J.S. At,. Inst. Min. Metal/., vol.

91,
no. 7. Jul. 1991. pp. 233-248.

Zinc in South Africa *

by C.J. VAN NIEKERKt and C.C. BEGLEYt

SYNOPSIS
The paper opens with brief descriptions of the history, occurrence, and regional geology of South Afri-
can zinc deposits, and follows with descriptions of the resources, mining methods, and processes for the
concentration of the sulphide minerals and the extraction of zinc as practised in South Africa. The end uses
in the form of alloys or as salts are given in some detail. Statistics on the production and consumption
of zinc in South Africa are given, and the current market situation and future prospects are discussed briefly.

SAMEVATTING
Die referaat begin met 'n kort beskrywing van die geskiedenis, voorkoms en streeksgeologie van die Suid.
Afrikaanse sinkafsettings en gaan dan voort met beskrywings van die hulpbronne, mynboumetodes, en die
prosesse vir die konsentrering van die sulfiedminerale en die ekstraksie van die sink soos in Suid-Afrika
toegepas word. Die eindgebruike in vorm van legerings of as soute word redelik volledig beskryf. Statistiek
oor die produksie en verbruik van sink in Suid-Afrika word aangegee en die huidige marksituasie en toekom-
stige vooruitsigte word kortliks bespreek.

INTRODUCTION centrate is normally converted to zinc oxide before be-

The origin of the name zinc is obscure, but it is be- ing reduced to the metal. Reduction can be achieved via
lieved that the word originated from the German word hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical routes.
meaning point, jagged part, or tooth. This term could The annual world consumption of zinc metal is
have applied to the appearance of the ore, as well as to approximately 7,1 million tons, of which South Africa
any hexagonal crystals of zinc as produced in a furnacel. uses approximately 87 000 tons.
Elemental zinc is bluish-white and lustrous, and is brit-
tle at ordinary temperatures but malleable at lOO to HISTORY
150 cC. The metal melts2 at 419,5 °C and boils at 907 °C2. The exploration for mineral deposits and their mining
The distribution in nature of the five stable isotopes antedate metallurgical processes since the first metals used
of zinc is as follows3: by man, namely gold and copper, were exploited in their
Zn64 native (elemental) state and were found on or near the
48,89070
Zn66 27,81070
earth's surface. The visible 'massive' ore needed only
Zn67 hand trimming before being worked into shape.
4,11%
Zn68 The Greeks of the Hellenistic era were the first to iden-
18,57%
Zn70 tify and describe a mineral deposit containing zinc-that
0,62%.
at Laurion-but lacked the technology to extract the zinc
The most significant chemical property of zinc is its from the crystals of zinc carbonate. In Roman times it
high reduction potential, which is responsible for its ex- became accepted practice to heat metals in a furnace and,
tensive use in coatings on steel and as a sacrificial anode as copper was a sought-after metal, its ores were often
in protecting pipelines and ships' hulls4. Zinc oxide has smelted. When the copper ore contained a zinc compo-
useful chemical, electronic, optical, and thermal charac- nent, as occurred in the copper deposits of northern
teristics, and various grades are therefore marketed5. In Europe and Asia Minor, the smelting process produced
alloyed form, it can be cast in fine detail into complicat- a metal alloy, which is now commonly termed brass. The
ed shapes. However, as an industrial material, it has the first smelter production of zinc metal was described by
disadvantages of poor creep resistance and low strength- the Roman writer Strabo in about 2oo BC. He wrote of
to-weight ratio compared with those of other materials. an ore from Andeira in Asia Minor that, when burnt,
In nature zinc occurs mainly as a sulphide mineral became iron and then, when heated in a furnace with a
usually associated with lead, iron, and copper sulphides. 'white earth', distilled 'mock silver'.
The mining of zinc can be regarded as conventional, and Zinc smelting on a production scale is considered to
the sulphide mineral is readily separated by flotation. have originated in China, where the making of malleable
It is generally accepted that zinc is not an easy metal zinc is known to have been practised in the seventh cen-
to produce from its mineral concentrates, and the con- tury AD. In India, zinc was produced before 1380 from
ore mined at Zaivar. By the seventeenth century, zinc was
This paper is a contribution to the Metal and Mineral Review Series. being imported into Europe from Asia, and in 1743 a zinc
*
t Gold Fields of South Africa Limited, P.D. Box 1167, Johannes- smelter for the treatment of zinc oxide was erected in
burg 2000. Bristol, England. In 1758 an Englishman, John
@ The South African Institute of Mining and MetaIlurgy, 1991. SA Champion, was granted a patent on the roasting of zinc
ISSN 0038-227X/3.00 + 0.00. sulphide to produce zinc and, by the early nineteenth cen-

