Eurocode 4 – Composite

Bridges:
Beam Analysis
 Beam Design to EC4, is covered in this
Beam design course in five modules;

• Introduction
• Analysis – EC4 section 5
• Section verification - EC4 section 6.1 and
6.2
• Shear connection – EC4 section 6.6
• Fatigue and SLS – EC4 section 6.8 and 7

This module covers requirements for the

global analysis of composite beams where a
steel girder is underneath a reinforced
concrete deck
 Key considerations for Global Analysis
Global which will be discussed in this module
include;
Analysis
• Section Properties (cracked or uncracked,
modular ratio etc.)

• Extent of cracked properties

• Classification of Sections

• Loads

• Design Situations
 General rules for Global Analysis (BS EN
Global 1994-2 cl 5.4.1) to EC4 include;

Analysis • Elastic analysis is employed even if

plastic section capacity is used, with
limits often stipulated for mid-span
moments to prevent over-stressing of
Class 3 & 4 sections at supports.

• Provided that all sections are Class 1 or 2,

and no allowances need to be made to
account for lateral torsional buckling,
effects of creep, construction sequence
and temperatures can be ignored for ULS
cases other than fatigue

• Global stability required to be checked –

with second order analysis required with
elastic critical load factors < 10.
 When carrying out global analysis the
Global composite section properties require
defining – key considerations include;
Analysis
• Modular Ratio – typically applied to the
concrete to find the ‘equivalent’ steel
section using a ratio dependent on the
relative differences in the materials
Young’s Moduli, E

• Shear Lag must be considered – with beff

tending to vary depending on structural
geometry & support conditions

• Cracked concrete properties –EC4

outlines rules that define where & when
cracked or uncracked section properties
should be used
 Shear Lag, is considered in EC4 5.4.1.2. by
Global defining an effective width of slab, beff, to
be considered. This is discussed on the
Analysis – following pages.

shear lag beff, varies along the length of the beam as

illustrated below
5.4.1.2
 beff, depends on the effective span Le which
Global is defined 5.4.1.2. (5) as approximately the
distance between points of contraflexure
Analysis – along the span.

shear lag In theory Le will depend and vary on the

loadcase under consideration.

The rules given in Figure 5.1 (below) are

suitable for typical continuous composite
beams & cantilevers:
 The effective width for any section can be
Global defined as;

Analysis beff=b0+Σbei
-shear lag where...

b0 is the distance between shear studs

bei is Le/8 (limited by slab extent)
 Variation in effective widths over the span
Global results in changing structural resistance –
thus needs to be considered for the
Analysis calculation of local stresses and resistance.

-shear lag However for the elastic global analysis

model 5.4.1.2. (4) allows a constant
effective width to be assumed over the
entire length of each span;

• For Internal spans – beff = beff, Midpan

• For Cantilevers – beff = beff, Support

beff, Midpan beff, Midpan

beff, Support beff, Support

 EC4 defines, 1.5.2.11 and 12 two different
Global stiffnesses for a composite section;

Analysis • Uncracked flexural stiffness - EaI1

- Cracking • Cracked Flexural stiffness - EaI2

where...
Ea – Young’s modulus for steel

I1 – Second moment of area for the

whole uncracked section, with
concrete transformed by the
modular ratio

I2 – Second moment of area

excluding the concrete in
tension (assumed cracked) but
including reinforcement
 EC4 outlines two methods for deciding
Global where cracked section properties are to be
applied & over what length;
Analysis
- Cracking 1. The Simple Method
EC4 -2 cl. 5.4.2.3(3)

2. The General Method

EC4 -2 cl. 5.4.2.3(2)

We will now look at these in more detail.

 The Simple Method can be used where the
Global materials, sections & geometry of the
structure meet the following criteria;
Analysis
• non-prestressed
- Cracking
• continuous composite beams with
concrete flanges above the steel section

• the ratio of adjacent spans

(shorter/longer) must be at least 0.6

Should these criteria be met – then cracked

properties EaI2 should be used for 15% of
the span each side of each internal support
(and presumably for cantilevers) and the un-
cracked properties EaI1 should be used
elsewhere.
 The General Method recommends carrying
Global out two analyses – an ‘uncracked analysis’
which then informs a ‘cracked analysis’;
Analysis
1. Uncracked Analysis - internal
- Cracking moments & forces are enveloped for
characteristic (SLS) loads using only
uncracked section properties EaI1
2. The extreme fibre tensile stresses are
calculated in the concrete. The cracked
section properties EaI2 are used for the
lengths in which the tensile stress
exceeds twice the mean tensile strength
(fctm) EC2-1-1 Table 3.1

