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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Article

http://doi.org/10.52696/DJMP8121
Reprints and permission:
The Malaysian English Language Teaching Association
Corresponding Author:
Louie B. Villanueva [email protected]

Effects of Code Switching Among College Instructors and Students in a Philippine

Classroom Setting

Louie B. Villanueva
Secondary Education Department, College of Teacher Education,
Mariano Marcos State University, Philippines

Bert A. Gamiao
Secondary Education Department, College of Teacher Education,
Mariano Marcos State University, Philippines

ABSTRACT
This study explored the effects of code-switching among Filipino college instructors and
students and identified some implications of the effects of code-switching in Philippine
college classrooms. Using descriptive-qualitative analysis and in-depth interview (IDI), the
researchers examined the effects of code-switching among Filipino college instructors and
students. This approach seeks to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms
with the meaning of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.
The following effects to teaching and learning were inferred: code switching helps students
to better understand directions, eradicates language barrier for a clearer instruction,
promotes better understanding by students, helps them in generating a better choice, ensures
semantic understanding among students, and aids the students to investigate further, to
clarify, to verify, or to confirm an earlier knowledge. All of these are directed towards
achieving a better performance of the teachers and students. This study implicates that the
use of code switching can facilitate teaching and learning in Philippine college classrooms.

KEYWORDS: code switching, Philippine classrooms, Social Interactionist Theory,

classroom discourses, bilingualism

Villanueva, L. B. & Gamiao. B.A. (2022). The English Teacher, 51(2), 38-51
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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Introduction

Learning a second language takes time and involves a number of factors. During the learning
process, the learner tends to stick to the rules of the L1 and may have difficulty in applying
the rules of L2. Hence, there is a tendency of mixing languages in an utterance. The term
code refers to speech varieties or dialects in a language or even languages. This is widely
used in the field of linguistics, and it is studied always in a social context. Further, it is a
signal used by the speaker to convey some message. The term code switching means shifting
from one language variety to another when the situation demands (Richards, et al, 1985).

Similarly, Skiba (1997) defined code-switching as the alternation between two codes
(languages and/or dialects), between people who share those particular codes. Choices about
how code- switching manifests itself are determined by a number of social and linguistic
factors. It is quite typical in multicultural and immigrant populations. Code switching can
take on several forms including alteration of sentences, phrases from both languages, and
switching in a long narrative. In normal conversations between two bilinguals, code-
switching consists of eighty-four percent single word switches, ten percent phrase switches,
and six percent clause switching.

According to Gumperz (1982), code switching is the juxtaposition within the same speech
exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or
subsystems. Simply put, code-switching can be defined as the alternation of languages.
However, not all cases of alternation of languages are cases of code switching. Several
sociolinguists distinguish between code switching and code mixing. For example, in several
studies, code switching and code mixing refer to intersentential and intrasentential language
alternation, respectively. In other words, code mixing can be understood as the switching of
languages that occurs within sentences, usually at the level of words or idiomatic
expressions. However, code mixing must also be distinguished from borrowing in that
borrowings are used to fill lexical gaps by monolinguals, while code mixing is employed at
every level of lexical and syntactic structure by bilinguals. Moreover, borrowings are
completely assimilated to the borrowing language, whereas mixed elements often retain
features of the donor language (Gibbons, 1987).

Though many authors have dealt with the processes of code switching, code mixing and
borrowing, not all of them have provided clear-cut distinctions for such phenomena. Code
switching and borrowing are explained as a continuum in progression in which code
switching precedes borrowing in time and is more restricted in its use (individual vs.
societal). In Pahta’s (2004) words:
The distinction between the two may seem
straightforward in theory: switching involves the use of
two languages in one utterance, whereas the term
‘borrowing’ is used of embedded elements that have been
integrated into the host language.

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Moreover, code switching can be both situational and metaphorical. Situational code
switching occurs when the codes are used depending upon the situations. Situational code
switching does not involve any topic change. When a situation of speaker changes, the codes
used also change. Here, a change of topic requires a change of language. The process of
changing the codes has connections with the social value and status of speakers. Since, they
are deciding the codes to be selected.

On the other hand, code mixing occurs when the speakers use two or more languages
together and mix them in a single utterance or in their communicative act. For example, a
person speaking to an educated person or to an honored person in the society, he uses a
standard variety. At the same time, when he speaks to the person who is socially lower in
status' he uses a low variety. But, when he speaks with his family friends or other related
persons, he mixes both the high and low varieties of the languages. In a casual conversational
situation, there will be a mixture of both the codes.