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INsmuTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JULY 1991 233
 Blastfumace Process
In the 194Os,a new approach to the production of zinc
100 and lead was made by the Imperial Smelting Corpora-
g. 90 tion at Avonmouth, England, where the horizontal- and
§ -- vertical-retort systems had .been in operation since 1929
80
'u and 1933 respectively. The Corporation considered that,
~0 70 by using the blastfurnace principle, a large unit could
C. 60
,,/,///0//'" operate at low labour and maintenance costs and with
"'0
15 50
-u- Electrolysis
Horizontal distillation
higher thermal efficiency than was attainable by retort-
~ ing methods. The difficult condensation problem that
tii 40 -,,- existed with the retorting method was overcome by C.l.
~ 30 Derham, who suggested the use of a spray of molten-lead
20 droplets for rapid chilling and adsorption of the zinc
vapour in the presence of high concentrations of carbon
10
dioxide. In 1946 the first experimental blastfurnace was
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 constructed and brought into operation, and in 1950 the
first prototype production furnace was commissioned.
Fig. 8- The use of electrolysis and horizontal distillation for the Up to the end of 1984, the blastfurnace process had
production of zinc5
operated 13 furnaces and had produced 11,9 Mt of zinc
and 5,8 Mt oflead. This process now accounts for 12 per
cent of the world's zinc productions. However, world-
TABLE 11 wide zinc is produced mainly by the electrolytic process
TOTAL WORLD PRODUCTION OF SLAB ZINC and, in the Republic of South Africa, it is the only process
AND THE PRINCIPAL PROCESSES USEDs in use.

Process Mt Period Electrolytic Process

The electrolytic process was established industrially by
Horizontal retorts ca 55 1800-1984 Anaconda and Cominco (Canada) during the years 1914
Electrolysis ca 115 1916-1984
to 1918 for the treatment of the complex zinc ores of
Vertical retorts 11,5 1930-1984
Electrothermic 7,8 1936-1984
North America2s. The metallurgists of Anaconda and
Overpelt 3,7 1949-1984 Cominco made use of the basic principles already known,
Blastfurnace 11,9 1951-1984 combined these with the best previously known methods
and new discoveries, and adapted them to work commer-
Total ca 205 1800-1984 cially on a large scale. The main equipment (agitators,
classifiers, thickeners, and filters) had already been de-
veloped previously for the cyanidation process and found
The vertical-retort, Overpelt, blastfurnace, and elec- immediate use in the hydrometallurgical treatment of
trothermic processes were developed after 1930. Of these, zinc.
the blastfurnace has shown strong growth, whereas the The success of electrolytic zinc production was due to
other three methods have virtually disappeared from the an acknowledgement of the need to develop a satisfactory
scene (Fig. 9). purification procedure for zinc sulphate solutions. Dur-
ing 1917, the Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia
made a study of the North American process with a view
~ to its adaptation to their cobalt-contaminated Broken Hill
eT
"'00
-.:
ore. This impurity caused serious dissolution of the plat-
5
g~ 'fi ed zinc during electrolysis.
>"'00 3 In 1922 a Norwegian engineer Robert Lepsoe delivered
C. 1
a paper entitled 'On the conditions for electric produc-
12
12 -- Vertical retort
Overpelt -
Blastfurnace
Electrothermic.
.
/.;'"'"
tion of zinc in Norway'. Lepsoe had seven years of prac-
tical experience in the electrothermic smelting of zinc, and
-s. 11 /\ had spent eight months studying zinc hydrometallurgy
"'-"
e 10 .""
./ ;,: \/ as used in North America. The Det Norski Zinc Kompa-
.2 9
g 8
ni, which had tried the electrothermic method, decided
"'0 in 1926 to change to the electrolytic method. The first
~ 7
electrolytic plant in Europe was erected at Eitrheim, Nor-
"'0 6 way, under licence to the Anaconda Copper Mining Com-
~
tii
5
4
pany, and it was a carbon copy of the Great Falls plant
in the USA.
~ 3
2
i Effect of Iron in the Electrolytic Process
1
/ Iron in the concentrate lowers the dissolution of zinc
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 during leaching because of the less-soluble zinc ferrite that
is formed during roasting. This effect results in poor dis-
Fig. 9- The use of zinc processes5 solution of the zinc since only the zinc oxide fraction dis-

