Cement Science and Sustainability: A Comprehensive Review of Materials, Methods, and Future

Trends
Bipin Singh*

Department of Civil Engineering, Galgotias University, Gautam Budha Nagar, UP, India

Abstract
Cement is the primary component of concrete and mortar used for infrastructure, buildings, and transportation systems, making it
the most popular building material worldwide. Cement production, despite its crucial role in modernization, is responsible for
around 7–8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, driven primarily by the calcination of limestone and the use of fossil fuels. The
review covers the entire range of chemical composition, manufacturing processes and methods of preparation for cement
(condensed bedrock), hydration mechanisms, classifications or classes of materials used in manufacture, its properties,
environmental impact and recent developments. In the paper, the authors discuss various cement types, including OPC (Ordinary
Portland Cement), PPC, and geopolymer cements, with emphasis on their performance characteristics and applications. The
hydration reactions that govern setting and strength development, as well as microstructural factors that impact durability, are also
discussed. The assessment of environmental issues related to cement production involves examining various factors such as
carbon emissions, energy consumption (including thermal and electric power generation), and sustainable practices like the use of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), low-clinker blends, and carbon capture technologies. The presentation highlights
recent advancements in smart cement systems, nanotechnology, and 3D printing, as well as new emerging trends like self-healing
and self–sensing materials. According to the paper, it is crucial to establish industry-wide innovation through collaborations and
regulation in order to achieve low-carbon, high-performance cement systems that can meet future construction needs.
Keywords: Cement, Hydration Mechanism, Sustainable Construction, Carbon Emissions, Supplementary Cementitious Materials
(SCMs), Geopolymer Cement, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Durability, Low-Carbon Materials

1. INTRODUCTION of cementitious materials can be dated back to ancient

Egypt, where lime and gypsum were mixed to produce a
As the primary binding agent in concrete and mortar, cement mortar used
is a crucial building material. It is also known as cement.
Due to its adaptability, toughness, and waterproof nature, it
is a vital component of infrastructure worldwide.' » Over
in pyramids. Similarly, the Romans invented an outstanding
90% of the world's cement is made from Ordinary Portland
hydraulic cement by utilizing volcanic ash (pozzolana) and
Cement (OPC), which is the most commonly used type.
lime, which allowed the construction of durable marine and
However, cement production is one of the major architectural structures like the Pantheon and aqueducts.
contributors to carbon dioxide emissions worldwide,
As a result of the fall of the Roman Empire, cement
accounting for about 7-8% of total CO2 output.... The
technology went through a period of stagnation. It was not
consumption of energy during clinker production and
until the 18th century that scientific inquiry into the topic of
limestone calcification contributes to the environmental
cement was revived. In 1756, British engineer John Smeaton
burden. Accordingly, researchers and engineers are turning
successfully employed hydraulic lime to rebuild the
their attention to improving cement properties, reducing
Eddystone Lighthouse, thus making a significant step
environmental impact through research, and exploring
forward. The real turning point was reached in 1824 when
alternative binders.
Joseph Aspdin, a British mason, patented “Portland Cement”
The review paper presents a detailed analysis of cement, by the process of burning finely ground limestone and clay.
including: So named for its resemblance to Portland stone, this marked
the beginning of modern cement.
i. Composition and manufacturing processes.
ii. Different types and applications of cement. During the 20th century, there were many new phenomena
iii. Hydration mechanisms and properties. in cement production, including the use of rotary kilns,
iv. Environmental impact and sustainability strategies. better grinding technologies, and standard chemical
v. Developments in environmentally friendly and composition. New types of cements - blended cements,
alternative cement technologies. sulfate-resisting cements, rapid-hardening cements - were
brought to the market as solutions to different construction
Its objective is to showcase both historical background and types. Recently, the awareness of climate changes - the main
contemporary developments, thereby aiding civil factor in preferring low-carbon materials - has urged the
engineering specialists and researchers in creating researchers to explore alternatives like geopolymer cement,
environmentally conscious and efficient cement-based and Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC³).
products.
The development of cement is a vivid illustration of the
2: History and Evolution of Cement engineering and material science developments
accomplished by mankind enabling the building of the
The history of cement goes back to thousands of years ago. unimaginable and at the same time ensuring environmental,
From the primitive binders to the high-quality materials used technical, and societal needs are met.
these days in the construction sector. The earliest known use
3: Types of Cement and Their Classification
Cement is sorted out into many types by several factors such
as its composition, its intended use, setting time, strength
development, and durability characteristics. The variety of
cement on the list is the Ordinary Portland Cement. This
type is produced the most and used the most. It is also the
one that is cheapest. The compressive strength of (OPC)
differs in three categories at 28 days. They are 33MPa,
43MPa, and 53MPa. On the other hand, OPC is a good
material and can be used in most of the constructive projects
such as buildings, bridges, and roads.
