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Chapter - 9
FLOORING
  Floors
ü Floors are the horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the
building into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
within a restricted space one above the other and provide support for the
occupants, furniture and equipment of a building.

 Types of floors
ü Basement floor
ü Ground floor
ü Upper floor
  Basement floor
ü The construction of floor below the ground surface is known as basement
floor.
ü Basement ceiling height shall not be less than 7 feet above the finished
floor.
ü A smoke alarm shall be installed in the basement.
ü All basement stairs shall have a light source to illuminate all treads and
landings. Lights shall be operated by a switch located at the top and bottom of
the stairs.
ü If adding a bedroom and the house is equipped with a gas-fired appliance, a
carbon monoxide alarm shall be installed in the basement.
  Ground floor
ü The floor resting directly on the ground surface are known as

Ground floor.

 Upper floor
ü The upper floors have the major problem of strength and stability

since they are supported only at their ends, on walls, beams etc.

ü Upper floors do not have problem of damp resistance.

  ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A FLOOR

 To provide this function, a floor must satisfy the following requirements.

1. Adequate strength and stability

2. Adequate fire resistance
3. Sound insulation
4. Thermal insulation
5. Damp resistance
6. Durability i.e. resistance to wear and decay
  SELECTION OF FLOORING MATERIAL

1. Initial cost: Selection of flooring material mainly depends on cost of the

material. Floor coverings of marble etc. are very costly and may be used only
for residential buildings.
2. Appearance: Covering should give pleasing appearance, i.e. it should
produce a desired color effect and architectural beauty. Floorings of terrazzo,
mosaic, tile and marble give good appearance.
3. Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it
should be an on-absorbent. It should have effective resistance against
absorption of oil, grease etc.
4. Durability: The flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature

changes, disintegration with time and decay, so that long life is obtained. From

this point of view, flooring of marble, terrazzo, tiles, concrete, mosaic etc. are

considered to be of best type.

5. Damp resistance: Flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness,

so that healthy environment is obtained in the building. Flooring of concrete,

terrazzo, mosaicetc. are preferred for this purpose, while flooring of wood, rubber,

brick etc. are not suitable for damp conditions.

6) Sound Insulation: Flooring should insulate the noise. Also, it should

not be such that noise is produced when users walk on it. Cork flooring,

rubber flooring and timber flooring are good from this point of view.

7) Thermal Insulation: The flooring should offer reasonably good thermal

insulation so that comfort is imparted to the residents of the building.

Floor covering of wood, rubber, cork, P.V.C. tiles are better for this

purpose.
8) Fire resistance: This is more important for upper floors. Flooring material
should offer sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers are obtained
between different levels of a building. Concrete, tiles, terrazzo, mosaic,
marble have good fire resistance..

9) Smoothness: The flooring material should be smooth, and should have

even surface. However, it should not be slippery.

10) Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to

indentation or mark caused by shifting of furniture, equipment etc.

11) Maintenance: The flooring material should require least maintenance.

 Materials used for Floors

Ceramic tiles, Terrazzo,

 Plain tiles, Marble,
 Mosaic tiles, Wood or
 Glazed tiles, timber,

 Mud and Asphalt,

Murum, Rubber,
 Bricks, Cork,
 Flag stone, Glass,
 Concrete, Plastic or PVC
Types of Ground Floors
Mud flooring and
Mosaic flooring
Muram flooring
Tiled flooring
Brick flooring
Marble flooring
Flag-stone
Timber flooring
flooring
 Linoleum
Concrete flooring
flooring
Granolithic
Rubber flooring
flooring
Plastic flooring
Terrazzo flooring
 Types of Floors

 Mud flooring
ü Over a well-prepared ground, a 25 cm

thick selected moist earth is spread and

is then rammed well to get a compacted
thickness of 15 cm.

ü The floor is maintained by giving a thin

cement cow-dung wash (1 : 2 to 1 : 3)
Mud Flooring
twice a week.
 Murum flooring
ü Muram is a form of disintegrated rock with binding

material.

ü To construct such a floor, a hard bed or sub grade

is prepared by lying about 25 cm thick layer of hand
picked rubble boulders, a 15 cm thick layer of muram
is laid over prepared sub grade. Over it, a 2.5 cm
thick layer of powder muram (fine muram) is spread
and water is sprinkled over it.

ü The surface is then rammed well. After ramming,

the surface is saturated with a 6 mm thin film of
Murum Flooring
water.
 FLAG STONE FLOORING

ü Flag stone is any laminated sand stone available in 2 cm to 4 cm thickness, in

the form of stone slabs of square (30 cm x 30 cm, 45 cm x 45 cm or 60 cm x 60
cm) or rectangular size (45 x 60 cm).

ü This type of work is also called paving. The stone slabs are laid on concrete
base.

ü The sub-soil is properly compacted, over which 10 to 15 cm thick lime concrete

or lean cement concrete is laid.
ü The flag stones (stone slabs) are then laid over 20 to 25 mm thick layer of bed
mortar.

ü In laying the slabs, work is started from two diagonally opposite corners and br -
ought up from both sides.

ü When the stone slabs are properly set, mortar in the joints is raked out to a
depth of about 15 to 20 mm and then flush pointed with 1 : 3 cement mortar. Pro

per slope is given to the surface for drainage. The work is properly cured.
Flag stone Flooring
 BRICK FLOORING

ü Such flooring is used in cheap construction, specially where good bricks are
available.

ü This flooring is specially suited to ware - houses, stores, godowns etc.

ü Bricks are laid either flat or on edge, arranged in herring bone fashion or set at right
angles to the walls, or set any other good looking pattern.
ü In one method, the sub grade is compacted properly, to the desired level, and a 7.5 cm
thick layer of sand is spread. Over this, a course of bricks laid flat in mortar is built.

ü In the second method, 10 to 15 cm thick layer of lean cement concrete (1:8:16) or lime
concrete is laid over the prepared sub grade.
 Brick
Flooring
 CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING

ü This is commonly used for residential, commercial and even industrial building,
since it is moderately cheap, quite durable and easy to construct.
 The floor consists of two components:
(i) base concrete, and (ii) topping or wearing surface.
ü The two components of the floor can be constructed either monolithically (i.e.
topping laid immediately after the base course is laid) or non-monolithically.

ü When the floor is laid monolithically, good bond between the two components
is obtained.
 Such a construction has three disadvantages :
ü The topping is damaged during subsequent operations,
ü Hair cracks are developed because of the settlement freshly laid base course which has not set,
and
ü work progress is slow because the workman has to Wait at least till the initial setting of the base
course.
 Concrete flooring consists of the following operation.
1. Formation of base course (1:2:4 about 15 cm thick) on sub grade (15 cm thick broken
stone) and lying lime concrete,

2. Lying of the toping concrete (1:2:4 about 2.5 cm-4 cm),

3. Lying of wearing coat or floor finish (by Mosaic, Terrazzo, Granolithic, cement paints etc.)

4. Curing
Concrete
Flooring
 MOSAIC FLOORING
ü Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement, or
of marble, arranged in different pattern.
ü A concrete base is prepared as in the case of concrete flooring, and over it 5 to 8 cm
thick lime mortar is spread and leveled.
ü 3 mm thick cementing material, in the form of paste of two parts of slaked lime, one part
of powdered marble and one part of puzzolana material, is spread and is left to dry for
about 4 hours.
ü Thereafter, small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors are arranged
in definite patterns and hammered into the cementing layer.
ü The surface is gently rolled by a stone roller of 30 cm dia. and 40 to 60 cm long.
ü Sprinkling water over the surface, so that cementing material comes up through the
joints, and an even surface is obtained.
Mosaic
Flooring
 TERRAZZO FLOORING
ü Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid in thin layer over concrete
topping.
ü It is very decorative and has good wearing properties. Due to this, it is widely used in
residential buildings, hospitals, offices, schools and other public buildings.
ü Terrazzo is a specially prepared concrete surface containing cement and marble chip of
different colors, in proportion to 1:2 to 1:3. When the surface has set, the chips are exposed by
grinding operation.
ü The sub base preparation and concrete base laying is done in a similar manner.
ü The top layer may have about 40 mm thickness consisting of 34 mm thick cement
concrete layer (1:2:4) laid over the base concrete and about 6 mm thick terrazzo
topping.
Terrazzo
Flooring
 TILED FLOORING
ü Tiled flooring is constructed from square,
hexagonal or other shapes made of clay
cement concrete or terrazzo.