JOURNAL OF ll-fE SOlITH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALWRGY JULY1991 239
solves during leaching. It was known that ferrites would 3ZnFe204 + 6H2S04 + Na2S04 =
dissolve in strong acid solution at temperatures close to
boiling point, but the combined dissolution Qf iron and 2NaFe3(S04h(OH)6 + 3ZnS04.
zinc in sulphuric acid led to the problem of separating The hematite process was developed independently by
these two metals. Much research work followed in at- the Dowa Mining Company of Japan, and by Ruhr-Zink
tempts to precipitate the iron in a filterable form. of Germany. In this process, iron is precipitated
Anaconda developed a special 'Mechanical Acid predominantly as iron oxide (Fe203) in the presence of
Leach' to dissolve the ferrites in the leach residue and oxygen at approximately 180 °C and a total pressure of
to precipitate the iron as basic iron sulphates with cal- 1,8 to 2,0 MPa. The process can be described by die fol-
cine and ground lime-bearing rock. This method was lowing chemical reactions28:
practised at Great Falls and at Eitrheim, but was difficult
to control. A method of residue treatment called red 2FeS04 + ;02 + 2H20 = Fe203 + 2H2S04
roasting, which, is in fact, a sulphating roast, worked or, if iron is in the ferric form,
well, but the subsequent water leach to recover the zinc
sulphate seriously affected the sulphate balance in the Fe2(S04h + 3H2O = Fe203 + 3H2S04.
leaching circuit.
The process in which iron is precipitated as a basic suI-..
The breakthrough for the precipitation of iron in a
phate was developed by Zincor in Springs (South Africa).
filterable form came in 1964 with the discovery of a
This is a continuous process, being similar in this respect
method to precipitate iron in the form of a jarosite. Other
to the other precipitation methods. A slurry of zinc cal-
methods to precipitate iron from sulphate solutions soon
cine in water and zinc sulphate solution also containing
followed and were put into practice.
ferric sulphate are simultaneously added to a stirred ves-
sel so that the pH value does not fall below 3,0. The bas-
Iron Precipitation in the Electrolytic Process
ic ferric sulphate so precipitated is then in a filterable
The following processes are used industrially to precipi-
form. In a second tank, further acidic solution is added
tate iron from zinc sulphate solutions: jarosite precipita-
tion, goethite precipitation, the conversion process, to leach out any excess zinc and so ensure that the iron
precipitate carries a minimum of zinc with it to the
hematite precipitation, basic iron sulphate precipitation,
residue. Further leaching time is allowed in another two
and direct leaching of the sulphide concentrate.
tanks. The pH value is maintained at about 2,3 through-
The precipitation of iron as a jarosite is carried out
out the leaching step. The following chemical reaction
from a hot solution in the presence of sodium, potassium, gives an approximate description of the precipitation:
or ammonium ions. The precipitate has good settling and
filtration properties but, owing to its slow decomposition Fe2(S04h + 2Zn(OHh =
when placed on dumps, can cause water-pollution Fe203.S03.H2O + 2ZnS04 + heat.
problems. When ammonium jarosite is precipitated, the
reaction is as follows26: Fig. 10 compares the methods for the precipitation of
iron and the extraction of zinc in these processes.
(NH4hS04 + 3Fe2(S04h + 12 H2O = A direct leach of the zinc sulphide concentrate at an
2NH4Fe3(S04h(OH)6 + 6 H2S04. elevated temperature and in the presence of oxygen was

The goethite process was developed by Vielle Montagne 100

of Belgium27. The ferric sulphate dissolved during leach- Hematile
ing with hot sulphuric acid is reduced with zinc sulphide
to form ferrous sulphate, which is then oxidized with air
or oxygen at a controlled pH value to precipitate the iron Conversion
98
in the form of goethite. The precipitation of goethite can
be described by the following equations:
-g.

2FeS04 +;02 + H2S04 = Fe2(S04h + H2O g 96

Fe2(S04h + 4H20 =[Link]+3 H2SO4 t5
e
x0)
2FeS04+;o2+3 H2O=[Link]+2 H2SO4. u
~ 94
In the conversion process, which was developed by
Outokumpu Oy of Finland, the two steps comprising the
jarosite process (Le. leaching with hot sulphuric acid fol- 92
lowed by liquid-solid separation and precipitation of the
iron) are combined in that leaching of the zinc ferrite and
precipitation of the dissolved iron as jarosite take place
simultaneously. This process gives a better recovery of 90
zinc than the jarosite process because no calcine is need- 6 26
ed for pH control during the jarosite-precipitation stage.
The combined reactions for this process proceed as Fig.10-A comparison of the processes used for the precipita.
follows28: tion of Iron