For the purpose of getting specific properties, the cement
brands have undergone several modifications. Portland
Pozzolana Cement is one such type of modified cement
which is produced by the incorporation of pozzolanic
materials in it, such as fly ash or calcined clay. This way
sulfate resistance, and the strength in the long term of the
material will be improved reducing heat of hydration and
impact on the environment. The resulting hydrated cement
paste will have improved properties as additives are more
Fig 1: types of cement
evenly distributed than the solid particles and there will be
less voids in the matrix. Each type of cement meets certain requirements, which
means that engineers can choose the most appropriate
The special nature of Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC)
materials for various construction environments and uses.
makes it an initial choice for precast elements with a tight
construction schedule and for emergency repairs. The 4: Chemical Composition of Cement
hydration of the mixture does not produce heat and lowers
the temperature considerably. Low Heat Cements are mainly It is the chemical composition of cement that does not
used in industries to prevent large concrete surface cracks accord with the physical and mechanical properties of its
due to the minimum heat of hydration produced during the referral material. The tricalcium silicate (C₃S), dicalcium
reaction process. Besides, application of moisture resistant silicate (C₂S), tricalcium aluminate (C₃A), and tetracalcium
Hydrophobic Cement is also a popular choice in aluminoferrite (C₄AF) are the major components found in
construction. These products have an expanded Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). These compounds are
microstructure which is created as a result of the reaction usually made during the clinkerization process and
between the mineral admixture and moisture and subsequent represented by cement chemist notation for the sake of
expansion of the system. brevity and clarity.
White, Hydrophobic, and Expansive are among the exotic Tricalcium silicate (C₃S) represents the dominant phase in
cements used for a variety of applications. White Cement OPC (ca. 45–60%) and is responsible for the early strength
that is perfectly fit for the aesthetic application of of the cement, particularly within the first seven days. The
construction, Hydrophobic Cement which is designed to 15–30% dicalcium silicate (C₂S) is consumed slowly by the
function as your waterproofing agent or Expansive Cement hydration process, and it is responsible for the long-term
to reduce the shrinkage and seal the cracks can actually be strength of the material. Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) is the
concluded as the minor cement types. Notable in today's smallest part in the composition (6–12%), however the
eco-friendly industry are sustainable products like reaction of C₃A with water and gypsum is rapid and it even
geopolymer cement, magnesium phosphate cement, and has the greatest effect on the initial setting time and the
LC³, among various examples. resistance of the cement to sulfate. Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite (C₄AF), which is in a small quantity (6–8%),
only gives the cement its color and it has a few changes in
strength.
Besides these main compounds, cement also contains small
amounts of alkalis (Na₂O and K₂O), magnesium oxide
(MgO), and sulfates (SO₃) which are used to control the
setting time, soundness, and durability. The addition of
gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) in the last phase of grinding also
slows down the rapid hydration of C₃A and thus prevents
the cement from setting too fast.
Table 1: Composition of Cement

S.N. oxides Percent

1. CaO 60-67
2. SiO2 17-25
3. AL2O3 3-8
4. Fe2O3 0.5-6
 5. MgO 0.1-4 change the raw materials to a fine powder that is able to
6. Alkalies 0.4-1.3 form the desired product with the availability of water. The
7. SO3 1.3-3 dry process and the wet process are fundamentally the two
most used ways of production from which the dry process
has the capability of being used more often than the wet one
The ratios between the above compounds are responsible for due to the fact that it is more energy-efficient.
the setting time, heat of hydration, workability, and
durability of the cement and even its resistance to aggressive The dry process, before its effective performance, entails the
environments. In recent times, the modifiability of these step of the raw materials such as limestone, clay, and iron
components has been made possible by the progress in ore being crushed and ground into a fine powder called raw
cement chemistry, the purpose of which is to increase the meal. This meal is then homogenized and fed into a
efficiency or lessen the ecological impact of the economy, preheater tower, where it is heated using hot kiln exhaust
especially in the construction of mixed and alternative gases. The partially calcined meal enters the rotary kiln,
cement types. where it undergoes a series of reactions at ~1450°C to form
clinker nodules, the precursor to cement. The clinker is then
5. Raw Materials Used in Cement rapidly cooled to stabilize mineralogy.
Manufacturing
Production of cement depends on a specific blend of raw
materials - some of which occur naturally, while others are
industrial and are required to supply the necessary chemical
elements. The most critical components are calcium (Ca),
silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe), which are the
main raw materials for the production of cement. The proper
quality, the quantity available, and the initial stage of
preparation of those materials are very important as they
greatly affect the quality of cement and the related
production processes.
Limestone (CaCO₃) is the predominant raw material,
constituting about 75–80% of the raw mix. This material
decomposes, giving lime (CaO). Clay or shale gives SiO₂,
Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃, and here we talk of 10–15% of the total
mass. In order to amend the chemical composition, such
additional materials as sand (silica source) and iron ore (for
Fe₂O₃) may be supplemented.