ü These are available in different sizes and

thicknesses (In India, tiles are in size of 20
cm ×20 cm, 25 cm × 25 cm, 30 cm × 30
cm).
ü The method of laying tiled flooring is similar
to that for flag stone flooring except that
greater care is required.
ü Over the concrete base a 25 mm to 30 mm
thick layer of lime mortar 1:3 is spread.
 MARBLE FLOORING
ü It is a superior type of flooring, used in residential buildings, and in hospitals, temples
etc. where extra cleanliness is an essential requirement.

ü Marble slabs may be laid in different sizes, usually in rectangular or square shapes.
ü The base concrete is prepared in the same manner as that for concrete flooring.
ü Over the base concrete, 20 mm thick bedding mortar of either 1:4 cement : sand mix is
spread under the area of each individual slab.

ü The marble slab is then laid over it, gently pressed with wooden mallet and leveled.
ü The marble slab is then again lifted up, and fresh mortar is added to the hollows of the
bedding mortar. The mortar is allowed to harden slightly, cement slurry is spread and
then the marble slab is placed in position.
Marble
Flooring
 TIMBER FLOORING
ü Timber flooring is used for dancing halls, auditoriums, etc.
ü They are not commonly used in residential buildings in
India, because timber is quite costlier.
ü However, in hilly areas, where timber is cheaply and readily
available timber flooring can used.
ü Where temperature drops very low, timber flooring is quite
common.
ü The major problems in timber flooring is the damp
prevention.
ü This can be done by introducing D.P.C. layer below the
flooring. TIMBER FLOORING
 ASPHALT FLOORING
• Asphalt flooring are of many types :

 Asphalt mastic flooring

 Asphalt tiles flooring (20 cm-45 cm square with 3-6 mm thickness)

 Asphaltic terrazzo flooring

 Acid proof mastic flooring.

• All grades of mastic asphalt for flooring are available colored red or black.

• A complete range of colored surface finishes is available using special compatible

paints.
ü The total thickness of the mastic asphalt
flooring should be appropriate to the
types of building and their conditions.

ü Usually the mastic asphalt should be laid

in one coat, but multi-coat work should
be used where a waterproofing
membrane is specified.

ü Asphalt flooring are cheap, resilient,

sound proof , acid proof and moisture Asphalt Flooring
proof.
 RUBBER FLOORING
ü It consists of sheets or tiles of rubber, in variety of patterns and colors with thickness
varying from 3 to 10 mm.
ü The sheet or tile is manufactured by mixing Pure rubber with fillers such as cotton fiber,
granulated cork or asbestos fiber.
ü The sheets or tiles are fixed to concrete base or wood by means of appropriate
adhesives.
ü Rubber floorings are resilient and noise proof.
ü They are costly.
ü They are used in office or public buildings.
ü The size of rubber sheets are 500 cm × 90 cm, 350 cm × 90 cm, and 250 cm × 90 cm.
ü The size of rubber tiles are 20 cm × 20 cm, 30 cm × 30 cm, and 45 cm × 45 cm.
RUBBER
FLOORING
 LINOLEUM FLOORING
ü Linoleum is a floor covering made from materials
such as solidified linseed oil (linoxyn), pine resin,
ground cork dust, and mineral fillers such as calcium
carbonate.
ü Linoleum is known for its durability. Through
evaluation of actual lifetime data, is has been
determined that linoleum has a useful life of 30 years.
ü For optimal adhesion, an acrylate copolymer
adhesive is applied to a subfloor or other surface at a
thickness of 0.29 mm and mass of 290 g / m².
ü Linoleum covering are attractive resilient, durable and
cheap and can cleaned very easily. LINOLEUMFLOORING (COVERING)
 CORK FLOORING
ü Such type of flooring is perfectly noiseless, and is used in libraries, theatres, art
galleries etc.
ü Cork, which is the outer bark of cork oak tree.
ü Cork is available in cork carpet and cork tiles.
ü It is fixed to concrete base by inserting a layer of saturated adhesive.
ü Cork carpet is manufactured by heating granules of cork with linseed oil and
compressing.
ü Cork tiles are manufactured from high grade cork bark compressed in moulds to a
thickness of 12 mm.
ü They are available in various sizes (10 cm x 10 cm to 30 cm x 90 cm), various
thicknesses (5 to 15 mm) and various shades.
Cork Flooring
 GLASS FLOORING
ü This is a special purpose flooring, used in circumstances where it is desired to
transmit light from upper floor to lower floor, and specially to admit light at the
basement from the upper floor.

ü Structural glass is available in the form of tiles or slabs, in thicknesses varying from
12 to 30 mm.

ü Glass flooring is very costly, and is not commonly used.

 PLASTIC OR P.V.C. FLOORING
ü It is made of plastic material, called Poly-Vinyl-Chloride.
ü The form of tiles of different sizes and different color shades. These tiles are now widely
used in all residential as well as residential building.
ü The tiles are laid on concrete base.
ü Adhesive of specified make is applied on the base as well as the back of P.V.C. tile with the
help of a notched trowel.
ü The tile is laid when adhesive has set sufficiently (say within 30 minutes).
ü It is gently pressed with the help of a 5 kg weight wooden roller.
ü P.V.C. tiles flooring is resilient, smooth, good looking and can be easily cleaned. It is costly
and slippery.
ü It can be damaged very easily when in contact with burning objects.
Plastic Flooring
• Types of Upper Floor
ü Depending upon the materials used for construction and arrangement of beam
girder etc. upper floor may be classified in to the following types:

ü Steel joist and stone or precast concrete flooring

ü Jack arch floor

ü Reinforced cement concrete floor

ü Ribbed or hollow tiled flooring

ü Filler joists floor

ü Precast concrete floor

ü Timber floor
• Choice of construction for upper Floor

 To provide this function, a floor must satisfy the following requirements.

1. General type of building construction,
2. Amount and type of floor loading or flooring load,
3. Plan of building,
4. Sound insulation
5. Initial cost
6. Fire resistance
7. Types of ceiling
8. Weight and position of floor
9. Wearing surface
 Steel joist and stone or precast
concrete flooring
ü This types of floor is quite common in location where stone
slab are easily available in span of 1 to 3 meters and widths
30 to 60 cm.
ü Where stone slabs are not available precast concrete slab
can be used.
ü The slabs are place at lower flange of rolled steel joists.
ü The spacing of steel joists depend upon the length of
available stone slab.
ü The joist have the clear span equal to the width of the
room.
ü The space between the top of the slab and top of steel
joist(RSJ) is filled with lime concrete.
• Jack arch floors
ü Jack arch is an arch of either brick or concrete, supported on lower flange of mild steel joists (R.S.J.).
ü The joists are spaced 1 to 1.5 m Centre to Centre, and are supported at their ends either on the walls
or on longitudinal girders.

ü The rise of the arch is kept equal to 1/12th of the span.

ü The bottom of the floor is not plane; this is the only disadvantage of this floor.