240 JULY 1991 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTIlUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 developed by Sherritt Gordonz9.3o. This method is now built by Simon Carves. The total roasting capacity is 634 t
applied on a plant scale, and elemental sulphur is of concentrate per day, and the two acid plants were
produced as a byproduct. A direct leach of the concen- designed for 54Ot of acid per day.
trate eliminates the roasting step and the subsequent Concentrates with a moisture content of approximately
precipitation of iron that are required during the conven- 8 per cent are fed into the burning beds of the roasters
tional roast-leach process. via slinger belts. The roasting temperatures are main-
tained at about 930 QC by' the use of water addition.
PRODUCTION OF ZINC IN SOUTH AFRICA During roasting, the following chemical reactions take
In 1968 the Zinc Corporation of South Africa Limit- place:
ed (Zincor) started to produce zinc from an electrolytic
smelter established near Springs. The main partners in
2ZnS + 30z = 2ZnO + SOl + heat """"""
(1)
Zincor are Gold Fields of South Africa Limited and the 4FeSz + 110z = 2Fez03 + 8S0z + heat (2)
Iron & Steel Industrial Corporation (Pty) Limited (Iscor).
This only smelter was initially fed with concentrates ZnO + 4Fez03 =ZnO.Fez03 (3)
imported from Australia (Broken Hill South, Broken Hill 2ZnO+2S0z+0z =2ZnS04. (4)
North, Cobar, and Mathilda) and Canada (Pine Point), """"""""""""
but it was later fed with sulphide concentrates from Pries- Reactions (1) and (2) proceed to more than 99 per cent
ka, Rosh Pinah (Namibia), and Pering, and with zinc ox- completion, whereas reaction (3) depends on the roast-
ide produced by Kiln Products (Namibia), as these ing temperature and on the association of the iron with
concentrates became available. the zinc. Iron that is part of the crystal, such as in mar-
Whereas zinc metal was previously imported from matite, reacts completely with the zinc ferrite, whereas
Zaire and Zambia, it is now produced in South Africa, iron contained in separate minerals, such as in pyrite, will
and today the smelter at Springs is capable of providing react only partially to form ferrite. Reaction (4) proceeds
the country's entire needs. The plant was initially designed to approximately 6 per cent completion. The sulphur di-
for the annual production of 36 kt of zinc, but produc- oxide gas, after being cleaned and dried, is oxidized with
tion has increased over the years to keep pace with the air to sulphur trioxide and reacted with water to form
South African demand. sulphuric acid. This reaction takes place in ceramic
Fig. 11 gives an abbreviated flow diagram of the elec- packed towers, where the sulphur trioxide is brought into
trowinning plant at Zincor. contact with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Fig. 12 is a diagram of a roasting plant similar to that
Roasting at Zincor, and Table III gives details of the installed
Zincor uses four Lurgi turbulent-layer roasters to roast roaster and acid plants.
the zinc sulphide concentrates to zinc oxide. The off-gases
are fed to two Monsanto interpass absorption acid plants Leaching
The calcine is leached in three stages (Fig. 13). The first
Zinc sulphide concentrates stage is conducted continuously by the addition of dry
calcine to an air-agitated pachuca together with return
Dross
acid from the electrolytic section. Slurry from the 300 m3
SO, pachuca overflows into a second and into a third pachu-
4 Lurgi Gas ca, from where it flows to a thickener. The thickener un-
turbulent-layer derflow is filtered on stainless-steel drum filters. The
roasters Calcine 99% acid Ior sale second stage of leaching is conducted countercurrent to

Three-stage leach and precipitation Waste-heat Cyclones

Residue containing lead sulphate,
of iron as a basic iron sulphate
silver, gypsum, and silica Concentrate boiler I
Residue containing mainly ~ I

Spent
Solution
basic iron sulphate
0
~
,.
electrolyte
Copper-<:ontaining product
Purification
Cadmium-<:ontaining product

Purified zinc sulphate

solution I;
. '-'
'" ~

Electrowinning

Fig.
Dross
10 roasters

11-Abbrevlated
Zinc stripped from
cathodes

Zinc ingots Ior sale

flow diagram of the eleetrowlnnlng

at Zlneor
plant
caICin/n
storage

Fig. 12-Dlagrammatle
\
--Y /"
Ball mill
layout of a roaster plant like that at
Zlneor

JOURNAL OF THE SOl1TH AFRICAN INSTTTUTE OF MINING AND METALWRGY JULY1.. 241
 TABLE III ution is then treated with zinc dust for the cementation
CAPACITY OF ROASTER AND ACID PLANTS AT ZINCOR of any residual cadmium. Finally, the filtered solution
is pumped over cooling towers and stored in mild-steel
Lurgi roasters. Acid plantst rubber-lined tanks.
Capacity Capacity
Year No. t/d No. tld
Electrowinning
1968 2 117 I 190
Electrolysis is used on the purified solution to plate the
1975 I 200 I 350
1980 I 200
zinc onto aluminium cathodes, the plated zinc being
. The feed to the roasters is given in dry tons of zinc concentrate per day
t The product of the acid plants is given in tons of 100 per cent sulphuric
stripped off manually on a 24-hour cycle. Oxygen is liber-
ated from the anodes, which are manufactured from lead
containing 0,5 per cent silver and 0,05 per cent calcium.
acid per day
The current density at Zincor is 600 A per square metre
the third stage. During the latter two stages of leaching, of cathode area, and the cathode-anode potential is ap-
the temperature is kept at above 80 QC, and the acid con- proxim~tely 3,6V. The power consumption is about
centration is maintained at above 10 and 40 g/l for the 3400 kW per tonne of cathode zinc. This consumption
second and third stages respectively. Mechanically agi- can be reduced by the use of larger electrodes and opera-
tated tanks are used, and the residence time per stage is tion at lower current densities, but it would then be neces-
approximately six hours. The solution from the second sary to introduce automatic stripping to handle the
leaching stage proceeds to iron precipitation. heavier cathode-zinc plates27.31.
Zincor uses four transformer-rectifier units. The in-
Purification coming feed of 42 kV is stepped down and rectified to
The zinc sulphate solution obtained after leaching con- direct current, which is fed to the electrolytic cells, each
tains impurities that are detrimental to electrolysis. These of which contains forty cathodes and forty-one anodes
are removed during the three stages of a continuous connected electrically in parallel. Twelve cells are con-
purification operation (Fig. 14). nected in series to form a bank, and twelve to sixteen
Copper is precipitated in a 200m3 316L stainless-steel banks are further connected in series to form a circuit.
flat-bottomed agitator, the cyclone underflow from the Fig. 15 shows the electrical flow diagram for one circuit.
cadmium-purification stage being used as the precipitant. Each cell is fed individually with electrolyte, and the
The copper precipitate is filtered off on plate-and-frame overflows from the individual cells are collected in a main
presses, and the solution proceeds to the next stage of return launder (Fig. 16). Some of the return or pent elec-
purification, where impurities such as cobalt, nickel, an- trolyte is pumped to the leach, and an approximately
timony, germanium, and arsenic are precipitated. The sol- equal volume of purified solution is added to the feed