Sometimes, a person who knows more than one dialect uses different codes. A person who
belongs to one particular dialect may use a standard code in formal situation or with his
friends. At the same time, he may change from one code to another assuming that the hearer
also knows the change in the code. In a bilingual situation also code switching occurs. A
person who knows two languages may know the cultural background of both the languages,
and sometimes becomes proficient in both the languages and thereby he adopts code
switching during language use.

Code switching is also possible in a multilingual situation; when a speaker uses more than
two languages, he often switches over from one to another and ends up mixing all the codes.
This is common in multilingual communities and classes like Ilokano classrooms in Laoag
City, Ilocos Norte, the Philippines.

Literature Review

There are various perspectives on code switching. The practice of code switching itself does
not indicate a deficiency of language knowledge; rather, it seems to serve a communicative
function in conversation. Code switching as a conversational resource has been studied by
several sociolinguists. Blom and Gumperz (1972) distinguished two types of code
switching, situational code switching and metaphorical code switching. Situational code
switching is related to a change in situation, for instance, when a new participant joins the
activity, or a change in the conversation topic or setting. On the other hand, metaphorical
code-switching is often used as a conversational strategy to enhance or mitigate
conversational acts such as requests, denials, topic shifts, elaborations or clarifications.
Gumperz (1982) later re-labeled metaphorical code switching as conversational code
switching.

Code switching can be used by teachers by integrating it into the activities used to teach a
second language. By having students get in pairs and switch languages at pre- determined
points in conversation, it helps them to learn each other’s language. Teachers can also begin

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

a lesson in one language, then switch to another language, forcing the children to listen
carefully and comprehend both languages (Skiba, 1997).

Some effects of code switching are also worth noting in this section. The possible effect(s)
the switching can have on the acquisition of the English language can be summarized thus,
a) the switching enables students to discuss freely with their friends, teachers and parents at
home and other settings; b) it helps them to understand new concepts better if explained in
L1 which means that there are some subjects more effectively explained when switching
languages; c) it is because they do not know the word for it in the other language and that
the word is readily recalled in the switched language; and d) it serves as a status symbol.
Switching here serves as a directive function wherein it involves the hearer directly.

The interest in studying code switching functions is not new as it goes back to as far as 1975
as Lance investigated whether code switching had any syntactic restrictions, but he
concluded that there were none.

An important work on code mixing is Gibbons' (1979) study on U-Gay-Wa. In his work,
Gibbons examined the nature of the language mixture of the students at the University of
Hong Kong. U-Gay-Wa was predominantly Cantonese with a less significant English
element and some interesting autonomous elements. He found some of the code-mixed
sentences difficult to analyze because the structure of the mixture agreed with neither
language system. He proposed that in syntax, there was a small autonomous U-Gay-Wa
element. He concluded that the students had complete competence in neither Cantonese nor
English. They developed an independent system – a fused competence – to cope with every
facet of their daily life, this competence of necessity involving the mixing of elements from
the sources of Cantonese and English.

The most comprehensive work on syntactic constraints on code switching comes from
Poplack (1980), and Poplack and Sankoff (1988). They suggested two major constraints in
code-switching, namely: the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint.
After surveying the structural integrity of the component languages in code-switching, they
argued for a separate grammar of code switching in addition to the two monolingual
grammars. Ten major switch types were found in their studies.

Another vital contribution to the existing literature in the field of code switching is by the
anthropological linguist Ana Celia Zentella who studied Puerto Rican children residing in
New York (1997). This research was conducted through an observation as well as audio and
video recording over a span of 14 years. Zentella followed the lives of five Puerto Rican
girls from childhood to adulthood to determine the reasons for the use of multiple language
varieties found in their complex speech community. The code switching styles of the five
subjects were described along with the factors that trigger them. In addition to performing
cultural work, Zentella discovered that code switching performs important conversational
work as evidenced by her discovery of the use of code switching to accomplish 22
conversational strategies which she classified under three major categories.

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Despite the significant findings of the foregoing studies abroad, a more specific review is
imperative to contextualize this present study; thus, this section presents some studies on
code switching done in the Philippines.

In 1978, Pascasio studied the functions of code switching in business domains among
Filipino bilinguals. She identified six sociocultural functions which cause code switches: the
role relationship of the interlocutor (status, position), age, sex, topics, speech functions and
domains. Apart from factors that affect the code switches, she also identified the function it
plays. These code switches were found to be used for quotation, interjection, repetition,
message qualification, addressee specification, inquiring and giving information,
personalization versus objectivization, and to express politeness.