 Brick Jack Arch Flooring

ü Before starting the work, the RSJ should be properly secured in position. Only first class bricks should
be used.
ü Successive rings should be properly interlocked.
ü Key brick should be properly and tightly secured in rich mortar.
ü If lime mortar is used, RSJ should encased in cement mortar.
ü Top concrete and flooring should not be laid unless the brickwork is properly cured.
 Cement concrete Jack Arch Flooring
ü Cement concrete Jack Arch Flooring are made of 1 : 2 : 4 cement concrete, supported on the
lower flanges of M.S. joists.

ü The construction of concrete jack arches is relatively simple. The centering consists of a 3 mm
thick mild steel plate, bent to the shape of arch, and having pair of holes at ends, spaced at 75
cm c/c.

ü The centering plate is supported on the lower flange of joists through a pair of 12 mm dia. Rods.

ü The ends of the rods pass through symmetrical holes of the centering plate and finally rest on
the lower flange of R.S.J.

ü In order to check the deflection of the centering plate, a wooden packing block is tightly inserted
between M.S. plate and Rod.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORS

ü Floors of modern buildings are invariably made of reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.),
because of the inherent advantages of this type of construction.
ü Concrete, which is strong in compression but is weak in tension . However, it is suitably
reinforced with the help of steel bars which take the entire bending tension.

ü Due to this, the overall thickness of R.C.C. floors is comparatively small, thereby reducing the
self weight of floor itself.

ü R.C.C. floors are also comparatively fire proof and damp proof, The method of construction is

also easy except that centering is required.

ü These floors can also be used on large spans, and therefore, more suitable for big size rooms,

halls etc.
 R.C.C. floors can be classified into the following types

ü Simple slab flooring

ü Reinforced brick flooring

ü Beam-slab flooring

ü Flat slab flooring.

 Simple R.C.C. slab Flooring
ü In simple R.C.C flooring, the R.C.C. slab bends downwards, causing tension at the bottom.
ü Due to this mild steel bars reinforcement is placed at the bottom of the slab, keeping a minimum
clear cover of 15 mm.
ü Half these bars are bent up near end to take up negative bending moment caused due to partial
fixity at the ends.
ü This main reinforcement is placed in the direction of the span of the slab, which is equal to the
width of the room, specially when the length of the room is more than 1.5 times the width of the
room.
ü Such a slab is known as one way reinforced slab.
ü Such slabs are quite suitable and economical for spans up to 5 m.
ü When the length of room is less than 1.5 times the width of room the slab bends in both direction.
ü Such slab is known as two way reinforcement slab.
 Reinforced Brick Flooring
ü Reinforced brick work is a typical type of construction in which the compressive strength of
bricks is utilized to bear the compressive stress and steel bars are used to bear the tensile
stresses in a slab.
ü In other words, the usual cement concrete is replaced by the bricks.
ü The reinforcing bars are embedded in the gap between the bricks, which is filled with cement
mortar. Such type of construction is quite suitable and cheap for small span floor slabs
carrying comparatively lighter loads.
ü The depth of reinforced brick slab is governed by the thickness of the bricks available.
Modular bricks are 10 cm thick (nominal). Hence thickness of slab may be kept as 10 cm.
ü First class bricks should be used for such a work. Cement mortar used to fill the joints etc.
should be of 1 : 3 ratio, with proper water-cement ratio to make the mortar workable.
ü The width of the joint between adjacent bricks is generally kept equal to 2 cm.
 Beam-Slab Flooring

ü When the width of room becomes more, the span of slab

increases, and simple R.C.C slab becomes
uneconomical.
ü In that case, the floor structure consists of R.C.C. beams
and slabs cast monolithically.
ü The beams, known as T-beams, act as intermediate
supports to the slab which is continuous over these
beams.
ü When the size of the room {i.e.. hall) is very large,
intermediate T-beams are constructed either supported
on R.C.C. columns or end walls.
 Flat Slab Flooring

ü A flat slab is a typical type of construction in which a

reinforced slab is built monolithically with the
supporting columns and is reinforced in two or more
directions, without any provision of beams.

ü The flat slab thus transfers the load directly to the

supporting columns suitably spaced below the slab.

ü Because of exclusion of beam system in this type of

construction, a plain ceiling is obtained, thus giving
attractive appearance from architectural point of
view.
 RIBBED OR HOLLOW TILED FLOORING

ü Concrete is incapable of resisting tension which is caused in the lower part of the

thickness of the slab. This lower part does not participate in load bearing, and hence part

of it can be replaced by hollow tiles so that weight of the slab is reduced.

ü The clear spacing of ribs depends upon the size of hollow blocks available , but it should

normally not exceed 50 cm.

ü The width of ribs may vary between 6 to 10 cm. The span of ribs may be as much as 7

m.

ü Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom of the rib. To resist the support moment

(negative) an additional bar is placed at the top of rib section.

ü A minimum cover of 2.5 cm is provided. The depth of rib is calculated on the basis of bending
moment as well as the cost ratio of steel and concrete.
ü Depth of rib is usually kept as at least L / 20 with free support and at least L / 25 with fixed
support, where L is the span of the ribs.

ü Hollow tiles are available in different widths and different depths. Sometimes, to suit the
requirements of the depth of rib, hollow tiles of required depth may be manufactured at the site.
 FILLER JOISTS FLOORS
ü This is a typical type of composite construction in which
R.S.J of small sections are placed in concrete.

ü The spacing of the joists may vary between 40 to 90 cm.

ü The filler joists may either rest on walls (if the span is
less) or on longitudinal steel beams.

ü The joists act as reinforcement, and no separate

reinforcement is provided in the concrete filled in
between the joists.

ü Concrete should completely surround the filler joists and

steel beams, with a minimum cover of 2.5 cm over filler
joists.
 PRE-CAST CONCRETE FLOORS
ü With the modern developments in construction technology,
precast beam slab units are now available with the help of
which the floors can be constructed easily. without use of
any form work.

ü These precast units are available in about 25 cm width,

various depths, and various spans.
ü Precast units can be supported either on walls or on rolled
steel joists. The sides of each unit are provided with grooves
to form connecting joggles for adjacent units.

ü The joints are grouted with cement mortar, using concrete

guns.

ü Such floors are economical, light weight, sound proof, fire

proof.
 TIMBER FLOORS

ü Timber floors which is quite light in weight, have poor fire resistance and sound
insulation property.
ü They are quite costly except at those location where local timber is cheaply
available.

ü timber floor are basically three types,

1. Single joist timber floors.

2. Double joists timber floors

3. Framed or triple joists timber floor

 Chapter – 10
FORMWORK AND
SHORING AND
UNDERPINNING
ü As Fresh concrete is in a plastic state, when it is placed for construction

purposes, so it becomes necessary to provide some temporary

structure to confine and support the concrete, till it gains sufficient

strength for self-supporting. This temporary structure is known as form

work or shuttering.
 REQUIREMENTS OF FORM WORK :

1. It should be strong enough to resist the pressure or the weight of the fresh
concrete and the super-imposed loads due to equipment, men etc.
2. It should be rigid enough to retain the shape without undue deformation.
3. It must be made or constructed as tight that it does not allow the cement paste
to leak through the joints.
4. The inside surface of form work should be smooth so as to give good
appearance to the resulting concrete surface.
 NOTE

ü The materials most commonly used are timber, plywood, steel and
aluminium.

Note:
ü Thickness of shuttering or forms in case of slabs should be taken
roughly 1/3 the depth of the slab.
 TYPES
OF
FORM WORK
 1. Steel Forms:
ü These steel forms are manufactured by

various commercial Finns in standard flat

or curved panel units. Theses forms are

made of steel sheets which are

reinforced or strengthened with angle

sections and joined together by keys,

wedge or other similar devises.