Calcine Spent
electrolyte

Purification

Spent
electrolyte

Calcine
--w

Spent
electrolyte
and H2SO.

Residue
(containing iron)

Filtrate

Residue
(containing lead and silver)

Fig. 13-Flow diagram of the leaching plant at Zlncor

242 JULY 1981 JOURNAL OF lHE SOU1H AFRICAN INSTITUTEOF MINING AND METALLURGY
 Impure solution

Copper plus
Zinc dust
cadmium cake
Arsenic
Copper sulphate

Cyclone
underflow
Cobalt cake

Zinc
dust

Cycloning and filtration

Fig. 14-Flow diagram of the purification circuit at lincor

electrolyte. The reactions taking place during electroly-

Feed launders
sis are as follows:
= 2Zn2 + 2S0~ -
2ZnS04 +

2H20 =2H+ +20H-

20H- +
= 02 + 2H + 4e
2Zn2+ +4 =2Zn
+
2S0~ - + 4H = 2H2SO4
2ZnSO~ - + 2H2O= 2Zn + 2H2S04 + 02.

Return launder

42kV Transformer ) Rectifier

>

1 ~ Purified-solution
Hot spent-electrolyte
storage

storage

------ To
leach

/
One bank of 12 cells

Fig. 15-Electrlclty flow diagram for the electrolysis of zinc Fig. 16-Solutlon flow diagram for the electrolysis of zinc
from zinc sulphate solution as practised at llncor from zinc sulphate solution as practised at lincor

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTEOF MINING AND METALLURGY JULY 11191 243
 Melting and Casting The zinc metal produced in South Africa during the
At Zincor, the stripped cathode zinc is prepared for past 22 years is illustrated in Fig. 17.
marketing as follows: it is melted at 500 cC and cast into
25 kg slabs, which are strapped into 1t pallets. Demag USES OF ZINC AND ZINC CHEMICALS
induction-heated furnaces are used for melting the zinc, Zinc is used mainly on iron and steel as a protective
a small amount of ammonium chloride being added as coating against corrosion, but it is also used in various
a flux. alloys containing copper or aluminium. Other applica-
Five grades of zinc can be produced for sale under tions include the manufacture of dry-cell battery cans,
Specification 20-1977 of the South African Bureau of zinc dust, zinc oxide, and a large number of zinc
Standards. These are shown in Table IV. chemicals32,33.

TABLE IV
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PRIMARY ZINC INGOTS
(INCLUDING LEAD-BLENDING ZINC INGOTS)

Constituents, 0J0
Total
Pb, Cd,
Metal SA Fe, So,
designa- code Cu, AI,
tion no. Zn Pb Cd Fe Sn Cu AI TI In TI, In

Zn Min 99,995 - - - - - - - - -
99,995 SHG. Max - 0,0015 0,001 5 0,001 o 0,001 o 0,001 * 0,001 0,000 5 0,005
Zn Min 99,99 - - - - - - - - -
99,99 Zn I Max - 0,003 o 0,003 o 0,002 o 0,0010 0,002 o 0,005 0,001 0,000 5 0,01
Zn Min 99,95 - - - - - - - - -
99,95 Zn 2t Max - 0,03 0,02 0,01 0,001 0,002 0,005 0,001 0,000 5 0,05
Zn Min 99,5 0,35 - - - - - - - -
99,5 Zn 3 Max - 0,45 0,05 0,03 0,001 - 0,005 0,001 0,000 5 0,5
Zn Min 98,5 0,95 - - - - - - - -
98,5 Zn 4 Max - 1,35 0,15 0,04 0,02 - 0,005 - - 1,5
. Selected high grade
* The maximum permissiblealuminium content shall be a matter of agreement between manufacturer and purchaser
t In the case of Zn 2, the combined arsenic and antimony content shall not exceed 0,0005 per cent

