Drainage system
Before we study India’s Drainage system, it is imperative that we
understand the basic terminology associated with a river and its
drainage.
1 ) Source of a river
The beginning or start of a river.
2) confluence
The point at which two rivers or stream join
3) Distributary
The Small river that branches out from the main river and then
never meets again. It thus decrease the river's water volume.
Distributaries are commonly found on deltas but are also
important in the formation of alluvial fans and cones.
4 ) tributary
A stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river and
thus increase its water volume.
5) mouth
The point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering
a sea.
River basin, catchment area and watershed
Generally, the area drained by a river and its tributaries is called its
river basin or catchment area or a watershed. But, there are subtle
difference between them.
River basin
All the area drained by a river and its tributaries.
Catchment area
It refers to all the area of land over which rain falls and is caught to
serve a river basin.
The catchment area of large river or river system is called a river
basin while those of small rivers, a lake, a tank is often referred to
as a watershed. Watershed are small in area, generally less than
1000 ha.
There are many smaller watersheds within a river basin. Example:
watershed of Yamuna + water shed of Chambal + watershed of
Gandak + …. = Drainage basin of Ganga.
Watershed
1 ) As a catchment / drainage area
All the land with a common outlet for its surface water i.e a
geohydrological area from where the water drains to a common
point
2 ) As a water divide
Watershed as a water divide
refers to an elevated line
from where the water flows
in different directions into
different river basins
The 3 major watershed which direct and control flow of surface
water in India are
1 ) The great Himalayan watershed with its important
Karakoram branch
2 ) In Central India, the watershed is formed by Vindhyas,
Satpura and
mikala Range.
3 ) The western ghats
A river basin or watershed is often taken as planning unit for
macro/micro level development planning because:
1 )River basin or watershed marked by synergy and unity. What
happens in one part of the basin or watershed ( eg. Flood, drought
etc.) directly affects the other parts and a unit as a whole.
2 ) The data about land and water characteristics is measurable
and comparable.
Base level of erosion
It 's the lowest level to which down-cutting by a river is possible,
often referred to as the 'mouth of the river'. The ultimate base level
of any stream is the water body into which it flows, sea level is
usually the base level, but a large river or lake is likewise the bare
level for tributary system.
Under local circumstances, the goal of a riven is to do the work of
erosion, initially up to its local and then permanent base level.
River profile
It refers to the cross-
section of a river from
its source to mouth
representing the
height of the river at
various points. The
peninsular rivers have
almost reached their
base levels of erosion.
River Rejuvenation
It refers to a significant enhancement in the erosive power of the
rivers. It can happen because of the following reason:
• Fall in the sea level (lowering of base lead of erosion )
• Dynamic upliftment of
the land.
• For a given load, if
there is a considerable
increase in the volume
of water.
• For a given volume of
water of there is a
considerable decrease in the load.
River discharge
The volume of water flowing in a river measured over time. It is
measured either in cusecs (cubic feet per second) or cumecs
(cubic metres per second).
Riven regime
It refers to the seasonal fluctuation in respect of volume of water in
the river.
Let’s consider the case of Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. The
main differences in their flows are caused by the differences in
climate. The main differences are:
The regimes of Himalayan Rivers are monsoonal as well as glacial.
This is because the Himalayan Rivers are perennial as they are fed
by glaciers through snow melt and also receive rainfall water
during rainy season. E.g. The river Ganga has its minimum flow
during the January-June period, maximum flow is attained either in
August or in September followed by a gradual steady fall
afterwards.
The regimes of most of the peninsular rivers, on the other hand, are
monsoonal as they are fed by rainfall alone e.g. the river Narmada
has a very low volume of discharge from Jan-July and a sharp rise
in August (the rise corresponding with the monsoon season). The
fall in October is as spectacular as the rise in August (as the
monsoon season ends). It also varies from
one part of the Peninsular plateau to the other.
Drainage
The flow of water through well defined channels is known as
'drainage' and the network of such channels is called a drainage
system.
Discordant drainage
A pattern of drainage that bears no relation to the structure of the
underlying rock. This maybe because:
1. The drainage pattern developed on rock strata that have since
been removed by erosion; a process known as
superimposition. The drainage pattern thus developed is called
superimposed drainage ( or epigenetic or superincluced
drainage). Examples: The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, The
Chambal, The banas and the rivers flowing at the Rewa
plateau, rivers of eastern USA and southern France.