Among the common raw materials which can be mentioned
are bauxite, that is used for the purpose of carrying out the
enrichment of aluminum, and also gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O)
which, while being put in the last stage of turnover grinding
acts as a kind of regulator of the setting time of cement. In
the most recent period, the sector has implemented, besides Fig 2: dry process
the above-mentioned raw components, by-products of the
industry e.g., fly ash, slag, and bottom ash, to attain and In the wet process, the method is based on mixing raw
maintenance of the environment-friendly gesture, and materials with water to make a slurry that is then fed into the
reduce the level of pollution that depends on raw materials. kiln. Although this process is good for obtaining better
homogenization, it features the drawback of being energy-
It is very important to mill and make raw materials even intensive by reason of the need for water evaporation during
apart from the fact that this makes a consistent chemical heating.
composition. These properties are crucial for dosing in a kiln
and obtaining the desired clinker mineralogy. What is really
essential is that quality control is going hand in hand with
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and also with other tests and
equipment, which monitor oxide levels and proportion
changes.
Choosing and attending to the proper content of the initial
materials are the two core factors responsible for the
development of such a cement, which is perhaps the most
efficient in terms of cost, and the least harmful to the
environment.

6: Cement Manufacturing Process (Dry and

Wet Methods)
The establishment of the cement manufacturing process
involves a set of mechanical and chemical procedures which
  C₂S + CaO → C₃S
 CaO + Al₂O₃ → C₃A
 CaO + Al₂O₃ + Fe₂O₃ → C₄AF
The new clinker obtained must be quickly and adequately
cooled to prevent it from growing massive crystals and
turning into the right phase that will react favorably.
Excessively rapid cooling may provoke the reformation of
some additional forms of the compounds from the end
required for the clinker to exhibit a good performance.

Fig 3: wet process

Fig 4: A schematic view of the clinker formation reaction
Having been produced in any of the methods of roasting,
clinker is subjected to suitable mills and gypsum with or Clinker quality is evaluated by different techniques amongst
without SCMs to be ground to a powder before being stored which we could name X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning
in silos and finally dispatched in bags or bulk. Furthermore, electron microscopy (SEM), and free lime analysis. Correct
the silos and the dispatching in bags or bulk are the last two clinker making and its cooling that is carried on properly
steps of the process. ensure the high early and lasting strength of cement, stable
setting behavior, and improved resistance to chemical attack.
Modern plants include all the above-mentioned features, and
in addition, they have integrated automation, waste heat It’s vital for the production of premium quality, energy-
recovery, and real-time monitoring of the quality of the saving, and low-emission cement to control the temperature
material to become more efficient and environmentally of the kiln, feed chemistry, and the residence time.
friendly. The transition from wet to dry processes is an
example of a big step forward in the sustainable and the 8: Hydration Mechanism of Cement
cost-saving performance of the cement industry Compounds
7: Clinker Formation and Chemistry The reaction that occurs between cement and water and that
leads to the setting and hardening is called hydration. This is
Clinker Formation is the most influential stage in the
the point where the dry cement powder is turned into a solid
production of cement that is carried out in the rotary kiln
matrix that not only can glue the aggregates but also make
through the thermal chemical reaction of raw material. This
the whole of the mass strong and durable. The hydration of
is accompanied by the appearance of the so-called nodules,
each of the four basic cement compounds-C₃S, C₂S, C₃A,
clinker, composed of four main mineral phases: C₃S, C₂S,
and C₄AF-is controlled by specific reactions that will
C₃A and C₄AF. These components are the final deciders of
determine the materials' performance as the final product.
most of the essential features of cement, e.g. setting time,
strength, and durability. Tricalcium silicate (C₃S) reacts with water so that it gets
hydrated quickly and contributes to the early strength. The
During the kiln feed reaction there is a process of
reaction of C₃S with water generates the hydration products;
temperature alteration that is caused by a set of different
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide
steps. The initial step is dehydration, which removes the
(Ca(OH)₂). C-S-H is the major mineral phase providing the
moisture. This is followed by the second step, which is the
strength, while Ca(OH)₂ actually is the one that converts
decarbonation (calcination) where limestone (CaCO₃) is
pore solution into a very high pH state.
transferred to lime (CaO) and CO₂ is released. The next
zone is the clinkering zone where the temperature is up to The reaction of dicalcium silicate (C₂S) is slower but is also
1450°C. During this time, there is an occurrence of partial more efficient with respect to strength development at later
melting and the formation of silicates and aluminates takes stages beyond 7 days. C–S–H is also formed and Ca(OH)₂
place via solid-state reactions coupled with liquid-phase is a less significant amount, which results in long-term
reactions. durability as also knowledge of chemistry helps in test
preparation.