100

90

80

70

60
301
g 50
N
40

30

20

10

0
68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
Year
Fig. 17-Zlnc metal produced by Zincor during the period 1968 to 1990

244 JULY 1981 JOURNAL OF TIiE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALWRGY
 The South African uses of zinc in 1990 are given in Die-casting Alloys
Table V. For comparison, the uses of zinc in Japan and Zinc as a structural material is contained in alloys for
the UK in 1989 are given in Table VI. pressure die casting. The automotive industry is a large
consumer, where the uses include mechanical compo-
TABLEv nents, handles, locks, light fittings, and other compo-
ZINC USED IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING 1990
nents. The second-largest market for zinc die castings is
Usage
the building industry, where the applications include locks
Application t 070 and keys, hand tools and cutlery, bathroom and plumb-
ing fittings, and general hardware. The compositions of
Galvanizing 65 376 75,6 various die-casting alloys are given in Table VII.
Zinc alloys 9599 11,1
Fabricated zinc 1730 2,0 Aluminium decreases the solubility of iron in zinc to
Zinc dust 1037 1,2 the extent that a submerged-plunger type of die-casting
Battery cans 6745 7,8 machine can be used. Aluminium also improves the die-
Miscellaneous 1989 2,3 cast strength and reduces the grain size. However, an
aluminium content of less than 3,5 per cent impairs sur-
Total 86 476 100,0
face finish and promotes hot shortness. A loss of impact
strength begins at 4,5 per cent, and at 5 per cent the alloy
TABLE VI
USES35 OF ZINC IN JAPAN AND THE UK IN 1989
is brittle. The presence of certain impurities (e.g. lead and
tin) can result in intergranular corrosion in die castings
Japan UK exposed to moist, warm atmospheres. For this reason,
070 070 special high-grade zinc is used in die-casting alloys.
. Copper offers some protection against intergranular
Galvanizing 63,7 43,5 corrosion, and also increases the tensile strength and
Zinc-copper alloys 13,5 21,3
12,4 18,0
hardness.
Die casting
9,0
Magnesium counteracts the harmful effects of small
Zinc oxide 4,8*
Zinc dust 2,6 amounts of impurities such as tin and lead, and thereby
Miscellaneous 5,6 5,7 prevents inter granular corrosion. It also increases the
strength and hardness.
Total, t 777,300 244,0 Cadmium adversely affects hot shortness and castabil-
. Includes other chemicals
ity, and special high-grade zinc must be selected to meet
this requirement in the preparation of the alloy.
Metallic Coatings Iron in small quantities has no detrimental effect on
Zinc metallic coatings are applied by hot-dip galvaniz- the permanence or other properties of these alloys, but
ing, continuous-line galvanizing, electro-galvanizing, an excess of iron may affect the machining and buffing
plating, spraying, and painting with zinc-bearing paints33. of castings.
A particular industry that can benefit from the exten- Die casting with zinc-based alloys is one of the most
sive use of galvanizing is the automotive industry-not efficient production methods for the manufacture of ac-
only for corrosion protection, but also for increased struc- curate and complex metal components. The injection
tural rigidity as was demonstrated by the hot-dip galvaniz- pressures for hot-chamber machines are between 6,9 and
ing of a production Renault car5. 20,7 MPa. During the 1970s, ILZRO (International
Recent developments in the galvanizing of steel sheet Lead-Zinc Research Organization) developed casting
include the use of molten zinc-alloy baths. In the zinc- techniques for the production of thin-wall zinc die cast-
alloy galvanizing process, which has been in use for some ings. Because of the resulting mass savings per part, zinc
years in the USA and Australia, the bath contains 55 per became cost- and mass-competitive with aluminium and
cent aluminium and 1,5 per cent silicon, with the balance plastics. Castings of up to about 3 kg can be made with
as zinc. The newer Galfan process uses a bath of 5 per walls approximately 0,75 mm thick.
cent aluminium and small amounts of rare-earth metals5. A pore-free process is still in the developmental stage
The advantages of these two processes over convention- for die-castings. In this process, the air in the cavities is
al galvanizing are that they provide higher- corrosion displaced with oxygen or other reactive gas and, when
resistance, higher ductility, and good protection of edges. the die is charged with molten alloy, the zinc reacts with

TABLE VII
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ZINC DIE-CASTING ALLOYS

Alloying
Impurities, 070
Metal constituents, 070
designation Code no. * AI Mg Cu Fe Cu Pb Cd Sn Ni TI In
ZnAI 4 ZA 1 Min 3,9 0,04
Max 4,3 0,06 0,05 0,03 0,003 0,003 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,005

ZnAI4CuI ZA2 Min 3,9 0,04 0,75

Max 4,3 0,06 1,25 0,05 0,003 0,003 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,005

