The beginnings of literature in colonial Australia

From European Imaginings of Australia to the End of the Colonial Period

Elizabeth Webby
1788–1901: Marks the period of literary development during British colonisation of
Australia. Significant rise in literacy and reading materials in both Britain and its colonies,
including Australia. Most Australians read English authors; local writers relied heavily on
English publishers. Limited book publishing in Australia until late 19th century, but
newspapers and magazines often serialized Australian novels, poems, and essays.
Emergence of Australian Literature
The Sydney Bulletin (founded 1880): Helped launch writers like Banjo Paterson and Henry
Lawson; their works were later published by Angus & Robertson.
Popular Early Novelists: Marcus Clarke and Rolf Boldrewood found lasting popularity
through stage adaptations and English publication.
Representing the New World
Unique Landscape: Early settlers were struck by Australia’s unfamiliar environment and
Indigenous population.
Disillusionment Theme: Australia often portrayed as deceptive or disappointing by early
writers (e.g., George Worgan, Thomas Watling).
Black Swan Metaphor: Used symbolically to highlight Australia’s oddity and otherness.
Early Non-Fiction Accounts
British readers showed great curiosity about Australia, then still commonly called Botany
Bay. Watkin Tench’s journals (Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, A Complete
Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson)
David Collins and others also competed to publish first-hand reports.
Tim Flannery’s 1996 edition of Tench’s writings (1788) was a modern success.
Exploration Narratives
19th Century Explorers: Accounts by Oxley, Sturt, Leichhardt, Mitchell, and others were
eagerly read.
These journals inspired future explorers and settlers.
Captain Dumaresq (1827): Illustrated the mystery of Australia’s interior.
Women Writers
Louisa Ann Meredith: Published a critical and witty account of colonial life in Notes and
Sketches of New South Wales (1844), popular in England but unpopular in Sydney.
Fiction as Travel Narrative
Promotional Novels: Aimed to attract British immigrants post-convict era (e.g., Tales of the
Colonies by Charles Rowcroft).
Comic Character: "Unhappy new chum" introduced, later becoming the "whingeing Pom".
Alexander Harris: Notable for Settlers and Convicts (1847)- Fictionalized autobiography with
working-class themes.
The Emigrant Family (1849): Warnings wrapped in adventure.
Gold Rush Influence
Mid-1800s Gold Discoveries: Renewed international interest.
William Howitt’s Land, Labour and Gold (1855): Described chaotic digger lifestyle and
social upheaval.
The Outback and Exploration Literature
"Never Never": Term for the remote Outback emerged in literature.
Ernest Giles: Australia Twice Traversed (1889): A late classic of exploration writing.
Women’s Private Writings
Growing Scholarly Interest in 1980s onward saw increased attention to women’s letters and
diaries. Annie Baxter Dawbin’s Journal (1834–1868): Edited by Lucy Frost, provides rich
social and personal insights. Other Important Diarists: Rachel Henning, Louisa Clifton,
Elizabeth Macarthur, Annabella Boswell, and G.T.W.B. Boyes.
Books and Reading Culture in Colonial Australia
Books with the First Fleet: A limited number of books arrived with early settlers; regular
imports began in the 1820s. By 1828, magazines like Austral-Asiatic Review noted the
British-Australian love of reading. Sir Walter Scott was the most advertised author early on,
followed by Shakespeare and Byron. By mid-1800s, English books reached Australia within
4–6 months of publication.
Colonial Editions Made British books cheaper in Australia. Benefited readers and British
publishers, but hurt local authors and publishers. Local publication was rare and often
required authors to self-fund or seek subscribers (e.g., Charles Tompson in 1826).
Challenges for Local Writers
Locals believed works from "Botany Bay" were inferior; this view was slow to change. In
1828, a writer named “Candid” defended local magazine South-Asian Register against this
bias. Hard for Australian authors to compete with imported books or gain recognition abroad.
Newspapers and Magazines
Newspaper Boom: Grew rapidly thanks to advertising revenue; early outlets published
poems, essays, and later fiction.
Post-Gold Rush Growth: A population boom allowed new magazines to thrive, mostly
modeled on British formats.
Melbourne Punch (1855–1929): Satirical magazine offering work to comic writers, poets
(e.g., Henry Kendall), and cartoonists.
The Australian Journal (1865–1962) 40 pages of fiction for sixpence. Published both local
and international (English, American) stories. Known for serialising Marcus Clarke’s His
Natural Life (1870–72). Regularly featured detective stories by Mary Helena Fortune, a
pioneering but under-recognized local author.
Rise of Local Publishing Success
Banjo Paterson's The Man from Snowy River (1895) First major local bestseller. Sold 10,000
copies in its first year. Henry Lawson, Steele Rudd, Edward Dyson, and Price Warung found
local readership via The Bulletin and were later published by Angus & Robertson.