The most important reactions are:
Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) directly reacts with water, The volume of a body changes with the end of the water
making ettringite and control setting time, as well as after it has evaporated or after the time during which it
converting to monosulfate, which is a time-dependent measured the possible amount that might get lost. If the
process. In the case of gypsum being lacking, C₃A can lead conversion of types of water that are present in the paste and
to the flash setting which is crucial for the control of the the transfer of power are not regulated correctly, drying and
process. autogenous shrinkage will occur, leading to cracks. This
effect can be dispelled by using fibers, shrinkage-reducing
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C₄AF) reacts slowly and has a admixtures, or internal curing.
limited impact on strength but plays a role in the stability of
color and volume. Over a long time, the sustained pressure applied causes the
material to demonstrate creep, which is defined as the
Hydration takes place in clearly defined stages such as the change in the physical structure of the material. The features
initial hydrolysis, the dormant period, the acceleration, the responsible for the generation of internal water vapor radiate
deceleration, and finally, the steady-state. Hydration is well the atmosphere that ultimately leads to the stability of the
known to be an exothermic process and this heat released material, such as its design, the humidity, and the stage at
during the reaction especially in mass structures will raise which it was subjected to loading. It has been identified that
the temperature (heat of hydration) of the concrete. due to excessive amounts of paste and the absence of proper
curing, the deformation potential will increase.
The ability of a material to conduct heat, as well as its
thermal expansion, are characteristics that primarily
determine its thermal performance, particularly in
environments where there are wide fluctuation in
temperature. In addition, the basic pH values obtained at the
levels of 12.5–13.5 confirm that the high degree of alkalinity
(high pH) of HCP [hardened cement paste] is a factor that
can protect the significantly embedded steel from corrosion.
The use of SEM and XRD for microstructure analysis
allows scientists to observe various features like the spatial
Fig 5: Hydration of Cement distribution and shape of hydration products such as C-S-H,
portlandite, and ettringite that have an impact on the
Having a better understanding of hydration is indispensable behavior of materials over a long period of time.
for getting the water-cement ratio, setting time, strength
development, admixture compatibility, and durability of 10: Factors That Impact Cement Setting and
cement-based systems optimized. Hardening
9: Properties of Hardened Cement Paste Setting and hardening are two significant processes which
not only influence the usability of the concrete but also set
After cement has been made to differ from its original form the early performance of the same. The term setting is
through hypostasis and it has been transformed into a solid applied to the cement paste getting harder after installing
and cohesive structure which is popularly known as water, and the term hardening describes the development of
hardened cement paste, the related cement matrix is used in strength over time. These phenomena are caused by different
the process of manufacturing concrete, thus earning it the physical, chemical, and natural factors.
stage of the binder and also being involved in the process of
abiding the void filling and the building of the strength and The content of C₃A and C₃S in the chemical composition of
resistance of the material. And as for the concrete, it is the cement, in other words the amount of these compounds, is
physical and mechanical properties of the hardened cement the first thing that affects the setting of the cement paste.
paste which are the most crucial for the former's service life C₃A is a compound that reacts at high speed and can cause
and reliability. flash setting if not controlled by gypsum that moderates the
reaction by ettringite formation. C₃S is a major contributor
It is compressive strength that is the key property and it is, to the early strength of cement thus it affects both setting
in fact, the water–cement ratio (w/c) of a mixture of and hardening.
products together with curing conditions, cement
composition, and extent of hydration that govern it. The Water- cement ratio (w/c) also has an essential impact.
stronger of the capillaries and the denser the microstructure Lower w/c ratios result in quicker setting and higher early
of the paste would be if the w/c ratio decreases. strength as not much water is available, whereas higher
ratios can postpone setting and result in weaker paste.
For the durability of the structure, porosity and permeability Temperature is another key variable as higher temperatures
are considered the main criteria. In the case of materials, accelerate the hydration process and therefore shorten
nos. There is not only the phenomena of capillarity and also setting time, while lower temperatures slow it down.
the influence of the abrasion by water, sulfuric acid, and
other agents, but also during the period of un-hydration, it The surface area available for hydration is a major way in
weakens and eventually breaks steel bars. Therefore, only which the fineness of cement impacts the setting of cement.
well-dispersed low-density pores will prevent chemical The finely ground cement has a large surface area exposed
precipitation and, on the other hand, extend the duration of to the water which is the reason for the quick setting of the
useful life. cement and the high early strength of the cement. In
contrast, coarser particles slow down the setting and the dates 3, 7, and 28 days, according to the structural design
development of the strength of the cement. requirements.