2. The drainage pattern was already present before a period of
uplift and folding that formed the present structure . As the
uplift took place, the rivers were able to cut down at
approximately the same rate and so maintain their course. This
process is called antecedence and the drainage system thus
developed is called antecedent drainage.
Many of the Himalayan rivers have antecedent origin i.e. these
rivers existed
even before the Himalayan ranges were uplifted. These rivers
originate in the
Tibetan side beyond the mountain ranges of Himalayas. The
Indus, Satluj,
Alaknanda, Gandak, Kosi, Brahmaputra all have an antecedent
origin.
Since these rivers are antecedent, they run transverse to the
mountain ranges
cutting deep V-shaped, steep-sided valleys (deep gorges).
Concordant Drainage
The pattern of drainage which arises from and closely follows the
trends of the underlying strata is called concordant drainage. This
is also called accordant drainage.
1. Consequent streams: those streams whose courses are the
direct consequences of initial topography are called
consequent streams.
2. Subsequent streams: these are developed after the master
consequent.
3. Obsequent
stream:These flow
in opposite
direction to the
master
consequent.
4. Resequent
stream:A
resequent stream
flows in the same
direction as that of
the initial
consequent stream, but which develops in response to a new
base level formed due to inversion of relief.
Drainage pattern
It refers to a design which a river and its tributaries form together
from its source to its mouth. The drainage pattern of an area is the
outcome of
• The geological time period
• Nature and structure of rock
• Topography
• Slope
• Amount of water flowing
• The periodicity of the flow
A combination of several patterns may be found in the same
drainage basin. Some important drainage patterns are:
1. Dendritic: The dendritic pattern develops where the river
channel follows the slope
of the terrain. The
drainage pattern
resembling the branches
of a tree is known as
“dendritic” the examples
of which are the rivers of
northern plain. It is the
most common stream
pattern. A dendritic
pattern develops in a terrain which has uniform lithology, and
where faulting and jointing are insignificant.
2. Radial:The radial pattern develops when streams flow in
different directions from a
central peak or a dome-like
structure. E.g. the rivers like the
Narmada, Son and Mahanadi
originating from Maikal Hills
flow in different directions and
are good examples of a radial
pattern. Radial
drainage patterns are also
found/in the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and Mikir Hills of
Assam.
3. Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to
each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles,
the pattern is known as ‘trellis’. A trellis drainage pattern
develops where hard and soft rocks lie parallel to each other.
For example, rivers in
the upper part of the
Himalayan region and
in the old folded
mountains of the
Singhbhum
(Chotanagpur Plateau)
have drainage of trellis
pattern. The trellis
drainage pattern can
also be seen in the
Appalachian region of
the U.S.A., where hard
and soft rocks occur in
parallel bands.
4. Centripetal:When the
rivers discharge their waters
from all directions in a lake
or depression, the pattern is known as ‘centripetal’. This
drainage pattern is also called endorheic drainage. For
example, Loktak lake in Manipur.
5. Rectangular:In this drainage, both the main stream and its
tributaries show right-angled bends. A
rectangular drainage pattern develops
on a strongly jointed rocky terrain. It
differs from trellis pattern drainage,
since it is more irregular and its tributary
streams are not as long or as parallel as
in trellis drainage. Example: Colorado
river (USA), streams found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
6. Barbed:If you look at
the way that tributaries
empty into larger rivers,
you will notice that most
of them flow in the same
direction as the rivers
they empty into. But
quite a large number
flow the other way. In fact, you will find stretches of some
rivers where every tributary empties into the river in the
“wrong” direction! Such an occurrence is known as a barbed
drainage pattern Most
barbed drainage patterns are the result of river-capture which
reverses the direction of flow. However, the tributary channels
continue to flow in their original [Link] Arun River
(Nepal), a tributary of the Kosi is an interesting example of
barbed drainage pattern.