* Specification SABS 25-1977 of the South African Bureau of Standards

JOURNAL OF THE SOlmI AFRICAN INSTITllTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JULY1981 245
the gas to form solid particles that are dispersed through- plated with copper prior to coining for the production
out the pore-free casting. of the finished coin.
Special high-grade zinc with a maximum iron content
High-strength Alloys of 0,0014 per cent in the form of plate and rods is used
High-strength zinc foundry alloys have mechanical for the cathodic protection of steel in marine and pipe-
properties equal or superior to those of many brass, line applications.
bronze, aluminium, and iron alloys. These alloys are
Zinc Dust and Powder
manufactured to contain 8, 11, or 27 per cent alumini-
Zinc dust is produced by the condensation of zinc
um. Their chemical composition is shown in Table VIII.
vapour, and zinc powder is obtained by the atomization
TABLE VIII of molten zinc.
COMPOSITIONS OF HIGH-STRENGTH ZINC FOUNDRY Zinc dust is used in paint and, when applied to iron
ALLOYS or steel, it gives galvanic protection similar to that provid-
ed by a galvanized coating. Zinc-rich paint is used where
Composition, 070by mass conventional galvanizing is not suitable. The dust is also
Element Alloy no. 8 Alloy no. 12 Alloy no. 27 used in the sheradizing process, where the work pieces
are tumbled in rotating steel drums in the presence of zinc
AI 8,0 to 8,8 10,5 to 1l,5 25 to 28 dust at temperatures ranging from 370 to 420 DC. Zinc
Cu 0,8 to 1,3 0,5 to 1,25 2,0 to 2,5
dust can be used as a reducing agent in processes such
Mg 0,015 to 0,03 0,015 to 0,03 0,01 to 0,02
0,10 0,075 0,10
as the precipitation of gold from cyanide solution and
Fe
Pb 0,004 0,004 0,004 the production of hydrosulphide compounds.
Cd 0,003 0,003 0,003 Zinc powder is used mainly to purify the solution in
Sn 0,002 0,002 0,002 electrolytic-zinc plants. It is also used in primary batter-
Zn Balance Balance Balance ies, spray metallizing, and chemical formulations.

Zinc Chemicals
High-strength alloys are used in industrial structural The rubber industry is the largest user of zinc oxide,
parts, office equipment, business machines, builders' which is added as a vulcanization activator and acceler-
hardware, and marine applications. Alloy No. 12 is used ator, and to slow the aging of rubber by neutralizing the
in bearings and bushings. The latter have been tested in organic acids formed by oxidation. It also acts as a heat
mine elevators, drill motors, 50t dump trucks, and drill- conductor and absorber of ultraviolet light.
track rollers. Zinc-based bearings and bushings may find Zinc oxide in paints serves as an acid buffer, as well
acceptance as a substitute for bronze because of their low- as a pigment. It is used in animal feeds, fertilizers, and
er cost and superior mechanical properties for low-speed dental cements. Added to glasses, zinc oxide imparts low
high-load service. thermal expansion, low melting point, and increased
Zinc alloys, unlike most other alloys, can be cast in chemical resistivity. The semi-conducting property of a
many types of moulds including silicone rubber and variety of glasses . and ceramics is based on their zinc ox-
graphite. Silicone rubber offers some special advantage ide content.
because of its flexibility; for example, parts with reverse Zinc chloride is used for wood preservation, fluxes, and
taper can be cast in these moulds. batteries. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing and the
Some of the properties of high-strength zinc foundry parchmentizing of paper. Other uses include the synthe-
alloys are given in Table IX. sis of organic chemicals such as methyl chloride and
diethylzinc.
Rolled Zinc Zinc sulphate is used in the manufacture of the pig-
Rolled zinc products in the form of strip, sheet, wire, ment lithopane (ZnS.BaSO4) and in fertilizers and animal
and rod have many commercial applications. Strip is used feeds. Other uses include textile dyeing and printing,
for the manufacture of dry-cell battery cans, organ pipes, mineral flotation, electro-galvanizing, rayon manufac-
grommets, and other objects, some of which are subse- ture, paper bleaching, and glue.
quently plated with brass or chromium. A new applica- Other zinc chemicals are also used in industry, and
tion is the minting of US cent pieces from strip (consisting Farnsworth and Kline32 list no fewer than forty-two with
of zinc and 0,8 per cent copper). The blanks are barrel~ their various applications.
TABLE IX
SOME PROPERTIES OF HIGH-STRENGTH ZINC FOUNDRY ALLOYS

Alloy No. 8 Alloy No. 12 Alloy No. 27

Sand cast Sand cast,
Permanent- Sand Permanent- primary heat-
Property mould cast cast mould cast purpose treated
Density, g/cm3 6,37 6,03 6,03 5,01 5,01
Melting range, °C 375 to 404 377 to 432 377 to 432 375 to 487 375 to 487
Tensile strength, MPa 221 to 225 276 to 310 310 to 345 400 to 441 310 to 324
Yield strength, 0,2% MPa 207 207 214 365 255
Elongation, % I to 2 I to 3 4 to 7 3 to 6 8 to II

