and paved the way for high-level visits and confidence-
building measures. Agreements concerning peace and tranquillity along the Line India and China are two of the world’s largest, most populous, and most
of Actual Control (LAC) as well as on economic cooperation were negotiated economically influential nations. The two countries' relationship is fraught with
during the 1980s and 1990s. The trade between China and India was very high both strategic partnerships and persistent challenges. They are both regional
which made China India’s largest trading partner. Grace in the relationship, players and neighbours, and theoretically, their interactions will not only impact
however, has come under periodic strain with border face-offs like the Doklam regional stability but also the global mechanisms of international politics.
crisis in 2017 and the Galwan Valley clashes in 2020 such that tensions have Trade, multilateral engagements and investment have over the years cooperated
not abated altogether. and highlighted areas of benefit to both. Therefore, China is making strides in
becoming an important market for Chinese goods although the bilateral trade
The complexity of Indian Chinese engagement is underscored by India-
balance remains heavily in favour of China. Additions in infrastructure and sector
China relations of historical evolution. Although diplomatic and economic
things also bolster the two nation's economic interdependence. In addition, India
relations have grown, the legacy of the 1962 war unclaimed border disputes and
and China work together through a number of multilateral forums such as BRICS
intense strategic rivalry in the Indo-Pacific remain a factor in their bilateral shape.
(Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) and SCO (Shanghai Cooperation
It is important to understand these historical phases to analyze and understand
Organization), to tackle overarching global issues such as the recovery of
contemporary issues and challenges and opportunities of India-China relations.
economies by addressing climate change and sustainable development. They
Evolving relations in the 21st century present a base of dialogue and collective action, in which their shared aspirations
Given the paradox of increasing economic interdependence and recurrent for a multipolar global order are revealed.
geopolitical and border tensions between India and China, India-China relations There are, however, some challenges to this partnership. Relations have
in the 21st century have been marked by a paradox. The two countries have been strained by territorial disputes, including the long-standing problem of a
become major trading partners, economically, and China is now India's largest border and the standoff at various places on the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
trading partner. The bilateral trade volume has increased rapidly due to India's China also worries India due to its rising influence in South Asia and the projects
demand for enterprises' Chinese goods and China's interest in the Indian market. under the Belt and Road Initiative Initiative (BRI). While there are differences,
The economic ties are balanced by frequent border disputes, particularly along these nations realize that engagement and dialogue are needed to manage conflicts
the Line of Actual Control (LAC). The enduring fragility of trust between the and help them arrive at a place where competition and cooperation are balanced
two nations may be seen in incidents like the clash in Galwan Valley in 2020. enough to create a relationship. The realization of its aspirations as leading global
China’s strategic alliances in South Asia its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and powers and for regional stability depends on it to achieve this delicate balance.
increasing footprint in the Indian Ocean region have only complicated matters
Conflicts
further. However, India and China engage in dialogue to manage, a pull no closer
to peace, competition, and cooperation that mirrors broader trends in the global They are discussed as follows:
balance of power. Self-Instructional Self-Instructional • Border Disputes: One of the main sources of tension program to the
Material 71 72 Material
boundary issue between India and China is unresolved. Their bilateral

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

relations are fragile incidents like the 2017 Doklam standoff or the 2020 NOTES NOTES India-China relations are still marked by the most contentious issue, the
violent clashes in the Galwan Valley. The disputes are over differing border. The volatility along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) is underscored
perceptions of the Line of Actual Control (LAC), and continue to erode by crashes like the 2020 Galwan Valley clash. Unless something is done to
trust between the two nations. prevent escalation, strengthening border management mechanisms is essential.
• Strategic Rivalry: India and China typically don't see eye to eye in Such confidence building measures (CBMs), regular high-level military and
South Asia and the Indian Ocean region, where China's ascendancy, with diplomatic dialogues and agreements to keep peace and tranquillity along the
initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), is considered encircled Line of Actual Control play an important role. Both nations should ensure that
by India strategically. On the other hand, Beijing is suspicious of India’s all border protocols are adhered to and are seeking the clarification of the LAC
partnerships with countries such as the USA, Japan and Australia under in order to reduce ambiguity. Better surveillance, infrastructure development and
frameworks such as the QUAD. The duality of the cooperation and conflict technology deployment along the border can help India’s defensive capabilities.
presents an interesting challenge to the management of a relationship However, at the same time, that doesn't mean you can't maintain open channels
between two rising powers within an increasingly multipolar world. of communication with China, and open channels to mitigate misunderstandings
and promote a stable environment in the border regions. Key players in regional
3.6.3 Future Prospects and global platforms are India and China, BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO) and the G20. These multilateral forums offer both nations a
India and China have a relationship of cooperation and competition. These two chance to work constructively on issues such as climate change, global economic
ancient civilisations are major global players. In economic interdependence, recovery and counterterrorism. They often have different global ambitions but
regional aspirations and historical legacies, they are shaped by bilateral dynamics. cooperation in these platforms can help them to build mutual trust and contribute
In the 21st century, both nations have made great economic and strategic strides, to regional stability. India can work with like-minded nations to counterbalance
but the future of their relations will be shaped by how well they deal with current China's dominance without going to an outright confrontation. It shows its effort
problems and open doors to cooperation. India and China have healthy economic to raise strategic autonomy through Indo-Pacific strategy, through the partners
ties with China being one of India’s biggest trading partners. In recent decades, it has within the QUAD framework, and through growing ties, it is developing
bilateral trade has wildly expanded, contributing to economic growth and work with countries like the United States and Japan in addressing regional concerns.
creation in both countries. However, the relationship is not symmetrical, India Pragmatic engagement with the complexities of the India-China relationship
has a large trade deficit with China. Like all the countries around us, India needs is the future of India-China relations. Economic cooperation, technology
more access to the Chinese markets and tries to reduce dependence on Chinese exchanges and global challenges are all things both nations stand to gain from.
markets through domestic manufacturing, a part of India’s ‘Make in India’ But to realize this vision, it has to overcome deep-seated mistrust and manage its
initiative. Their relationship is dominated by strategic caution even though they competition in Asia and elsewhere. A balanced foreign and domestic economic
are economically cooperating. Most important are unresolved issues of borders, and technological capacity and a prepared military and civilian capacity should
especially in Ladakh, fuelled by China's rising influence in South Asia via the be the key for India. It paved the way for better relations with India; it can create
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). China's strategic bids add to India's fears of goodwill with other countries in the region, and address Beijing’s assertive
China's ties with Pakistan and activities in the Indian Ocean Area. This requires policies that are worrying to many countries. In the end, the trajectory of India and
India to maintain a fine balance while partnering economically with them while China relations will depend on how smoothly their differences can be overcome,
protecting the interest of national security. Self-Instructional Self-Instructional
Material 73 74 Material

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi School of Open Learning, University of Delhi