Admixtures like retarders, accelerators, plasticizers, and 12: Durability Characteristics of Cement
superplasticizers are used to change the setting behavior as
per the requirements of a particular project. Retarders are Durability is a term used to describe the ability of
useful for longer periods during hot weather concreting, construction materials of cement to meet the requirements of
while accelerators support a speedy early strength gain. anticipated service conditions in terms of service life,
withstanding environmental and chemical attacks, and
Yet another very strong factor to mention is the curing maintaining functional utility and the structural integrity. A
process and the agents that have an impact, especially the durable concrete system is that which has not succumbed to
availability of humidity and wetness. Hydration termination degradation by means of water intrusion, chemical reactions,
as a result of the inefficient curing of the cementitious freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, and biological organisms.
material is the primary damage to the concrete strength and
subsequently to the sustainability condition of the concrete Permeability measurement is one of the factors that have an
structure effect on the extent of the service life of the material.
Mostly, dense low-porosity cement paste can reduce the
11: Strength Development in Cement-Based penetration of aggressive agents including chlorides,
Materials sulfates, and carbonation. Viable water-to-cement ratios,
suitable curing, and the inclusion of pozzolanic materials
Cement-based materials, such as concrete and mortar, obtain such as ash or fume that are used to improve concrete
strength as their chemical compounds react with water microstructure can be employed to accomplish low
(hydration of cement). It is the major characteristic ensuring permeability.
safety throughout the lifespan of a structure, the load-
carrying ability, and the functionality of a building. Sulfate attack is a well-known factor in the issue of
Compressive strength is the parameter that is routinely durability of the cementitious system mainly due to its
tested as an index to the quality of concrete in the occurrence in soils and water containing sulfates. When
construction sector. sulfate ions get in contact with C₃A, the outcome of this is
the expansion and cracking of this chemical compound.
The increase in strength follows a clear pattern in time. In Sulfate-resisting cements (SRC) that include a low content
the first 7 days, the major activity is related to the hydration of C₃A are the ones usually applied in such areas.
of C₃S, the compound leading to quick strength. At this
stage, C₂S is still active but starts to play a more crucial role The alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction
in the long-term strength, particularly during 28 to 90 days between the alkaline pore solution of cement and the active
of curing. In the presence of suitable curing conditions, the silica present in the aggregates. The digital gel assimilated
strength of cement-based materials continues to rise even in water and swelled which increased the intrinsic tension rate
a time frame of months or years. which in turn caused the crack. In ASR control, using of
cements, non-reactive aggregates and SCMs was essential.
Among the factors affecting strength, water–cement ratio Different alternatives can be used to mitigate ASR this
(w/c) holds a central position. The presence of lesser w/c includes low alkali cement, non-reactive aggregates, and
ratios in the mix results in the formation of a denser SCMs.
microstructure, which in turn helps in reducing the porosity
and thus increases the strength. However, a very low w/c In cold climatic conditions, resistance to freeze-thaw is an
ratio sometimes makes the mix non-workable unless important criterion. Concrete that is repeatedly exposed to
compensated by using superplasticizers. freezing and thawing cycles while in a saturated state can
get destroyed. The durability can be improved by air
Strength acquisition is markedly influenced by the entrainment, which leads to small voids that ease the internal
environment to which the specimen is subjected. Saturated pressure of the air during the expansion of the mixture.
continuous moisture provides the hydration of the sample
and gives rise to much better strength. failure to cure leads Carbonation, which is the reaction between CO₂ and
to poorly hydrated mixes, which gives out microcracking Ca(OH)₂, has an effect on the pH and the protection of steel
and results in the loss of strength. reinforcements. Furthermore, compact concrete and coatings
on the surface lessen the depth of carbonation.
The design of the mix is also important. Different types and
amounts of cement, aggregate grading, admixtures, and Therefore, endurance of durability is a consequence of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly material quality, mix design, exposure conditions, and
ash, silica fume, and slag can change the behavior of the construction practices resulting in the resilience of the
material's strength. SCMs initially may reduce strength but structure and low maintenance over time.
the latter is improved and durability is enhanced as time
goes on. 13: Portland Cement vs. Blended Cements
The pace of hydration and subsequent hardening depends on Portland cement primarily Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
the temperature. If it is high, the reactions go faster initially, that is the highest user in the building industry. It is
however, drying process can be the reason for the low long- produced by blending and grinding the clinker plus gypsum
term performance. that allows to get the high strength initially and for the long
term. However, the production of OPC is a great consumer
For making strength testing repeatable, it is common to use of energy and it releases a lot of carbon dioxide to the
cube or cylinder specimens which are then tested on the atmosphere that has forced the practice of the blended
cement technology, which entails using SCMs.
Blended cements are the result of the partial substitution of Geopolymer cement can be a mineral green clinker obtained
clinker with waste materials of this industry such as fly ash, by the activation of aluminosilicate-rich materials such as
slag, silica fume, and calcined clay. They are known as fly ash, slag, or metakaolin with alkaline activators like
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) and Portland Slag sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃).
Cement (PSC). These cements do not only achieve better What happens is that a very strong, water-tight, and thus
workability, durability, and sulfate resistance but also cause very resistant to heat, sulfuric acid, and any other acid attack
a significant reduction in the environmental footprint due to is obtained. For comparison, geopolymer cement does not
the process of cement production. need calcium oxides and removes the CO₂-present
calcination process.