7. Annular: Annular pattern represents that
part of a drainage pattern in which the
subsequent streams follow the curving or
arcuate courses before joining the cons
quent stream. These results from a partial adaptation to an
underground circular structure i.e. batholiths. This is not a very
common drainage pattern in India. Some examples of this are
however found in Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
8. Parallel drainage: The drainage
pattern in which the rivers flow almost
parallel to each other is known as
parallel drainage. The small and swift
rivers originating in the Western Ghats
and discharging their water into the
Arabian Sea provide a good example
of parallel drainage pattern in India
9. Deranged pattern: This is an
uncoordinated pattern of drainage
characteristic of a region recently
vacated by an ice-sheet. The picture
is one of numerous water courses,
lakes and marshes; some inter-
connected and some in local
drainage basins of their own. This
type of drainage is found in the
glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
The Indian drainage system
The Indian drainage
system consists of a
large number of small
and big rivers.
It is an outcome of
• The evolutionary
process of the three
major physiographic
units.
• The nature and
characteristics of
precipitation.
Classification of drainage systems in India
1. On the basis of discharge of water – the Arabian Sea drainage and the
Bay of Bengal drainage:
On the basis of discharge of water( orientations to the sea),the
drainage system of India may be grouped into:
• The Arabian Sea drainage
• The Bay of Bengal drainage
They are separated from each other by the Delhi Ridge, the
aravalis and the
sahyadris
Nearly 77% of the
drainage area
consisting of the
Ganga, the
Brahmaputra, The
Mahanadi, The
Krishna etc is
oriented towards the
Bay of Bengal while
23% comprising the
Indus, The Narmada,
The Tapi, The Mahi,
and the Periyar
system discharge
their waters in the
Arabian Sea.
Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin): when a river does
not reach the sea but disappears into the sand, such a region is
called an area of-inland drainage. Inland drainage streams are
ephemeral streams ( short-lived) eg:
• The Ghaggar river in Haryana which is supposed to be remnant
of the proverbial ancient Saraswati river, gets lost in dry sands
near Hanumangarh in Rajasthan.
• The Luni river in Rajasthan originates near amen and after
flowing through Thar desert gets lost in the Rann of Kutch.
• The Aksai Chin region in Ladakh too has some inland drainage.
2. On the basis of the size of the watershed:
• Major river basins – with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment
area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the
Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
• Medium river basins – with catchment area between
2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the
Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
• Minor river basins – with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq.
Km, these include 55 river basins.
3. On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics:
• The Himalayan drainage
• The Peninsular drainage.
There is no clear cut-line of demarcation between these two
drainage systems, as many of the peninsular rivers like the
Chambal, Betwa, Sind, Ken and Son are much older in age and
origin than the Himalayan rivers.
The Himalayan Drainage system:
• It consists of the river originating in the Himalayan and trans-
himalayan region. It further consist of three river system namely:
→ The Ganga
→ The Indus
→ The Brahmaputra river system
• Since these are fed both by the melting of snow and
precipitation, rivers of this System are perennial.
• The various geographical features made by the Himalayan rivers
are:
→ In upper reaches ( youthful stage): Gorges, V-shaped valleys,
rapids,
waterfalls, truncated spurs etc.
→ In plain areas or middle part ( mature stage):While entering the
plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-
bow lakes
, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river
mouth. Over the
plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and
shift their courses
frequently.
Evolution of the Himalayan drainage system
There is a difference of opinion about the evolution of the
Himalayan rivers. However, geologist believe that:
1. A mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the
entire
longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and
onwards to
Sind, and finally discharged into the gulf of Sind near lower
Punjab during
theMiocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
Evidences: The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its
lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay,
boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint.
2. It is opined that in due course of time Indo-Brahma river was
dismembered
into three main drainage systems:
•the Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;
•the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part;
and
•he stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan
tributaries
in the eastern part.
The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene
upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the
Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide
between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap area between the
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau during the mid-
pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
The Indus River system
• It is one of the largest river basins of The World. A little over
one-third of the Indus basin is located in India; in the Jammu s
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The rest of portion is in
Pakistan.
• The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the
Himalayan rivers in India.
• Origin: It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Kailash
Mountain range (Tibetan region). In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi
Khamban; or Lion’s mouth.
• The river-course
•The Indus cuts through Himalayas and enters India near
Damchok.
•flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and
Kashmir.
•It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region through
a
deep gorge near the hair-pin bend of Nanga Parbat.