 2. Moving forms.
ü These forms are used economically,

where long lengths of concrete works of

constant cross-section have to be

constructead. In such cases, a complete

section of form work is fabricated and is

carried on to some suitable form of

travelling carriage running on rails or

other suitable tracks.

 3. Climbing Forms :

ü These forms are used for tall

buildings. Climbing forms consist of

narrow band of from work encircling

the structure, and as the name

implies, they can be raised to the

desired heights as concreting work

progresses.
Types of Forms for different Structural Members :

1. Wall Footings

2. Column Footing.

3. Walls and Corner of a wall

4. RCC Beams

5. RCC Beam and Slab Floor Construction

6. Stairs

7. Shell Roof Structures

8. Dome Structures
q SCAFFOLDING OR SCAFFOLD :
ü The 'Scaffolding' is a temporary structure, which is used in building operations

to support platforms for workmen, structural material and appliances required

during construction at raised heights (normally, more than 1.5 m). This

temporary form work, (or scaffold) is useful in building construction,

demolition, maintenance and repair works. Scaffolding is erected either on

one or both sides of the walls. For ordinary works, scaffolding may be erected

on one side only but for all superior quality works, it must be provided on both

the sides of the wall.

Component Parts of a Scaffolding:
1.STANDARDS: These are vertical members of scaffolding.
2.LEDGERS : These are horizontal members at right angles to the standards and parallel to the
wall.
3.BRACES : These members are fixed diagonally on the standards.
4.PLANKS OR BOARDING: They form the horizontal plat forms for supporting men, materials and
appliances.
5.PUTLOS : These members are placed on horizontal members (i.e., ledgers) at right angles to
the walls, one end of which is held in wall.
6.GUARD BOARDS : These members are provided at the working level to guard against
materials.
7.TOE-BOARDS: These members are placed parallel to the ledgers and used for prote ction at the
level of working platform.
 q TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING
1. Single Scaffolding or Bricklayer's Scaffolding :

ü This, being cheap, is most commonly used in the construction of brick work. It consists of

a single row of standards (vertical members) which are driven into the ground at a

distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 m apart and about 1.2 m away from the wall to be

constructed. The standards are then connected to each other by ledger (horizontal

members) placed at right angles and spaced at a vertical distance of about 1.20 to

1.50 m. They are secured in position by rope lashings. The putlogs are placed at a

horizontal spacing of about 1.2 to 1.5 m such that one end is supported on the ledgers

and the other end is held in the holes provided in the wall.
2. DOUBLE SCAFFOLDING OR MASON'S
SCAFFOLDING

ü This type of scaffolding is stronger than the single

scaffolding and ias used in the construction of stone

work. The form work is similar to the single scaffolding

except two rows of standards are used, one row close

to the wall within 15 cm of the wall face and the other at

1.2 to 1.5 m away from the face of the wall. The put-

logs are supported at both end on ledgers. This type is

scaffolding is completely independent of the wall and

no holes are made in the wall to support put logs.

3. LADDER SCAFFOLDING OR PATENTED
SCAFFOLDING :

ü This is a modification over a double

scaffolding and can be easily assembled. The

various components of the scaffold are

fastened to each other by means of bolts and

screws.

ü Such patented scaffoldings are very suitable for

light works such as exterior walls paintings and

decorations.
4. CANTILEVER SCAFFOLDING OR NEEDLE SCAFFOLDING:
ü The use of this type of scaffolding becomes necessary under the following circumstances.

(i) Where it is not possible to fix the standards into the ground in the usual manner.

(ii) Where the scaffolding is to be provided on the side of a busy street without obstructing

the traffic on road.

(iii) Where the scaffolding is required for construction operations of upper storeys of a tall

building.

ü In this, form work whether of single scaffolding type is or double scaffolding type, is supported by

a series of cantilevers or needle beams (i.e., timber beams projecting from wall) passing through

window openings or through holes in the wall.

5. SUSPENDED SCAFFOLDING:

ü This type of scaffolding is suitable for light steel

frame construction as well as for maintenance works

such as painting, pointing, distempering, etc. In this

type standards do not rest on the ground and

hence, scaffolding does not create any obstruction

on the floor. The working platforms is suspended

from the roofs by means of wire ropes or chains.

The mechanical arrangements are provided to raise

or lower the platform to attain the optimum level for

working.
6. STEEL SCAFFOLDING AND CANTERING :
ü The constructional details of steel scaffolding are same as of a timber scaffolding

except wooden members are replaced by steel tubes and rope lashings are

substituted by special couplings and set-screws at junctions and joints. The

diameter of steel tubes is about 40 to 60 mm and thickness of steel metal is

about 5 mm. This type of scaffolding is preferred over the ordinary timber scaffolding

due to its several advantages,

ü viz., suitable for any height; through higher in initial cost but is economical in the

long run; rapidity in this erection and dismantling; strong and durable; it possesses

higher salvage value and better fire-resisting qualities, etc.

7. TRESTLE
SCAFFOLDING:

ü In this type, the working platforms

are supported on the top of mobile

devices, such as tripods, ladders, etc

mounted on bogies, wheels or lorries.

Trestle scaffolding is suitable for

minor repairs or painting work up

to a maximum height of 5 meters

from the supporting level.

SHORING :

ü 'Shoring' is the means of providing temporary support to attain stability of the structure

under the following circumstances.

(i) To unsafe structures, the stability of which has been endangered due to unequal settlement of

the foundation, or due to the removal of adjacent buildings, or due to the defective or bad

workmanship, or due to any other reason.

(ii) To structures which might become unstable, when certain alterations are required to be done

in the structure itself (such as remodelling of walls, etc) or during the alternations of adjacent

buildings.
TYPES OF SHORING : Shoring are classified into the following three classes either on the basis of

their supporting characteristics or their position in the space.

1.Raking or Inclined Shores - In this type, inclined members, called 'rajers' are used to give

temporary support to the external walls from the ground.

2.Flying to Horizontal Shores: In this type, horizontal supports are provided for supporting

temporarily the parallel walls of the two adjacent building, which may tend to collapse or damage

when one of the intermediate buildings has to be pulled down and rebuilt.

3.Dead or Vertical Shoes: In this system of shoring, the vertical members known as 'dead shores'

are used to support temporarily the walls, roofs, floors, etc

q UNDERPINNING :

ü The term underpinning is applied to the construction of a new foundation underneath and
existing one for strengthening purposes, without endangering the stability of the existing structure.
During underpinning, the existing structure is required to be temporarily supported by means of
raking shores.
§ The use of underpinning becomes essential to meet the following requirements under
different situations :
q To strengthen the shallow footings of the existing building, when a building with deep foundations
is to be constructed adjoining to it.
q To safeguard against the danger of excessive or differential settlement of foundations of existing
structure.
q To deepen the existing foundation to increase its bearing capacity so as to sustain
heavier loads may be by extending of shores.
q To provide a basement to an an existing building structure.

q Methods of Underpinning :

1. Pit Method
2. Pile Method
3. Pier Method
Chapter – 11
ARCH
Technical Terms in Arch Work :
Technical Terms in Arch Work :
Ø Abutments :
ü These are the outermost supports of an arch, from which the arch springs. The

abutments are designed to resist the inclined thrust from one or more arches,

and are therefore made of ample size and weight.

Ø Piers :
ü These are the intermediate supports of a series of arches or an arcade.
Ø Arcade :
ü This is a series or row of arches .

Skew-backs :
ü These are the inclined surfaces of the abutments which are prepared to receive
the arch and from which the arch springs. In some types of arches, skew-backs
are not required.

Ø Voussoirs :

ü These are the wedge-shaped or tapered units of bricks, stones or concrete

works, forming the courses of an arch.
Ø Extrados:
ü This is an upper or external curve of the arch.