15–35% of the pozzolanic product is part of the 100% PPC
and reaction with the calcium hydroxide thus forms the Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC³) is a new order of
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) thus, emitting minerals material. It consists of calcined clay, limestone, and
isothermally and permeability is also decreased. PSC with a small amount of clinker, and up to 30–40% reduced CO₂
25–70% slag in its composition is characterized by great emissions. The product shows the same strength, low water
resistance to the effects of chlorides and sulfates and is, demand, and even a longer durability as OPC does.
therefore, very suitable for the marine environment and
aggressive conditions in construction. Magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) is also called Sorel
cement. It is widely appreciated for its rapid setting and
When concerned with performance, generally speaking, tolerance to chemicals, like rapid hydration with magnesium
OPC provides a faster early strength buildup, this, phosphate. Belite-rich cement, on the other hand, has a
nevertheless, is not best for the long term since this only lower amount of heat during hydration that keeps the long-
suits applications that are precast and high-load. The term strength.
blended cements, despite their disadvantage in early-term
strength, are able to defeat OPC in terms of long-term However, to meet all of their potential benefits, such a
performance, shrinkage control, and chemical attack choice is still in an unstable stage of standardization and
resistance. large scale producing, raw material procurement, and field
performance data. Moreover, the expensive and dangerous
Economic-wise, blended cements are not seldom cheaper to nature of handling the alkali activators used in geopolymer
use as a result of the low demand for energy and the systems is still a barrier to adoption.
application of industrial waste. By doing so, they save
resources and allow the achievement of eco-friendly Concurrent studies concentrate on enhancing functionality,
building certifications. broadening production, and establishing international codes
and rules for their safe and efficient utilization. Forthcoming
For a particular project, the decision-making process of these innovative concretes have the potential of being the
selecting the most suitable cement type can be based on answer to the sustainable and efficient meeting of
several factors, which are the structural and environmental construction demands in the future.
aspects of the project. These can provide satisfactory
balance among strength, durability, and ecological impact 15: Environmental Impact of Cement Industry
hereby.
One of the industries with the largest carbon dioxide (CO₂)
production rates is the cement industry, which contributes to
7–8% of the global emissions of this gas. These emissions
come mostly from two sources: calcination (the chemical
decomposition of limestone) and fuel combustion in kilns.
About 850–900 kg of CO₂ is emitted into the atmosphere in
the process of manufacturing a ton of cement, indicating that
production is the foremost contributor to the environmental
problem.
Besides CO₂, the production of cement also discharges
nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), sulfur oxides (SOₓ), particulates, and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), thus polluting the air
and causing respiratory health problems. In addition to the
Fig 6: Comparison of compressive strength of blended heat energy being sourced from coal or petcoke, which is
cement concrete and ordinary Portland cement concrete high, the energy used is a contributing factor to the overall
environmental impact. It is the excessive extraction of
limestone and clay for raw materials that has highly negative
14: Geopolymer and Alternative Cements consequences such as habitat destruction, land degradation,
and water pollution.
Geopolymer and alternative cements have made a mark as
the negative carbon analogs of Ordinary Portland Cement The water used primarily in the wet process and the cooling
(OPC). system of cement plants is the main cause of the strain on
local water resources. Discharge of wastewater and dust
The materials are designed to decrease the amount of during the grinding process are also the sources of pollutants
greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere and, at the affecting the air and water quality of communities nearby.
same time, provide the necessary chemical durability of the
structure itself. Of all these geopolymer cement is the most The different approaches to reduce the environmental impact
thoroughly studied and developed product. are many, among which are:
  Replacing clinker with SCMs like fly ash, ground recommend to use low-carbon cements. These are two very
slag, or calcined clay powerful ways to the ultimate goal, such as a cement
industry that is environmentally sustainable and at the same
 Modernizing kilns and automating energy time yields no construction quality sacrifice.
efficiency
17: Developments in Cement Admixtures and
 Converting fuels to alternatives such as biomass,
refuse-derived fuel (RDF), and waste oils Modifiers
 Carbon capture and storage (CCS) in emission Achieving high performance, appropriate workability, and
reduction technologies long-lasting properties in cementitious materials depends
largely on additives and chemical modifiers. These small
 Waste heat recovery systems for energy demand ingredients, added during the mixture, control the setting
reduction time, the necessary strength, the impermeability, and the
environmental resistance in a precise and orderly manner. It
Environmental regulations, green certifications (e.g., is only recently that the use of these chemicals is becoming
LEED), and public awareness are the main reasons for the more high-tech, especially in high-performance concrete.