Corollary to this, Bautista (2004) claimed the alternation of Tagalog and English in informal
discourse is a feature of the linguistic repertoire of educated, middle and upper-class
Filipinos. Her paper described the linguistic structure and sociolinguistic functions of
Tagalog-English code switching (Taglish) as provided by various researchers through the
years. The analysis of Taglish began with a linguistic focus, segmenting individual
utterances into sentences and studying the switch points within the sentence. It was found
out that Taglish has been viewed as a mode of discourse and a linguistic resource in the
bilingual’s repertoire. New theoreticians working within a Critical Discourse Analysis
framework are seeing Taglish as a reaction to the hegemonizing tendencies of Philippine
society and modern life.

Method

This research employs a quantitative approach to obtain data concerning MTs’ attitude towards
FA and their practise.

Participants

The population of the study is a group of English teachers who were appointed as MTs for FA
under the English Language Education Reform 2015-2025 initiative. Purposive sampling was
employed by emailing 60 of these MTs to invite them to join the study where 40 of them agreed.
Mohd Majid Konting (2009) mentioned that 40 samples is enough for any research to be carried
out and to run inferential statistic if the data collected abide to normality assumptions (Fraenkel,
Wallen, & Hyun, 2012). 12 of the respondents are male and 28 are female. 45% of them are
secondary school teachers while the rest are from primary schools.

The Instrument

The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from Neesom (2000), Yan and Cheng (2015),
and Young and Jackman (2014) for the first construct which aimed to measure MTs’ attitude
towards FA. Meanwhile the second construct was adapted from O’Leary, Lysaght, dan Ludlow
(2017). This construct is to measure MTs’ FA level of practice. 9 new items were developed for
the first construct and thirteen for the second one based on Teacher Handbook of Formative

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Principles and Practices (Cambridge Assessment, 2018). This handbook was distributed to all
schools in Malaysia for English teachers’ perusal.

The first construct “Attitude Towards FA” consists of seventeen items. 5 points Likert Scale was
employed for this construct with labels: Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree (2), Somewhat Agree (3),
Agree (4) and Strongly Agree (5). The second construct “FA Practice” consists of 21 items and
uses 5 points scale with different labels which are Never (1), Sporadic (2), Emerging (3),
Established (4) and Embedded (5).

All items in the questionnaire had undergone face validity and content validity process using
Content Validity Ratio (Lawshe, 1975). This procedure involved ten panel of experts which
included lecturers from public universities, lecturers from ELTC and SISC+. Items which did not
achieved experts’ agreement ratio were dropped and the remaining items were further rectified
based on panel of experts’ opinion.

The questionnaire was then administered to 30 MTs as a pilot study to identify its internal
consistency. These 30 MTs were not from the sample pool. Johnson and Christenen (2014) and
Muijs (2012) stated a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.70 is accepted as an indicator of a good internal
consistency. Analysis of pilot study showed the Cronbach’s Alpha for construct one and two are
0.874 and 0.890. This proved that all items are fit to be used in the real study.

The data was collected via an online questionnaire (Google Form), which was emailed to every
MT who agreed to participate in the study. A brief introduction of the study was provided so the
MTs were aware of its purpose and objectives. Administering the questionnaire online increased
accessibility as these MTs are all over the country making logistics difficult.

All MTs were given two weeks to respond to the questionnaire and to return it to the researcher
via email. Throughout that period, assistance and clarification were given if required. After two
weeks, data obtained was statistically analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23.

Results

Master Trainers’ Attitude Towards Formative Assessment

To interpret the min score of the first construct, the study referred to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994)
interpretation of min score as detailed in Table 1.

Table 1. Min Score Interpretation

Min Score Interpretation

4.01 – 5.00 High
3.01 – 4.00 Medium High
2.01 – 3.00 Medium Low
1.00 – 2.00 Low

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Overall, MTs’ attitude towards FA is at a medium high level with construct min score 3.91 (SD =
0.50). MTs’ individual score is then grouped into five categories according to their score range. It
shows that more than half of the MTs have positive attitude towards the assessment. This grouping
is shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2. MTs Attitude towards Formative Assessment

Construct Completely Partially Somewhat Positive Completely

Negative Negative Positive Positive
Attitude 0% 2.5% 25% 65% 7.5%

Analysis on agreement rate for every item has shown that not all MTs possess good attitude
towards several formative assessment strategies. Items related to feedback received discouraging
rate which reflected MTs less favourable attitude towards the strategy. Table 3 details this finding.