•It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
• The right-bank tributaries of Indus:
• Shyok • Gilgit • Hunza
• Nubra • Kabul • Khurram
• Tochi • Gomal • Sangar
• Kunar
• The left-bank tributaries of Indus:
• Zaskar
• ‘Panjnad’ ( joins Indus a little above Mithankot). The Panjnad
is the
name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely:
→ Satluj
→ Beas.
→ Ravi
→ Chenab
→ Jhelum
Chief Characteristics:
• The Indus drains the largest number of glaciers of Himalayas,
Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash.
• The Indus plain has a very gentle slope.
• Some important tributaries of Indus
The Indus water treaty: The waters of the Indus river system are
shared by India and Pakistan according to the Indus Water Treaty
signed between the two countries on 19th September 1960.
According to this treaty, India can utilise only 20 percent of its total
discharge of water.
The Ganga River system
• The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number
of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the
Himalayas in the North and the Peninsula in the South,
respectively. It accounts for 26.3% Of the geographical area of
the country and is shared by /0 states.
• Ambala is located on the water divide between Indus and
Ganga.
• . Origin: it rises in the Gangotri glacier near gaumukh in the
Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here it is known as the
Bhagirathi, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda at Devprayag;
hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
The River- course
• The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar
• From here, it first flows to the south, then to the south-east
direction to reach prayagraj. Here it is joined by the Yamuna.
• Further near Rajmahal hills, Ganga turns south-east and
bifurcates at farakka into Bhagirathi- Hugli in west Bengal and
as the Padma in Bangladesh.
• The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the
Sagar island.
Left Bank tributaries right Bank tributaries
• Ramganga • son
• Gomati • Yamuna
• Ghaghara
• Gandak
• Kosi
• Mahananda
• Some important tributaries and their characteristic features
The Brahmaputra river system
• Origin: The Brahmaputra has its origin in the Chemayungdung
glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. Mariam
La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the
Manasarovar Lake.
• The river-course:
→ Most of the course of the Brahmaputra lies in Tibet,
popularly known as
Tsangpo. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. It
receives a
large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary
is the
Raga Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
→ After reaching Namcha Barwa, it takes a “U” turn (also known
as
Hair Pin turn) and enters India west of Sadiya town in
Arunachal
Pradesh through the deep Dihang or Siang gorge of
Himalayas. Here
initially it is called as Siang and then as Dihang.
→ It is joined by Dibang, Lohit, Kenula and many other tributaries
and
finally forms the Brahmaputra in Assam.
→ It then enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows
southward. In
Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where
the river is
known as the Jamuna. [Note: The Tista was a tributary of
the Ganga
prior to the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course
eastwards to
join the Brahmaputra.]
→ The Jamuna and Ganga confluence at Goalundo and
afterwards are called
as the Padma. Further south, Padma is joined by Meghna
(Barak
river in India) and thence onward it is known as Meghna to
finally
merge in the Bay of Bengal.
• It is called:
The Tsangpo in Tibet ( Tsangpo = ‘the purifier.’)
The Brahmaputra in India
The Jamuna in Bangladesh
• Major left bank tributaries:
Burhi Dihing,
Dhansari (South)
Kalang
• Major right bank tributaries:
Subansiri ( It has its origin in Tibet and is an antecedent river.)
Kameng
Manas
Sankosh
• Characteristic Features:
River Brahmaputra is a little longer than the river Indus.
It forms a spectacular Grand Canyon – like canyon in Tibet.
The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many
islands, the most important of which is Majuli. Majuli is the
world’s largest riverine island and India’s first island district.
The Brahmaputra has a braided channel. It carries a lot of silt
and there is excessive meandering.
The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting
and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its
tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments
owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.
The Peninsular drainage
The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.
This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and
the maturity of the rivers.
Evolution: three major geological event in the distant past have
shaped the present drainage system of Peninsular India:
• Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its
submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period.
Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on
either side of the original watershed and left just the upper parts
of west flowing rivers above the sea level.
• Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the
Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in
trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits
in these rivers.
• Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from north-west to the
southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage
system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
The Peninsular river system can be categorised into the following
sections:
• The East flowing rivers - the Mahanadi, the Godavari, The
Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastward and drain into the Bay of
Bengal. There rivers make deltas at their mouths.