3. The new distribution of moments &

forces are then ascertained by carrying
out a ‘cracked analysis’ – ULS & SLS
 Dead and Live Loading has been covered
Global in-depth in the EC0/EC1 course and is not
dealt with in this course, for guidance see;
Analysis
• Permanent Loads
- Loading EC1 -1-1

• Variable Loads during construction

EC1 -1-6

• Traffic Loads
EC1 -2

This module discusses the effects of

shrinkage and temperature on the following
pages.
 Shrinkage of concrete produces differential
Global strain in composite sections– resulting in
internal forces within sections and global
Analysis curvatures & longitudinal strains. Primary
effects are actions applied to the structure.
- Shrinkage
For statically indeterminate structures
Effects (continuous beams & integral bridges) these
primary effects induce secondary effects
(additional moments and forces).

Note: Primary effects can be neglected in

the concrete regions that are assumed to be
cracked.
 Primary effects can be modelled by
Global applying a temperature gradient across the
cross section. However locally this doesn't
Analysis give the correct induced stresses due to
primary effects.
- Modelling
Alternatively they can be modelled by
Shrinkage applying equal & opposite moment and
axial forces at the ends of elements – this
will give the correct stresses for steel.

However for the concrete this method will

calculate a compressive stress, while in fact
the concrete is restrained from shrinking by
the steel and so the local stress in actually
tensile. This correction has to be made
manually.
 Thermal Effects are defined in EC1 -1-5.
Global There are two components, uniform
temperature change and temperature
Analysis difference.

- Thermal
Effects
 In analysis these are applied as;
Global
Analysis • a mean uniform temperature increase
across the whole section
- Thermal • a temperature gradient – a linearly
Effects varying temperature profile derived from
the detailed temperature profile

In addition the difference between these and

the detailed temperature profile needs to be
applied to the section manually to get
additional stresses to include in the section
checks.
 Eurocodes give different values for the
Global coefficient of thermal expansion:

Analysis • EC3 says that it is 12x10-6/K for steel

- Thermal • EC2 says that it is 10x10-6/K for
Effects concrete

• EC1 part 1-5 says it is 12x10-6/K for

steel but can be reduced to 10x10-6/K in
composite applications

• EC4 5.4.2.5 says use 10x10-6/K for

working out stresses and 12x10-6/K for
calculation of change of length.

By following the EC4 definition, no

additional stresses will be caused by
differential expansion.
 There are typically three distinct design
Global situations to be considered – each with
individual considerations & loadings;
Analysis
- Design 1. Construction
Situations 2. Traffic Opening

3. End of Life

We will now look at each of these in turn.

 Construction design situations will vary,
Global depending largely on construction
sequencing and methods. Some
Analysis considerations include;

- Design Steel only

Situations • Erection of steel e.g. launching
• Weight of slab if poured all at once

Partially composite
• Casting in stages - part of the bridge
acts compositely (stresses induced in
concrete) as further stages added

Formwork
• Load can be applied to the non-
composite section and then removed
from the final composite section -
producing locked-in stresses
 Traffic Opening loads & considerations
Global include;

Analysis • Typically assume short term modulus

- Design • Apply % of shrinkage (majority
Situations Autogenous)

Permanent loads including:

• Self weight of structure
• Bridge equipment
• Surfacing (with variations in thickness)

Variable loads including:

• Traffic
• Thermal
• Wind
 End of Life loads & considerations include;
Global
Analysis • Apply modular ratio taking account of
creep
- Design • Typically assume total shrinkage
Situations Permanent and variable load as for traffic
opening.

Guides provide flow charts to help the user

follow the code requirements, an example
from the SETRA guide is illustrated on the
next page.
 Because composite beams combine steel
Global sections with reinforced concrete, analysis
of composite beams is complex.
Analysis
• Shear lag and cracking mean that
-Summary properties vary along the length.

• Staged construction, creep and shrinkage

mean that properties vary with time.

• Staged construction and shrinkage also

mean that stresses do not vary linearly
over the depth of the section.