Table 3. MTs Agreement Rate on Certain Items

Statements Strongly Agree Somewhat Disagree Strongly Summary

Agree Agree Disagree (mean,
sd)
I do not believe plenary
activities could help my 47.5 22.5 17.5 12.5 0.0 4.05
pupils consolidate their 1.085
learning
I find the concept of
deliberate practice is 25.0 35.0 22.5 15.0 2.5 3.65
difficult to apply 1.099
Identifying ways to help
my pupils move forward in 22.5 17.5 42.5 15.0 2.5 3.43
their learning is tedious 1.083
Individualised non-graded
feedback is impossible to 10.0 40.0 35.0 10.0 5.0 3.40
do 0.982
I do not have enough time 2.5 17.5 50.0 22.5 7.5 2.85
to check on my pupils’ 0.893
action towards feed
forward

Master Trainers’ Practice of Formative Assessment

Lysaght, O’Leary and Ludlow (2017) have divided respondents in their questionnaire into four
categories based on their score range which are detailed in Table 4. The analysis has shown that
37 MTs fall under the Established category while 3 of them are under the Embedded category.

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

Table 4. Interpretation for MTs Practice

Score Range Interpretation

78 and above Embedded
61 - 77 Established
44 - 60 Emerging
0 - 43 Sporadic

Teachers under the Established category are described as someone with high FA skills and they
are using practices which are relatively hard to embed. FA is a growing feature of pedagogy and
as such it is an approach in which the teacher and pupils are beginning to engage more fully. They
used a fuller range of techniques including all aspects related to sharing learning objectives and
success criteria. Teachers in the category also practise aspects related to effective feedback, sharing
questioning role with their pupils and starting to introduce one or two aspects of self- and peer-
assessment.

Meanwhile, teachers under the Embedded category are described as someone with very high FA
skills and are using practices which are very hard to embed. Formative assessment is likely to be
a customary or firmly established feature of pedagogy and occurs routinely in day-to-day teaching
and learning. Teachers in this category employ the full range of practices and their practice is
distinguished by their incorporation of four additional techniques associated with self- and peer-
assessment.

The analysis on the level of practise for every item has shown that there are some FA strategies
which are not widely practised by these MTs. These strategies are related to differentiated learning,
effective feedback and peer- and self-assessment. Table 5 provides details of each strategy.

Table 5. Relationship between Attitude and Practice of Formative Assessment

Strategy Never Sporadic Emerging Established Embedded Summary

(mean,sd)
Success criteria related 2.5 12.5 30.0 42.5 12.5 4.50
to learning objectives 0.961
are differentiated and
shared with pupils
Feedback to pupils is 2.5 7.5 37.5 40.0 12.5 4.53
focussed on the original 0.905
learning objective and
success criteria
Feedback is turned into 2.5 12.5 30.0 45.0 10.0 4.48
targets for pupils to 0.933
work on autonomously
Feedback is specially 0 15.0 40.0 35.0 10.0 4.40
catered to individual 0.871
Pupils are encouraged to 7.5 7.5 47.5 32.5 5.0 4.20
use a range of 0.939
assessment techniques

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

to review their friends’

work
A visual record of 10 22.5 35.0 30.0 2.5 3.93
pupils’ progress is 1.023
maintained to celebrate
pupils’ learning and
show areas of/for
development
Pupils are encouraged to 0 22.5 50.0 25.0 2.5 4.08
review their own 0.764
learning approach as one
way to achieve their
learning target
Pupils are welcomed to 22.5 30.0 30.0 12.5 5.0 3.48
prepare their own short 1.132
test to assess their
friends’ learning

Pearson Correlation analysis was carried out to determine the relationship between attitude
towards FA and the practice of it in MTs daily teaching. Finding shows that there is a positive
linear correlation with r value = 0.576, n = 40 and p < 0.001. The r value is interpreted as strong
by Field (2018) which means the more positive the attitude towards FA, the more likely these MTs
will practise it. Nonetheless, analysis done on covariance shows only 33.2% of attitude score
contributes directly to the practice of FA. This means there are other factors which were not
measured in this study that contributes to the practice of FA in MTs’ classroom.