Angus & Robertson: The first significant Australian publishing house.
Most 19th-century Australian poets paid for their own publication and did not earn royalties.
Newspapers and magazines were the main platforms for poetry; few poets published full
collections. Poetry topics included love, death, satire, and colonial life, with many poems
now of historical rather than literary interest. Poetry was often used to satirise colonial
authorities, especially before independent newspapers emerged in the 1820s.
Notable Early Poets and Works
🔹 Barron Field- Published First Fruits of Australian Poetry (1819) – first poetry book printed
in Australia. Included humorous poems like “The Kangaroo” and “Botany Bay Flowers”.
Was mocked by some locals for calling himself the first “Austral harmonist”.
🔹 Michael Massey Robinson
Ex-convict and poet-laureate under Governor Macquarie. Wrote official poems celebrating
British royalty and colonial greatness. Poems published in Sydney Gazette and issued by
printer George Howe.
Satirical and Political Verse
Manuscript “pipes” (rolled-up satirical poems) were circulated in the late 1700s to mock
officials. Newspapers in the 1820s gave space to anti-government satires. Laurence Halloran,
ex-convict, wrote outspoken political satires, though avoided mentioning his own convict
past.
Convict and Folk Poetry
Many convict-themed poems and ballads circulated, but few were written by convicts
themselves. Popular ballads like “Botany Bay” (1885) and “Moreton Bay” were based on
earlier English works. Francis MacNamara (“Frank the Poet”): Only convict known to write
original ballads and satire about the system. Famous for The Convict's Tour to Hell, a
satirical poem condemning colonial authorities to Hell.
Charles Harpur Widely considered Australia’s most significant 19th-century poet. Son of
Irish convicts; wrote in multiple genres: satire, love sonnets, epics, tragedies. His satirical
poems were rarely published or signed, though they revealed his radical politics. Courtship
sonnets to Mary Doyle (“Rosa”) remained unpublished or revised until after his death. His
1883 posthumous collection was poorly edited, damaging his reputation until scholars
restored his work mid-20th century.
Major Works by Harpur
"A Midsummer Noon in the Australian Forest": Short, lyrical poem capturing the stillness of
a hot Australian day. Became widely anthologised despite editorial corruption.
"The Creek of the Four Graves": Epic-style poem telling of European pioneers attacked by
Aborigines. Symbolises the mythologising and naming of the Australian landscape from a
colonial viewpoint. Demonstrates early imaginative possession of the land, a theme for later
writers. Also wrote a tragedy about bushranger Donohue (The Tragedy of Donohoe), which
shocked editors for romanticising a criminal.
Henry Kendall (1839–1882)
Known for lyrical poems celebrating the Australian bush. Famous poem: "Bell Birds",
memorised by schoolchildren but now largely forgotten. Also wrote satirical verse and prose
journalism to earn a living. Attempted long poems on non-Australian topics, which were once
essential to poetic reputation but are rarely read today. Influenced Christopher Brennan,
another significant Australian poet.
Adam Lindsay Gordon (1833–1870)
Only Australian poet honoured in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. Like Kendall and
Harpur, wrote long narrative poems on British themes (e.g., The Feud, set in Scotland). Best
known today for his Australian bush ballads.
Signature poem: "The Sick Stockrider": A dying bushman reflects on a life of freedom and
mateship. Evokes nostalgia for the early colonial days. Seen as a precursor to the bush ballads
of the 1890s. Contributes to nation-building by romanticising and legitimising the colonial
presence in Australia.
National Significance
These poets helped shape Australian national identity through: Celebration of the landscape.
Emphasis on colonial experience and bush life. Use of familiar and emotionally resonant
themes like "the grave in the bush". Their works laid the foundation for later Australian
literature, particularly the bush ballad tradition.
Convict Narratives
Convicts were popular villains and subjects in early fiction, both for drama and moral
exploration.
🔹Quintus Servinton by Henry Savery (1830–31) First novel published in Australia.
Semi-autobiographical account by a convict. Features a redemptive ending, unlike Savery’s
real-life fate.
🔹 Ralph Rashleigh (manuscript rediscovered in 1952) Possibly written by James Tucker, a
convict. Mixes action, satire, and convict life, including time spent with an Aboriginal tribe.
Lacks deep moral reflection, focuses more on entertainment.
Women's Convict Fiction
🔹 The Broad Arrow by Caroline Leakey (1859) Early female-authored convict novel.
Portrays Maida Gwynnham, a wrongly convicted but "fallen" woman. Framed through
Christian redemption, she dies repenting her past.
 Marcus Clarke's His Natural Life (1874) Considered one of the most important convict
novels.
Rolf Boldrewood's Robbery Under Arms (1888)
Originally serialised in Sydney Mail (1882–83), later revised for book form. Adventure tale
about bushrangers.