Ø Intrados :
ü This is an inner curve of the arch.

Ø Soffit or Bottom :
ü This is the inner or under surface of the arch.
Ø Springing Line :
ü This is the horizontal line (imaginary) joining the two springing points.

Ø Springer :
ü These are the extreme or lowest voussoirs of an arch, which are placed at
springing level on either side immediately adjacent to the skew-backs.

Ø Crown :
ü This is the highest point of the extrados of an arch.
Ø Key :
ü This is the central voussoir of an arch.

Ø Haunch :
This is the lower half portion of the arch between the crown and the skew-back or
springer.

Ø Rise :
ü This is the vertical distance between the springing line and the highest point of
the intrados.
Ø Depth or Height :
This is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and extrados.

Ø Spandrel :
ü This is the triangular space formed between the extrados and the horizontal
line drawn through the crown.
Chapter – 12
DOOR &
WINDOW
DOORS AND WINDOWS
 INDEX
ü Location of Doors and Windows

ü Definition of Technical Terms

ü S i z e s of Doors and Windows

ü T y p e s of Doors

ü T y p e s of Windows
q LOCATIONS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS

ü There should be minimum number of doors in a room so as avoid

obstruction.
ü The door should be so located such that when opened, it shall not obstruct the
required width of passage way.
ü Doors should not be located at the center of a long wall but should be
located near the corner of wall nearly 20 cm away from the corner.
ü In case if there are two doors in a room, these should be located in opposite
walls so that good ventilation & free circulation of air can take place.
ü The location of door should meet the functional requirements of the room.
ü In general size of the door should be such that if two persons walking shoulder

to shoulder should conveniently pass through the doors.

ü Windows should be located opposite to each other or opposite to door

wherever possible to achieve cross ventilation.

ü For fresh air & maximum light, window should be located in the prevailing

directions of wind or on northern side.

ü The height of sill of windows from floor level should be 0.75 m.

ü The minimum area of windows should be 1 / 10th of the floor area of

the room for hot-dry climate & 1 / 6th of the floor area for hot-wet

climate.

ü The number & sizes of windows depends on the type of building, privacy,

required, ventilation & light requirements.

ü The location of windows depends, on the internal arrangements of the

rooms.
q TECHNICAL TERMS
§ FRAME:- It is an assembly of horizontal &
vertical members, forming an enclosure, to
which shutters are fixed.
§ SHUTTERS:- These are the openable parts
of a door or window.
§ HEAD:- This is the top or uppermost
horizontal part of frame.
§ SILL:- This is the bottom or lowermost
horizontal part of window frame.
§ HORN:-The horizontal projection of head or
sill beyond the face of the frame. It is
usually 10 to 15 cm.
§ STYLE:- It is the vertical outside member of the
shutter of a door or window.

§ TOP RAIL:- This is the top most horizontal member of

the shutter.

§ LOCK RAIL:- It is the middle horizontal member of the

shutter where locking arrangement is provided.

§ BOTTOM RAIL:- This is the lower most horizontal

member of the shutter.

§ HOLD FASTS:- It is a mild steel flats(30 mm × 6

mm), generally bent into Z-shape, to fix the frame to
the opening. The horizontal length of hold fast is
kept about 20 cm and is embedded in the masonry.
§ MULLION:- This is the vertical
member which is employed to sub-
divide window vertically.

§ TRANSOM:- This is the horizontal

member which is employed to sub-
divide window.

§ Jambs :- side openings in door and

window.

§ Note :- generally there are 3 hold

fast place in one side in case of door
but in case of window it is 2
q SIZES OF DOORS & WINDOWS

v DOORS (RESIDENTIAL BUILDING):-

• External door : - 1.0 × 2.0 M to 1.1 × 2.1 M
• Internal door : - 0.9 × 2 M to 1 × 2 M
• Doors for bathrooms and water closets : - 0.7 × 2 M to 0.8× 2 M
• Garages for cars : - 2.25 ( height ) × 2.25 ( width ) M to 2.25 × 2.40 M

q Note – The common width height relationship used for doors in India are:-
ü Width – 0.4 to 0.6 of height
ü Height – ( width + 1.2 ) metres
ü As a rule height of a door in India should not be les than 1.8 M to 2 M
ü DS:- Doors having single shutter • Designation of door = length × type
ü DT:- Doors having double shutter of door × width

ü WS :- WINDOW HAVING SINGLE SHUTTER • Designation of window = length ×

ü WT :- WINDOW HAVING DOUBLE SHUTTER type of window × width

Ø BATTENED & LEDGED DOOR
ü These doors consist of vertical boards called
battens which are nailed or screwed to the
horizontal members called ledges.
ü Generally the battens are about 100 to 150 mm
wide and 20 to 30 mm thick.
ü It is better to use boards which are up to 30 cm
wide. These wider boards are less likely to twist
and warp at the ends.
ü The ledges are usually 100 to 200 mm wide and
25 to 30 mm thick.
ü The ledged and battened door is the simplest
type of door. It is often used for narrow openings.
Ø BATTENED, LEDGED & BRACED DOOR

ü This is a ledged and battened door to which

braces have been added to prevent sagging .

ü These braces must slope upwards from the

hinge edge of the door and they are housed with
a skew notch into the ledges.

ü The skew notch helps to distribute the force

from the weight of the door so that the ledges
have an even pressure on them.

ü This type of door construction may be used for

large openings because of its greater strength.
Ø FRAMED AND PANELED DOOR

ü The styles are continuous from top to

bottom i.e. they are in single piece.

ü Various rails are jointed to the styles at the

bottom.

ü The entire frame is grooved on all the

inside faces to receive the panels.

ü The minimum width of style is kept as

100 mm. the minimum width of bottom
rail and lock rail is kept as 100 mm.
DOUBLE SHUTTERED PANELED DOOR GLAZED DOOR
Ø FLUSH DOOR
ü Well seasoned wood is used for the frame.
ü Plywood covered flush doors can not be used

where they will be exposed to rain and sun.

ü There are two types of flush doors

1. Solid Core Flush Door or Laminated Core Flush

Door.

2. Hollow and Cellular Core Flush Door

Ø LOUVERED DOOR
ü Louvered Doors permit free
ventilation through them and at the
same time maintain the privacy of
the room.

ü These doors are generally used for

bath rooms of residential and public
buildings.

ü The louvers are arranged at such

an inclination that vision is
obstructed while they permit free
passage of air.
Ø REVOLVING DOOR
ü Such doors are provided only in public
buildings such as libraries, museums, banks
etc. Where there are constant visitors.

ü Such door provide entrance to the one and

exit to the other person simultaneously, and
close automatically when not in use.

ü This door also suitable for air-conditioned

buildings or for building situated at a place
where strong breeze blow throughout the
year.
 WINDOWS
q SIZES OF WINDOWS
ü Width of window :- 1 / 8 of width of room + height of room

ü The total area of window opening should normally vary from 10 to 20 % of the floor area of

room.

ü The area of window opening should be at least 1 m3 for every 30 to 40 m3 of inside content

of room.

ü In public buildings the minimum area of windows should be 20 % of floor area.

ü For sufficient natural light the area of glazed panels should at least 10 % of floor area.
ØPIVOTED WINDOW
ü In this windows, the shutter are
allowed to swing round pivots
fixed to the window frame.

ü The shutter can swing or rotate

either horizontally or vertically.
Ø DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW
ü This type of window consists of frame
and pair of shutters, arranged one
above the other.

ü The shutter can slide vertically within

the grooves provided in window frame.

ü By the provision of sliding this window

clean effectively and at the same time
ventilation controlled same time
effectively.
Ø CASEMENT WINDOW
ü These are the main and common
types of window usually provided in
buildings.