248 JULY 11191 JOURNAL OF TI-lE SOlITH AFRICAN 1NSll1UTE OF MINING AND METALWRGY
 MARKETING AND FUTURE PROSPECfS ILZRO has estimated that the total effort in basic
The production and consumption of zinc in South Afri- research, product research, and market development ex-
ca and the world are compared in Table X34. pended by producer and user companies totals 0,25 to
Zincor's sales of zinc for the period 1982 to 1990 are 0,30 per cent of the metal saless. An estimate of the ex-
shown in Fig. 18. penditure on market development for competitive materi-
als equals 1,5 to 2,0 per cent of turnover. For aluminium,
this level of expenditure is approximately 2,0 per cent,
Actual and the paint industry spends between 0,5 and 1,0 per
3-year running average -,-,--
93 cent. From these figures, it would appear that the future
uses of zinc will be related to the effort being put into
92 research and market development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
91
This paper IS published with the permission of Gold
Fields of South Africa Limited.
90
REFERENCES
89 I' I. ZINC DEVELOPMENTAsSOCIATION. Zinc chemicals. London, the As-
3<
.;
c:
,/'
\ sociation, 1973. p. 32.
/ 2. Ibid., p. 14.
N 88 , '
\ 3. Ibid, p. 24.
\ 4. KIRK-OrHMER. Encyclopedia of chemical technology. 3rd ed. vo!.
~ 24,p.81l.
" ,
'I
5. TEMPLE, D.A. Zinc-from mine to market: Some views on the in-
,,--,----
dustry. Trans. Instn Min. Metal/., Sec. A, vo!. 95. Jan. 1986.
86
6. HEALY, J.F. Mining and metal/urgy in the Greek and Roman
world. London, Thames, 1978.
85 .1. CARR, D., and HERz, N. (eds.). Concise encyclopedia of mineral
resources. 1989.
8. RYAN, P.J., et al. The Aggeneys base metal sulphide deposits. Jo-
84 hannesburg, Economic Geology Research Unit, University of the
Witwatersrand, Report no. 160. 1982.
9. RYAN, P.J., et al. The Aggeneys base metal sulphide deposits.
82 83 84 85 86 ~ 88 89 90 Namaqualand District. Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. An-
Year haeusser and Maske (eds.). vo!. 2 1986. pp. 1447-1473.
Fig. 18-Zlncor's sales for the period 1982 to 1990 10. ROZENDAAL. A. The Gamsberg zinc deposit. Namaqualand Dis-
trict. Ibid., vo!. 2, pp. 1477-1488.
Il. VOET. H.W., and KING. B.H. The Areachap copper-zinc deposit,
Gordonia district. Ibid., vo!. 2, pp. 1529-1537.
The market for zinc shows opportunities for growth 12. WHEATLY, C.J.V., et al. The Bushy Park carbonate-hosted zinc-
through the simple expansion of its usess and through lead deposit. Griqualand West. Ibid., vo!. I, pp. 891-900.
the application of new materials (for example, a greater 13. WAGENER, J.H.F., and VAN SCHALKWYK, L. The Prieska zinc-
use of zinc coatings for steel, and new uses for zinc- copper deposit. North-Western Cape Province. Ibid., vo!. 2, pp.
aluminium foundry alloys, respectively). A third growth 1503-1527.
opportunity is the development of completely new mar- 14. WHEATLEY, C.J.V., et al. The Pering carbonate-hosted zinc-lead
deposit. Griqualand West. Ibid., vo!. I, pp. 867-874.
kets (for example, the recent introduction of zinc as a
15. BEALE, C.O. Copper in South Africa, Pt 2. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min.
coinage metal in the USA). The largest competitor for Metal/., vo!. 85, no. 4. Apr. 1985. pp. 109-124.
zinc is plastics, which are being used as protective coat- 16. Prieska-a new copper producer for South Africa. Engng Min. J.,
ings. There has even been talk of producing non-rubber Nov. 1972, p. 17l.
tyres consisting of polyurethanes and thereby eliminat- 17. ANON. Progress continues at Aggeneys. Min. Mag., Mar. 1979. pp.
ing the use of zinc oxide in tyres. 206-213.

TABLE X
COMPARISON OF WORLD AND SOUTH AFRICAN STATISTICS FOR THE
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF ZINC

Zinc, kt
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Mine production SA. %,9 101,9 H2,7 89,6 77,3
World 7038,6 6999,1 7315,2 7088,1 7148,9
Slab production SA 93,7 80,8 %,1 84,4 85,0 92,3
World 6859,8 6798,6 7051,6 7239,9 7224,3
Consumption SAt 84,4 83,1 92,4 87,5 87,0
World 6507,7 66%,8 6910,2 7185,9 7158,6
.
t
Excludes Namibia
Includes Namibia

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTIME OF MINING AND METALWRGY JULY 1991 247