Discussion

The findings of this study are important to the build-up of FA literature in Malaysia taking into
account that fact that these MTs were the first group of English teachers in the country exposed to
the theories and principles of FA. Overall, MTs attitude towards FA is at medium towards high
level based on the min score. 72.5% of them are in the positive categories. Nevertheless, there are
MTs in the somewhat positive and partially negative categories which is a concern. This shows
that even though they received a direct and in-depth exposure to FA, it did not totally guarantee a
positive attitude. Given that this study did not explore factors behind MTs’ attitude, no concrete
explanation could be provided. In support of this finding, Volante and Beckett (2011) have
suggested that teachers may develop negative attitude towards FA due to certain blocks related to
strategies such as peer- and self-assessment. This is reflected in this study findings as items related
to these two strategies were found to receive the lowest agreement rate from respondents. Apart
from peer- and self-assessment, items reflecting effective feedback and deliberate practice also
received low agreement rate.

Based on MTs’ attitude score, it is expected that their practice to be at a high level and this is
reflected through this study’s findings. For the majority of these MTs, FA happens 75% of the

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time while some MTs practise it 90% of the time. However, there are strategies such as
differentiated learning, addressing learning gap, effective feedback and peer- and self-assessment
which were not practised enough by the respondents. These strategies have been identified as
difficult and may be one of the reasons behind the lack of use of FA (Johnson et al., 2019; Lysaght
& O’Leary, 2013; Pastore et al., 2019). This difficulty causes teachers to view FA as an added
burden instead of seeing it as one of important elements in their teaching (Coffey, Hammer, Levin,
& Grant, 2011). Young dan Jackman (2014) suggested that when teachers see that practising FA
strategies requires extra effort in terms of time and resources, they will avoid those specific
strategies even if they think it will be worthwhile.

This study also found a strong, positive correlation between attitude towards FA and its practice.
However, as reported earlier, the influence is not huge. This indicate that there may be some factors
that could affect FA practice. Parr and Timperley (2008) linked these factors to school
organisational culture, teachers’ readiness and limited sources. Volante, Beckett, Reid, and Drake
(2010) on the other hand, listed lack of training, resistance from parents and pupils, and lack of
instructional leadership as factors influencing FA practice. They concluded that these factors will
definitely impact teachers’ practise of FA despite their good level of knowledge, perception and
attitude towards the assessment.

The findings of this study proved that professional training regarding FA yielded positive attitude.
Positive attitude which then translated to its application in the classroom. However, the findings
also showed that this attitude did not apply to all FA strategies. This shows that one-off training
like the one provided by MOE is not adequate. It is clear that teachers need continuous in-service
training and support in order for them to be adept in implementing FA effectively (Desimone,
2009; Furtak et al., 2016; C. C. Johnson et al., 2019; Yan & Cheng, 2015). Therefore, authorities
need to take the appropriate initiative to ensure the newly introduced assessment will not get
drowned by teachers’ confusion. This is also to make sure the investment made by MOE will not
go to waste as the training involved foreign consultants from Cambridge Assessment.

Limitation of The Study

The findings of this study are limited to its respondents and they cannot be generalised to English
teachers’ population due to the difference in training received by the two. Other than that, there is
the concern about the reliability of self-reported data as there are chances that respondents are not
truthful especially when reporting their practice (Lysaght & O’Leary, 2013). This may due to
concerns about people’s perception towards them as an MT. Hence, triangulation via observation
is recommended to support respondents’ responses. Nonetheless, information gained through this
study still provides a foundation to explore FA in Malaysia.

Conclusion

FA is introduced to English teachers in Malaysia with the aim to enhance the quality of teaching
and learning across all levels. To guarantee that this could be achieved, teachers must be given
ample knowledge so that they have positive attitude towards the assessment. However, as
discussed above, knowledge and attitude alone are not enough. Teachers are bound to meet hiccups
along the way as they implement the assessment especially when it comes to certain specific

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The Effects oc Code Switching among College Instructors and Students in a Phillipine Classroom Setting

strategies. Hence, support in terms of workshop, professional learning community or support group
must be provided so teachers can direct their questions or problems related to the assessment. With
enough support, it is without a doubt that teachers will continue to use FA in their teaching and
ultimately move away from the traditional practice of teaching for examination.

For further study of FA in Malaysia, the scope of this study could be widened to include English
teachers from both secondary and primary school to see the difference in attitude and practice
between teachers and MTs. This is to see whether level of training has any effect on the two
variables. Plus, there is also a need to better understand external factors affecting the
implementation of FA in English classroom nationwide.

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