ü The shutters of the window open like

shutters of the door.

ü The shutter consists of styles, top

rails, bottom rails and intermediate
rails, thus dividing into panels.
Ø BAY WINDOW

ü Bay windows projects outside the

external wall of the room.

ü The projection may be triangular, circular,

rectangular or polygonal in plan.

ü They are provide extra space in the

room and improve overall appearance of
the building.
Ø DORMER WINDOW

ü A dormer window is a
vertical window provided on
the slopping roof as shown in
image.
ü Such a window provides
ventilation and lighting to the
enclosed space below the roof .

ü This window very much improve

the appearance of the building.
Ø SKY LIGHTS
ü A sky light is provided on a sloping

roof to admit light.

ü The window projects above the top

slopping surface.

ü They run parallel to the sloping

surface.
Ø VENTILATORS
ü Ventilators are small windows, fixed
at a greater height than the
window, generally about 30 to 50
cm below roof level.

ü The ventilator has a frame and a

shutter, generally glazed, which is
horizontally pivoted.

ü The top edges of the shutter opens

inside and bottom edge open
outside, so that rain water is
excluded.
Chapter – 13
STAIRCASE
STAIRCASE
 q CONTENTS
ü Introduction

ü Technical Terms

ü Requirements of good Staircase

ü Dimensions of step

ü Types of steps

ü Classification of Staircase
 v INTRODUCTION
ü Stairs is a set of steps which give access from floor to floor.

ü The room or enclosure of the building, in which stair is located is known as staircase.

ü Staircase provide access & communication between floors in multi-storey buildings and

are a path by which fire can spread from one floor to another.

ü Therefore it must be enclosed by fire resisting walls, floors, ceilings and doors.

ü It must be designed to carry certain loads, which are similar to those used for design of the

floors.

ü Stairs may be constructed of Timber, Bricks, Stone, Steel or Reinforced Cement

Concrete.
 v TECHNICAL TERMS
§ STEP:- It is a portion of stair which permits ascent
or descent. A stair is composed of a set of steps.

§ TREAD:- It is a upper horizontal portion of a step

upon which foot is placed while ascending or
descending.

§ RISER:- It is a vertical portion of a step providing

support to the tread.

§ LANDING:- It is level platform at the top or bottom

of a flight between the floors.

§ FLIGHT:- This is an unbroken series of steps

between landing.
§ RISE:- It is a vertical distance between
two successive tread faces.

§ GOING:- It is a horizontal distance

between two successive riser faces.
§ NOSING:- It is the projecting part of the
tread beyond the face of riser.

§ SCOTIA:- It is a moulding provided under

the nosing to provide strength to nosing.

§ SOFFIT:- it is the underside of a stair.

§ PITCH OR SLOPE:- It is the angle which

the line of nosing of the stair makes with
the horizontal.
§ STRINGS OR STRINGERS:- These are
the slopping members which support the
steps in a stair.

§ NEWEL POST:- Newel post is a vertical

member which is placed at the ends of
flight to connects the ends of strings and
hand rail.

§ BALUSTER:- It is vertical member of wood

or metal, supporting the hand rail.

§ HEAD ROOM:- It is the clear vertical

distance between the tread and overload
structure.
 v REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRCASE
§ LOCATION
ü They should be located near the main entrance to the building.

ü There should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the rooms.

ü There should be spacious approach.

ü Good light and ventilation should be available.

§ WIDTH OF STAIR
ü It should be wide enough to carry the user without much crowd on inconvenience.

ü In Residential building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public 1.5 to 1.8 m width

may required.
§ LENGTH OF FLIGHT
ü The number of steps should not be more than 12 & less than 3 from comfort point of view.

§ PITCH OF STAIR
ü Pitch should be limited to 30o to 45o.

§ HEAD ROOM
ü Height of head room should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m.

§ BALUSTRADE
ü Stair should always provided with balustrade.
§ STEP DIMENSION
ü The rise and going should be of such dimensions as to provide comfort to users.

ü The going should not be less than 25 cm, though 30 cm going is quite comfortable.

ü The rise should be between 10 to 15 cm.

ü The width of landing should not be less than width of stair.

§ MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
ü The material should have fire resistance and sufficient strong.
v THUMB RULES FOR DIMENSIONS OF STEP

ü (2 X Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 60

ü (Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 40 to 45

ü (Rise in cm) X (Going in cm) = 400 to 450

 v TYPES OF STEPS

a) Flier

b) Bull Nose

c) Round Ended

d) Splayed

e) Commode

f) Dancing

g) Winders
q CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRCASE

ü Straight Staircase
ü Turning Staircase
a) Quarter Turn
b) Half Turn (Dog-Legged & Open well Staircase)
c) Three-Quarter Turn Staircase
d) Bifurcated Staircase

ü Continuous Staircase

(a) Circular Staircase

(b) Spiral Staircase

(c) Helical Staircase
Ø STRAIGHT STAIRCASE
ü If the space available for stair case is narrow

and long, straight stairs may be provided.

ü Such stairs are commonly used to give

access to porch or as emergency exits to

cinema halls.

ü In this type all steps are in one direction.

ü They may be provided in single flight or in

two flights with landing between the two

flights
Ø DOG-LEGGED STAIRCASE
ü It consists of two
straight flights with 180°
turn between the two.

ü They are very commonly

used to give access from
floor to floor.

ü Photograph shows the

arrangement of steps
in such stairs.
Ø OPEN WELL OR NEWEL
STAIRCASE

ü It differs from dog legged stairs

such that in this case there is
0.15 m to 1.0 m gap between
the two adjacent flights.
Ø GEOMETRICAL
STAIRCASE
ü This type of stair is
similar to the open newel
stair except that well
formed between the two
adjacent flights is curved.

ü The hand rail provided is

continuous.
Ø BIFURCATED
STAIRCASE
ü Apart from dog legged and
open newel type turns, stairs
may turn in various forms.

ü They depend upon the

available space for stairs.
Quarter turned, half turned with
few steps in between and
bifurcated stairs are some of
such turned stairs.
ü Figure shows a bifurcated

stair.
Ø SPIRAL STAIRCASE
ü These stairs are commonly used as
emergency exits.
ü It consists of a central post supporting a
series of steps arranged in the form of a
spiral.
ü At the end of steps continuous hand rail
is provided.
ü Such stairs are provided where space
available for stairs is very much limited.
ü Figure shows a typical spiral stair. Cast
iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for building
these stairs.
q CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRCASE

ü Timber

ü Metal

ü R.C.C.

ü Stone

ü Glass
Chapter – 14
ROOFS
ROOF AND ROOF COVERING
 q ROOF

ü Roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides

protection from animals and weather as well as rain or snow, heat, wind and

sunlight.

ü The word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.

ü The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the

building.
q Requirements of a good Roof

§ Following are the requirements of a well planned roof

ü It should be durable against the adverse effects of various

agencies such as wind, rain, sun, etc.
ü It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
ü It should be structurally stable and sound and it should be capable
of taking the loads likely to come over it.
ü It should be well-drained.
ü It should have efficient water-proofing arrangements.
ü It should be fire resistance.
q TYPES OF ROOF
ü Flat roof or terraced roof.

ü Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate.
ü Pitched or sloping roof.
ü Pitched roofs are preferred wherever rainfall is more.
ü Curved roof.

ü Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large column free areas

required for auditoriums, factories etc.

ü The choice of the type of roof will depend on the climatic conditions, shape of
building, availability of materials, importance of building, etc.
q PITCHED ROOFS : BASIC ELEMENTS

ü A roof with sloping surface is known as a pitched roof.