cement industry to move towards more sustainable practices
and materials that contribute to the environment. Plasticizers and superplasticizers, which are the water-
reducing admixtures, are the materials that, on the one hand,
16: Sustainability Strategies in Cement increase the water–cement ratio with the benefit of
Production improving the workability of the mixture and, on the other
hand, do not create any cracks but promote the development
Being sustainable in cement production emerged as an of the compressive strength of the structure.
important global issue due to the high use of energy by the Superplasticizers from the polycarboxylate ether (PCE)
industry and the high CO2 emissions it generates. The group ensure good flow and slump retention.
cement manufacturers have switched over to the concept of
environmental sustainability and circular economy through a Set-controlling admixtures come as two types including
number of strategies, which do not affect the product quality retarders and accelerators. The former prevent the concrete
but reduce the environmental impact significantly. from setting in time, which is a good thing for high-
temperature concreting and for the case of large shipments,
One of the ways is by the substitution of the clinker, in while the latter ensure quicker strength development, which
which the Portland clinker is used in the form of is a necessity of precast concrete applications as well as for
cementitious supplementary materials (SCMs) such as fly the cold climate.
ash, slag, calcined clay, and natural pozzolans. These
materials not only reduce the carbon footprint but also The function of air-entraining agents is to introduce micro-
improve durability and workability. The Limestone Calcined air bubbles into the cement paste, which eventually make the
Clay Cement (LC³) development is a very encouraging cement paste more capable of withstanding the bond-
innovation in that field. breaking action of freezing and thawing. The usage of these
agents is indispensable in the construction of highways, as
Another target is energy efficiency. The new plants achieve well as in structures situated in areas with heavy use of
this goal through the introduction of multiple-stage deicing salt or other harsh weather conditions.
preheater-pre-calciner kilns, automation, and process
optimization, which not only serve to decrease fuel usage With the help of shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRAs),
but also increase the energy efficiency. Moreover, the waste there is a probability of moderate or no shrinkage in the
heat from the kiln known as heat recovery systems serves drying and autogenous stages hence no cracking occurs in
the dual purpose of energy conversion and the generation of the restrained elements. On the other hand, Viscosity-
electricity, thereby enhancing the overall efficiency. Modifying Admixtures (VMAs) afford the mixture not only
the plastic and stable states but also the self-compacting
It is also possible to reduce the dependence on petroleum form to be used in applications where there is a need for a
through the use of alternative fuels, such as biomass, highly workable concrete with low segregation such as in
discarded tires, and refuse-derived fuel (RDF). The self-compacting concrete (SCC).
additional recovery of resources is promoted by co-
processing the industrial and household waste. Corrosion inhibitors are primarily calcium nitrite based and
protect embedded steel reinforcement by making a passive
The next alternative is the pre-eminently emerging area of oxide layer. This happens especially in chloride-rich
utilization of CO2 that involves the capture of carbon environments.
dioxide from the flue gases, using the technology of carbon
capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). The captured Modern advances can number nano-admixtures, which
carbon will be consumed into the concrete or the other stimulate early hydration, and smart admixtures, which
industrial processes. empower the material to act according to weather or
moisture conditions.
Moreover, water conservation and closed-loop recycling
systems have started to be in focus. As a result, it not only In general, the use of advanced admixtures has greatly
cuts down fresh water demand and waste discharge to a broadened the scope of the cement functionality, allowing
minimum, but also supports ecological water management for more effective, durable, and sustainable construction
technology. practices.

It is also worth mentioning the emergence of green building

certifications as well as government policies that
18: Smart and Functional Cement (Self- cement is being redefined through the adoption of new
Healing, Self-Sensing) research directions and trends, which include reusing it after
its initial use and optimizing smart functionality.
Modernizations in cement technology have been responsible
for replacing traditional raw materials by smart and 19.1. Carbon-Neutral and Negative-Emission Cements
functional cement, which significantly change the role of Efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of cement production
these materials from passive to different sensing and repair are among the pressing priorities. Ordinary Portland Cement
features. These breakthroughs are expected to alleviate (OPC) produces about 0.9 tons of CO2 per ton of cement.
several of the construction industry's longstanding problems, Future research will involve the development of carbon-
e.g., low durability, frequent maintenance, and poor neutral and carbon negative binders. The introduction of
infrastructure resilience. carbonate-activated binders, magnesium silicate cements,
The mechanism of self-healing concrete is built on the and mineral carbonation, which trap CO2 in the cement
capability of the materials involved to seal microcracks matrix, is among the innovations. New technologies, such as
without any external intervention. The most typical way is CarbonCure and Solidia Cement, utilize carbon dioxide to
having packets containing healing agents stored inside, for inject CO2 into fresh concrete or curing chambers to convert
example, epoxy or sodium silicate. Once the materials or it into stable carbonates, resulting in net-negative emissions.