• The west flowing rivers:
Narmada and Tapi along with other small rivers originating
from the western ghats and falling in the Arabian Sea form
estuaries in place of deltas. This is due to fact that these river
especially Narmada and Tapi, flow through hard rocks and
are not able to form distributaries before they enter the sea.
Although these west flowing rivers of Sahyadri form only
about 3% of the areal extent of basins of India, they contain
about 18% of the country's water resources.
Difference between delta and an estuary
• The western ghats running close to the western coast act as a
water divide between the major Peninsular rivers discharging
their water in the Bay of Bengal and the small rivulets joining the
Arabian Sea.
• The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating
in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river
system.
• The Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed courses,
absence of meanders and non-perennial flow of water. The
Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are,
however, exceptions.
Smaller rivers flowing Towards the West:
The rivers flowing towards the Arabian Sea have short courses
( Because their origins lie closer to the sea, and the Western Ghats
act as a water divide). Several of these small rivers are important
for the production of hydroelectricity because of steep slopes and
waterfalls.
Gujarat:
• The Shetruniji – It rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.
• The Bhadra – It originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
• Sabarmati
• Mahi
Maharashtra:
• The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
• The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar
Bay.
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and traverses a
course of 161 km.
• The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka flowing
towards the west. The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of
Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. The
famous Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289m) made by Sharavati river
are the highest untiered waterfalls in India.
Goa:
• Mandovi
• Juari
Kerala:
• Bharathapuzha – It is the largest river of Kerala. It is also known
as Ponnani. It originates from Annamalai hills and flows into the
Arabian Sea at a place called Ponnani.
• The Periyar – It is the longest and the second largest river of
Kerala. [Largeness of a river is related to its basin size and the
volume of water flowing in the river. At the same time when we
say that a river is the longest, it means that we are referring to
its geographical length]
• The Pamba river – It falls in the Vembanad lake.
Small Rivers Flowing towards the East:
There are small rivers which join the Bay of Bengal, though small,
these are important in their own right.
• The Subarnrekha
• the Baitarni
• the Brahmani
• the Vamsadhara
• the Penner
• the Palar
• the Vaigai
Difference between Himalayan and Peninsular rivers
The Shifting Courses of Rivers:
An interesting phenomenon observed in the case of most of the
peninsular and extra-peninsular rivers is that they have shifting
courses, especially in their lower reaches. In the upper reaches,
the Himalayan rivers have the tendencies of river capturing.
There can be numerous reasons as to why a river shifts its course.
It could be a response to physiographic changes or it could be a
part of its natural evolution e.g. fast-flowing rivers are prone to
silting up as they surge down the hills and spread out on the
plains, allowing sand and suspended matter to deposit in their
slower, wider depths. Over time, the deposits create resistance,
forcing the river to move to an area of lower resistance. This leads
to a shift in its course.
The ancient Saraswati river, which
provided an abode for the early Aryan
settlers presents a typical example of
shifting courses and river capturing.
Descending from the Himalayan ranges,
its initial course during the prehistoric
period was passing near Churu (about
2000 to 3000 BC) and the Luni river was
one of its tributaries.
It gradually shifted towards west till it
joined the Satluj near Ahmadpur. Later on, the water of its upper
course was captured by a tributary of the
Ganga river, as a result of which, its lower
course became dry. This gave birth to the
Yamuna river, an important tributary of the
Ganga river system. Even today, the dry
valley of the Saraswati river is found in the
Rajasthan area in the form of Ghaggar
valley.
Similar shifting has also been observed in the rivers of Punjab
during historical past. The records of 3rd century BC show that the
Indus flowed more than 130 km east of its present course, through
the now practically dry beds of the deserted channel, to the Rann
of Kachchh which was then a gulf of the Arabian Sea. Later on it
gradually shifted west and occupied its present position.
Even the entry of Brahmaputra into the plains of Assam is an
outcome of the process of river capturing. According to
geologists, during early days, the Tsangpo river of Tibet taking an
easterly course used to join the Irrawaddy river (Myanmar) through
the Chindwin, which was then a large river, transporting huge
quantity of water. Later on, a small river flowing along the southern
slopes of the Himalayas through its headward erosion captured
the water of the Tsangpo river, and thus helped in the evolution of
the stream of Brahmaputra.
Kosi and Gandak are notorious for changing their courses during
floods.