ü Pitched roofs are basically of the following forms :

ü Lean-to-roof: This is the simplest type of sloping roof, provided either for a

room of small span, or for the verandah. It has slope only one side.

ü Gable roof: This is the common type of sloping roof which slopes in two

directions. The two slopes meet at the ridge. At the end face, a vertical

triangle if formed.
ü Hip roof: This roof is formed by four sloping surfaces in four directions. At

the end faces, sloped triangles are formed.

ü Gambrel roof : This roof, like gable roof, slopes in two directions, but there is

a break in each slope. At each end, vertical face is formed.

ü Mansard roof : Mansard roof, like a hip roof, slopes in the four directions,

but each slope has a break Thus, sloping ends are obtained.

ü Deck roof: A deck roof has slopes in all the four direction and deck or plane

surface is form at the top.

q Elements of pitched roof:

ü Ridge : This is the highest point or peak of the roof.

ü Hip : This is the high point where two adjoining roof sections meet.

ü Valley : When two sections of the roof slope downward and meet, they

create this third element called a valley.

ü Pitch : This refers to the slope or steepness of the roof.

ü Eaves : This refers to the part of the roof that hangs over the rest of the home.
ü Gables : These are the triangular portions of the ends of the home, which extend from the eaves to

the peak of the roof.

ü Dormer : These are the sections of the home that extrude from the roof. They are usually added

as a way tao bring light into the upper level of your home.

ü Rafter : A rafter is one of a series of sloped structural members (beams) that extend

from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, down slope perimeter or eave, and that are

designed to support the roof deck and its associated loads.

ü Purlins : these are horizontal wooden or steel member used to support common rafter of a roof

when span is large.

q TYPES OF PITCHED ROOFS

§ Pitched roofs may be broadly classified into the following

(а) Single roofs
Ø Lean-to-roof (verandah roof)
Ø Couple roof.
Ø Couple-close roof. Collar beam roof or collar tie roof.
(b) Double or purlin roofs
(C) Triple membered or trussed roofs
Ø King-post roof truss.
Ø Queen-post roof truss.
Ø Combination of king-post and queen-post trusses,
Ø Mansard roof truss.
Ø Truncated roof truss.
Ø Bel-fast roof truss or latticed roof truss.
Ø Composite roof trusses.
Ø Steel sloping roof trusses.
(А) SINGLE ROOFS

ü Single roofs consist of only common rafters which are secured at

the ridge and wall plate.

ü These are used when span is less so that no intermediate

support is required for the rafters.

Ø LEAN-TO-ROOF

ü This is the simplest type of sloping roof in which rafters slope to one side only.

ü A wooden wall plate is supported either on a steel corbel or a stone corbel, which are provided at 1

m center to center.

ü The wall plate is embedded on the other side, to the wall or pillars.

ü The difference in elevation between the two wall plates is so kept that the desired slope is obtained.

Usual slope is 30°.

ü The common rafters are nailed to wooden wall plate at their upper end.

ü This type of roof is suitable for maximum span of 2.5 m.

ü These are provided for shed, out-houses attached to main building , verandahs, etc.
Ø COUPLE ROOF

ü This type of roof is formed by couple or pair of rafters which slope to both

the sides of the ridge of the roof.

ü The upper ends of each pair of rafter is nailed to a common ridge piece

and their lower ends are notched and nailed to the wooden wall

ü plates embedded in the masonry on the top of the outer walls.

ü the couple roof is used when the span is limited to 3.6 meters.
Ø COUPLE CLOSE ROOF
ü A couple close roof is similar to the couple roof, except that the ends of the

couple of common rafters is connected by horizontal

ü member, called tie beam, to prevent the rafters from spreading and thrusting

out of the wall.

ü The tie beam may be a wooden member or a steel rod.

ü The connection between wooden tie and feet of rafters is obtained by

dove tail halved joint.

ü A couple-close roof is economically suitable for span up to 4.20 m.

Ø COLLAR BEAM ROOF
ü When the span increases, or when the load is more, the rafters of the couple close roof have
the tendency to bend.
ü This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it at one-third to one-half of the vertical height
from wall plate to the ridge.
ü This raised beam is known as the collar beam (or collar tie).

ü This roof is suitable for span up to 5 m.

Ø COLLAR AND SCISSORS ROOF

ü It is similar to the collar roof, except that two collar beam crossing each other

to have an appearance of scissors is provided.

Ø DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOF
ü A double roof is the one in which purlins are introduced to support the common rafters at
intermediate point.

ü Such roofs are used when the span exceeds 5 meters.

ü The function of a purlin is to tie the rafters together, and to act as an intermediate support to the
rafters.

ü These roofs have two basic elements : (i) rafters, and (ii) purlins.
ü The intermediate supports so provided in the form of purlins, reduce the size of the rafte
the economical range.
ü Each rafter is thus supported at three points :
(i) at the bottom; on the wall through wall plate,
(ii) at the top, by the ridge beam
(iii) at the center by a purlin.
Ø TRUSSED ROOFS
ü When the span of the roof exceeds 5 m and where there are no inside walls to
support the purlins, then trusses are provided at suitable interval along the length
of the room.

ü Spacing is generally limited to 3 meters for wooden trusses.

ü A triple member or trussed roof consists of three sets of members :

(i) common rafters, (ii) purlins, and (iii) trusses.

ü The purlins, which give an intermediate support to the rafters, are themselves supported
on trusses which are suitably spaced along the length of a room.

ü A trussed roof is provided when the length of the room is large.

q THE VARIOUS TYPES OF TRUSSES IN USE ARE:
ü King-post, truss

ü Queen post truss

ü Combination of king-post and Queen post truss

ü Mansard truss.

ü Truncated truss

ü Bel-fast truss.

ü Steel truss

ü Composite trusses.

ü The first six types are essentially wooden trusses.

Ø KING-POST TRUSS

ü A king-post truss consists of the following components :

(I) LOWER TIE BEAM
(II) TWO INCLINED PRINCIPAL RAFTERS
(III) TWO STRUTS

(IV) A KING POST.

ü The principal rafters support the purlins.

ü The purlins support the closely-spaced common rafters which have the same slope as the principal

rafters.
ü The common rafters support the roof covering as usual.
ü The spacing of the kingpost truss is limited to 3 m center to center.
ü The truss is suitable for spans varying from 5 to 8 meters.
ü The principal rafter is jointed to the tie beam by a single abutment and ‘tenon

joint’ or by a ‘bridle joint’.

ü The joint is further strengthened by a wrought iron heel strap, would round the

joint.

ü The king-post is provided with splayed shoulders and feet, and is tenoned

into the upper edge of the tie beam for a sufficient distance.
Ø QUEEN-POST TRUSS
ü A queen-post truss differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical posts, rather than one.

ü The vertical posts are known as queen-posts, the tops of which are connected by a

horizontal piece, known as straining beam.

ü Two struts are provided to join the feet of each queen-post to the principal rafter, The queen-

posts are the tension members.

ü The straining beams receives the thrust from the principal rafters, and keeps the junction in

stable position.

ü A straining sill is introduced on the tie beam between the queen-posts to counteract the thrust from

inclined struts which are in compression.

ü In absence of the straining sill, the thrust from the strut would tend to force the foot of the queen-

post inwards.
ü These trusses are suitable for spans between 8 to 12 meters.

ü The joint at the head of queen-post -is formed due to the junction of two compression members
(principal rafter and straining beam) and a tension member(queen-post).
Ø COMBINATION OF KING-POST AND QUEEN POST TRUSS

ü King post and Queen-post trusses are suitable for spans up to 12 meters.

ü For greater spans, the queen-post truss can strengthened by one more upright member,

called princess-post to each side.