structures degrade, the agents are to be released. 19.2. Circular Economy and Resource Recovery
Furthermore, the other strategy of this research is the
bacteria-based biocement method that when bacterial The circular economy model has been influencing cement
activity is induced by moisture and nutrients, calcium research due to increasing pressure to conserve resources
carbonate (CaCO₃) is deposited to heal the split spot. These and minimize landfill waste. Fly ash, blast furnace slag, red
two have the capabilities to significantly prolong the life of mud, and biomass ashes are among the supplementary
the concrete of the bridges, tunnels, and marine structures. cementitious materials (SCMs) that have been given
significant attention. These products are typically used for
Self-sensing cements are also known as piezoresistive cutting down clinker. Research is also expanding into
cements, these are those cements which have the capability calcined clays, recycled cement fines and urban mining of
to conduct electricity. The addition of conductive materials construction and demolition waste (CDW) to recover
like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon black, or steel fibers binders and aggregates. Additionally, scientists are
into the cement matrix enable the composites to become examining the potential for old cement paste to be
electrical and trigger the process. Since electrical resistance reactivated to produce new cementitious substances.
can be monitored, the smart composites can detect the
position of the fiber breaks in online real time in structures 19.3. Digitalization and Artificial Intelligence
and hotspots, e.g., in aircraft or transportation
infrastructures. Digital tools and artificial intelligence (AI) are collaborating
to transform cement technology. Cement manufacturing
Thermo-responsive cements are an example of cements that plants are increasingly utilizing AI for predictive mix
change phase or materials that expand due to changes in design, real-time quality control, and process optimization.
temperature. This trait is quite useful in applications like Machine learning algorithms can use large datasets from
repair and strengthening of concrete. Photocatalytic cements material testing and field performance to predict a variety of
are simply those designed with titanium dioxide (TiO₂) outcomes, including strength development, shrinkage, or
photocatalyst. TIO2 is an innovative solution not only for corrosion risk. By utilizing BIM and digital twins, the
the reduction of atmospheric pollution but also as a construction sites can now monitor lifecycle management
beautification agent in the construction industry. and manage proactive maintenance of structures by
analyzing cement and concrete performance data.
However, the spread of smart cement is a difficult task
because of the cost of materials, the lack of a common
standard, and the need for integration with projects already
in place. Yet the increasing accessibility of sensor 19.4. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing
technology and nanomaterials will be the game changers for Additive manufacturing (AM), which involves 3D printing
smart cement, making it one of the central components of cementitious materials, is becoming a technology that can
the future infrastructure ecosystem. revolutionize construction. By using this method, intricate
Such changes signify not only a change in the nature of geometry, individualized patterns and swift construction are
construction materials - from passive to active - but also the achievable without conventional formwork. Current research
gateway to smart, robust, and eco-friendly civil engineering. is aimed at improving the early-setting characteristics,
thixotropy, and dimensional stability of printable
19. Future Trends and Research Directions in cementitious mixes. Among the innovations are printable
Cement cement with reinforced fibers, additive manufacturing
processes, and multi-material printing that prints both
The demand for sustainable, resilient, and intelligent structural and insulating materials. The resolution of
construction materials is driving cement research and interlayer bonding and structural anisotropy issues is
development towards the future. Hence, there are many currently underway.
potential applications for these technologies. The
construction industry's reliance on cement to support 19.5. Smart and Functional Cement
environmentally responsible and high-performance Cement systems that are capable of responding to
infrastructure is necessitating changes in the face of climate environmental or self-monitoring structural health will be
change, resource scarcity, and urbanization. The lifecycle of smart in the future. Studies have demonstrated that self-
healing cement can effectively seal cracks when exposed to The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to
moisture, using both bacterial and microencapsulated the faculty and research staff of the Department of Civil
healing agents. Through the integration of carbon nanotubes Engineering at Galgotias University for their invaluable
(CNTs), graphene, or steel fibers, self-sensing cement can guidance, support, and resources throughout the preparation
detect stress, strain, and temperature changes based on of this review paper. Their constructive insights and
changes in electrical resistivity. These tools are of great academic mentorship significantly contributed to the quality
value for monitoring the health of infrastructure in remote or
and scope of this work.
hazardous areas.... The refinement of titanium dioxide
(TiO2) in photocatalytic cements is also being carried out to Special thanks are extended to the library and laboratory
minimize urban pollution. teams for providing access to essential research materials,
19.6. Standardization and Policy Support databases, and analytical tools necessary for a
comprehensive understanding of the subject.
To support these technological shifts, there are global
initiatives to standardize alternative cements and update The authors also acknowledge the contributions of
construction codes. Non-OPC systems, including researchers and institutions whose pioneering work in
geopolymer cement, LC3, and alkali–activated binders are cement science and sustainability laid the foundation for this
being developed under the standards of organizations like paper. Their studies and innovations in materials
RILEM, ASTM, and ISO that focus on performance. Policy engineering, durability performance, and environmental
measures, such as carbon pricing, green building strategies continue to inspire new directions in cement
certification, and public procurement incentives, are among technology.
them.
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