Nature and Environment in Children’s Fiction

Writers often depicted Australian flora, fauna, and the bush to create local identity:
Ethel Pedley – Dot and the Kangaroo (1899): Anthropomorphised animals with a
conservation message.
May Gibbs – Snugglepot and Cuddlepie (1918): “Gumnut Babies” delivering gentle
environmental lessons.
Norman Lindsay – The Magic Pudding (1918): Anarchic humor and endless pursuit of
pleasure, reflecting post-WWI escapism.
Imperial Ideals in Bush Stories
Mary Grant Bruce – Billabong Series (starting 1910): Depicts Australia as a bush paradise.
Reinforces gender roles and imperial loyalty. Men as “mates”, women as helpers, all loyal to
the British Empire.
Post-WWII to Contemporary Trends
Children's literature has become a major strength in Australian writing. Genres now range
from:
Picture books (e.g., Possum Magic by Mem Fox and Julie Vivas).
Realistic young adult fiction (e.g., John Marsden – gritty, confronting).
Science fiction and fantasy.
key contemporary authors:
Nadia Wheatley, Gillian Rubenstein, Robin Klein, Garry Crew.
Key Themes and Contributions
Asserted an authentic Australian identity. Explored themes of environment, independence,
gender, and social values. Played a central role in shaping national consciousness through
literature for the young.
Women’s contributions to 19th-century Australian fiction were long dismissed as inauthentic
or overly romantic. However, women were central to less-elitist genres like children's
literature and serialized fiction. Only recently have scholars begun to recover and appreciate
these early works.
📚 Notable Early Women Writers
🖋️Anna Maria Bunn – The Guardian (1838)
Second novel printed in Australia; privately published in Sydney.
Gothic tale set in Ireland, with local Australian references.
Reflects women's reading tastes in the 1830s.
🖋️Mary Vidal – Tales for the Bush (1845)
Morally didactic stories encouraging Sabbath observance, temperance, and deference to
superiors. Published in parts, then in book form; enjoyed international popularity (incl. a
Dutch translation).
🖋️Louisa Atkinson – Gertrude the Emigrant (1857)
First Australian-born woman novelist. Included historical detail, but lacked the wit and irony
of others like Spence.
🖋️Catherine Helen Spence – Clara Morison (1854)
More realistic and radical than typical romance novels (e.g., Jane Eyre).
The heroine chooses servitude over compromising marriage.
Advocated women's intellectual and practical capabilities.
Later a prominent suffragist; gave up fiction for journalism to reach a wider audience.
💬 Publishing Challenges
Most women writers struggled to publish unless they went to Britain.
Publishing was often through local serialisation, followed by British editions (if any).
🖋️Other Key Figures
🔎 Mary Helena Fortune
Wrote under "W.W." (detective fiction) and "Waif Wander".
Published extensively in The Australian Journal for 40+ years.
🎭 Eliza Winstanley
An actress who turned to fiction when she aged out of stage roles.
Edited periodicals in London.
❤️Ada Cambridge
Initially dismissed as a romance writer, but used the genre to critique marriage, romance, and
gender roles.
A Marked Man (1890) and Sisters (1904) explore disillusionment with love and marriage.

💔 Rosa Praed
Bold depictions of female desire and naive colonial heroines.
Moved to England and gained publishing access, but later neglected in Australia.
🌏 Catherine Martin – An Australian Girl (1890)
Heroine stuck in a difficult marriage with an alcoholic.
Novel balances romance with nationalism and socialist ideas.
🔍 Later Criticism and Canon Formation
Desmond Byrne’s Australian Writers (1896) listed male and female authors equally in the
canon. However, later critics (e.g., Vance Palmer) downplayed women’s roles, labeling them
"colonial". Ironically, many male "nationalist" writers (e.g., Palmer, Prichard, Eleanor Dark)
also published in London. Until after World War II, most serious Australian fiction was still
published overseas, while local publishers focused on popular or non-fiction genres.
🎯 Key Themes in Women's Fiction
Marriage and gender roles.
Class constraints on women.
Female autonomy vs. societal expectations.
The conflict between colonial identity and imperial ideals.
A persistent critique of romantic and social conventions.