ü Fig. show the resulting combination of king-post and queen- post trusses, which are

suitable up to 18 m span.
Ø MANSARD ROOF TRUSS

ü This roof truss, named given by its designer Francois Mansard, a French architect.

ü Mansard roof truss is a combination of king-post and queen-post trusses.

ü It is a two - storey truss, with upper portion consisting of king-post truss and the lower portion of

queen-post truss.

ü The entire truss has two pitches. The upper pitch (king-post truss) varies from 30° to 40°

while two lower pitch (queen-truss) varies from 60° to 70°.

ü The use of this truss results in economy in space.

Ø TRUNCATED TRUSS
ü A truncated truss is similar to Mansard truss, except that its top is formed flat, with a
gentle slope to one side.
ü This type of truss is used when it is required to provide a room in the roof, between the two
queen-posts of the truss, as shownaa in Fig.
Ø Bel-fast roof truss (Bow string truss)
ü This truss, in the form of a bow, consists of thin sections of timber, with its top chord curved

ü If the roof covering is light, this roof truss can be used up to 30 m.

Ø COMPOSITE ROOF TRUSSES
ü Roof trusses made of two materials, such as timber and steel, are known as composite roof
trusses.
ü In a composite truss, the tension members are made of steel, while compression members are
made of timber.
ü If tension members are made of timber, their section becomes very heavy because of reduction of
section at the joints.
Ø STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
ü When the span exceeds 10 m, timber trusses become heavy and uneconomical.

ü Steel trusses are more economical for larger spans.

ü However, steel trusses are more commonly used these days, for all spans - small or large.

q They are :

(i) more economical (ii) easy to construct or fabricate (iii) fire-proof (iv) more rigid (v)
permanent.

ü Steel trusses are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angles, T-
sections and plates.
ü Most of the roof trusses are fabricated from angle-sections because they can resist effectively both
tension as well as compression, and their jointing is easy.
ü Steel trusses are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angles, T-

sections and plates.

ü Most of the roof trusses are fabricated from angle-sections because they can resist effectively

both tension as well as compression, and their jointing is easy.

ü Steel trusses may be grouped in the following categories :

(а) Open trusses

(b) North light trusses

(c) Bow string trusses

(d)Arched rib trusses and solid arched ribs.

q STEEL TRUSSES HAVE THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES OVER TIMBER TRUSSES :

ü The sections comprising of a steel truss are readily available in the required dimensions, resulting in

minimum wastage of material.

ü Steel trusses are light in weight, and can be fabricated in any shape depending upon structural an

architectural requirements.

ü Steel trusses are stronger and more rigid in comparison to timber trusses.

ü The members in Steel trusses are equally strong in tension as well as compression.

ü Steel trusses can be used over any span, while timber trusses are suitable only up to 15 m

span.
ü Steel truss are fire proof.

ü Steel truss are termite proof.

ü Steel truss have longer life.

q ROOF COVERINGS FOR PITCHED ROOFS

ü Roof covering is an essential component of pitched roof, to be placed over the roof frame work

to protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind and other atmospheric agency.

ü The following are the roof-covering materials commonly used for pitched roofs:

1. Thatch covering

2. Wood shingles
3. Tiles

4. Asbestos cement sheets

5. Galvanized corrugated iron sheets

6. Eternit slates.

7. Light weight roofing.

Ø THATCH COVERING
ü This is the cheapest roof-covering, commonly used in villages.

ü It s very light, but is highly combustible.

ü It is unstable against high winds.

ü It absorbs moisture and is liable to decay.

ü Thatch roof-covering consists of bundles of reeds or straw .

ü The frame work to support thatch consists of round bamboo rafters spaced 20 to 30 cm
apart and tied with split bamboos laid at right angles to the rafters.

ü The thatch is tightly secured to the frame work with the help of ropes or twines.

ü In order to drain the roof effectivelyy, a minimum slope of 45° is kept.

ü The thickness of thatch covering should at least be 15 cm .

Ø WOOD SHINGLE ROOFING
ü Shingles are thin slabs of wood used to cover roofs.

ü The use of shingles is restricted to hilly areas where local timber is easily available at low
cost.

ü Though shingle roofing is light weight, it is not fire and termite resistant.

ü Wood shingles are obtained from well seasoned timber, by either sawing or splitting.

ü Sawn shingles are used chiefly, They are obtained in lengths varying from 30 to 40
cm and widths varying from 6 cm to 25 cm.

ü They are approximately 10 mm thick at the tail.

ü They are laid in a similar fashion as tiles and slates.

Ø TILE ROOFING
ü Use of tiles for roofing is one of the oldest, and is still preferred for residential buildings and
country houses.

ü This is because country tiles are manufactured from locally available earth.
ü Tiles are named according to their shape and pattern, and they are manufactured by a process
similar to the one used for the manufacture of bricks.
q The various types of tiles generally used are :
1. Plain or flat files.
2. Curved or pan-tiles.
3. Pot tiles or half-round country tiles.
4. Spanish tiles.
5. Italian or Allahabad tiles.
6. Inter-locking tiles.
ØASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETS (A.C. SHEETS)
ü Asbestos cement sheets are now increasingly becoming popular for industrial

buildings, factories, sheds, cinema houses, auditorium and even residential buildings,

since they are cheap, light weight, tough, durable, water tight, fire-resisting.

ü The biggest advantage is that they are available in bigger units unlike tiles, and hence

supporting frame work (ground work) is also cheaper, easier and lighter.

ü These sheets do not require any protective paint, and no elaborate maintenance is

required.

ü Also, the construction with A.C. sheets is very fast. A.C. sheets are manufactured from

asbestos, fiber (about 15%) and Portland cement.

ü Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral made up of metamorphosed volcanic rocks.

ü It is found in several varieties but white asbestos, which is a compound of

magnesia and silica, is principally used.

ü In India, asbestos cement roof coverings are available in following forms:

§ Everest big-six corrugated A.C. sheets.

§ Everest standard corrugated A.C. sheets.

§ Everest Trafford A.C. tiles (or sheets).

ü These sheets have length of 1.25 to 3 meters in increments of 15 cm.

Ø GALVANIZED IRON CORRUGATED SHEETS (G.I. SHEETS)
ü G.I. sheets are also widely used.

ü They are stronger than A.C. sheets. However, because of their higher cost, they are now gradually
replaced by A.C. sheets.

ü They are not used for slopes flatter than 1 in 4.

ü G.I. sheets are made of iron sheets which are galvanized with zinc to protect them from rusting
action of water and wet weather.
ü These sheets are fixed in a manner similar to the A.C. sheets.
ü End lap should not be less than 15 cm and The holes are either drilled or punched in the sheet
crowns.

ü The sheets are secured to purlins by means of G.I. hook bolts, screws and nails etc., with curved
washers.

ü The sheets should be fixed to eaves by means of flat iron wind ties.
Ø LIGHT WEIGHT ROOFING
ü For wide-span industrial structures, it is desirable to reduce the weight of roof, so that structural framing
can be economized.

ü Conventional roofing materials (such as tiles, slates etc.) are heavy and require heavy framing to support
them.
ü The light weight roofing materials are of two types :

(А) SHEETING

(i) Aluminum sheets

(ii) Asbestos cement sheets.

(B) DECKING

( i)Wood wool

(ii)Straw board

(iii) Aluminum and steel decking.

ØFLAT ROOF

ü Flat Roofs These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than
10°) is given to drain out the rain water.
q The advantages of flat roofs are:
a) The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
c) They can suit to any shape of the building.
d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
e) They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
q The disadvantages of flat roofs are:

a) They cannot cover large column free areas.

b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once

leakage problem starts, it need costly treatments.

c) The dead weight of flat roofs is more.

d) In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.

e) The initial cost of construction is more.

f) Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.