ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Module-5
Time Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations
Faraday's law of induction
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a magnetic
field will interact with an electric circuit to produce anelectromotive force (EMF). It is the
fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types
of electrical motors and generators.

Faraday's law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux ΦB through a hypothetical surface Σ
whose boundary is a wire loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we write Σ(t) for the surface.
The magnetic flux is defined by a surface integral:

where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ(t), B is the magnetic field,
and B·dA is a vector dot product (the infinitesimal amount of magnetic flux). In more visual
terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number of magnetic flux
lines that pass through the loop.

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When the flux changes—because B changes, or because the wire loop is moved or deformed, or
both—Faraday's law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an EMF , defined as the
energy available per unit charge that travels once around the wire loop (the unit of EMF is
the volt).[2][15][16][17]Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by cutting the wire to
create an open circuit, and attaching a voltmeter to the leads. According to the Lorentz force
law (in SI units),

the EMF on a wire loop is:

where E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field (aka magnetic flux density, magnetic
induction), dℓ is an infinitesimal arc length along the wire, and the line integral is evaluated
along the wire (along the curve the conincident with the shape of the wire).
The EMF is also given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:

where is the magnitude of the electromotive force (EMF) in volts and ΦB is the magnetic
flux in webers. The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law.
For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical loops, each with the same Φ B,
Faraday's law of induction states that

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

The Maxwell–Faraday equation states that a time-varying magnetic field is always accompanied
by a spatially-varying, non-conservative electric field, and vice-versa. The Maxwell–Faraday
equation is

(in SI units) where is the curl operator and again E(r, t) is the electric field and B(r, t) is
the magnetic field. These fields can generally be functions of position r and time t.
The Maxwell–Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell's equations, and therefore plays a
fundamental role in the theory of classical electromagnetism. It can also be written in an integral
form by the Kelvin-Stokes theorem:[20]

where, as indicated in the figure:

Σ is a surface bounded by the closed contour ∂Σ,

E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field.

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dℓ is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour ∂Σ,
dA is an infinitesimal vector element of surface Σ. If its direction is orthogonal to that
surface patch, the magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface.
Both dℓ and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as
explained in the article Kelvin-Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a positive path
element dℓ of curve ∂Σ is defined by the right-hand rule as one that points with the fingers of the
right hand when the thumb points in the direction of the normal n to the surface Σ.
The integral around ∂Σ is called a path integral or line integral.

Notice that a nonzero path integral for E is different from the behavior of the electric field
generated by charges. A charge-generated E-field can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar
field that is a solution to Poisson's equation, and has a zero path integral. See gradient theorem.
The integral equation is true for any path ∂Σ through space, and any surface Σ for which that
path is a boundary.
If the path Σ is not changing in time, the equation can be rewritten:

The surface integral at the right-hand side is the explicit expression for the magnetic
flux ΦB through Σ.

Displacement current

In electromagnetism, displacement current is a quantity appearing in Maxwell's equations that

is defined in terms of the rate of change of electric displacement field. Displacement current has
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

do. However it is not an electric current of moving charges, but a time-varying electric field. In
materials, there is also a contribution from the slight motion of charges bound in
atoms, dielectric polarization.
The idea was conceived by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of
Force in connection with the displacement of electric particles in a dielectric medium. Maxwell
added displacement current to the electric current term in Ampère's Circuital Law. In his 1865
paperA Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field Maxwell used this amended version
of Ampère's Circuital Law to derive the electromagnetic wave equation. This derivation is now
generally accepted as a historical landmark in physics by virtue of uniting electricity, magnetism
and optics into one single unified theory. The displacement current term is now seen as a crucial
addition that completed Maxwell's equations and is necessary to explain many phenomena, most
particularly the existence of electromagnetic waves.
The electric displacement field is defined as:

where:
ε0 is the permittivity of free space
E is the electric field intensity
P is the polarization of the medium
Differentiating this equation with respect to time defines the displacement current density, which

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therefore has two components in a dielectric:[1]

The first term on the right hand side is present in material media and in free space. It doesn't
necessarily involve any actual movement of charge, but it does have an associated magnetic
field, just as does a current due to charge motion. Some authors apply the name displacement
current to only this contribution.
The second term on the right hand side is associated with the polarization of the individual
molecules of the dielectric material. Polarization results when the charges in molecules move a
little under the influence of an applied electric field. The positive and negative charges in
molecules separate, causing an increase in the state of polarization P. A changing state of
polarization corresponds to charge movement and so is equivalent to a current.
This polarization is the displacement current as it was originally conceived by Maxwell.
Maxwell made no special treatment of the vacuum, treating it as a material medium. For
Maxwell, the effect of P was simply to change the relative permittivity εr in the
relation D = εrε0 E.
The modern justification of displacement current is explained below.
Isotropic dielectric case

In the case of a very simple dielectric material the constitutive relation holds:

where the permittivity ε = ε0 εr,

εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric and

ε0 is the electric constant.

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The scalar value of displacement current may also be expressed in terms of electric flux:

The forms in terms of ε are correct only for linear isotropic materials. More generally ε may be
replaced by a tensor, may depend upon the electric field itself, and may exhibit time dependence
(dispersion).
For a linear isotropic dielectric, the polarization P is given by:

where χe is known as the electric susceptibility of the dielectric. Note that:

Maxwell’s Equations (Integral Form)

It is sometimes easier to understand Maxwell’s equations in their integral form; the version
we outlined last time is the differential form.

For Gauss’ law and Gauss’ law for magnetism, we’ve actually already done this. First, we

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write them in differential form:

We pick any region we want and integrate both sides of each equation over that region:

On the left-hand sides we can use the divergence theorem, while the right sides can simply be
evaluated:where is the total charge contained within the region . Gauss’ law tells us
that the flux of the electric field out through a closed surface is (basically) equal to the charge
contained inside the surface, while Gauss’ law for magnetism tells us that there is no such
thing as a magnetic charge.

Faraday’s law was basically given to us in integral form, but we can get it back from the
differential form:

We pick any surface and integrate the flux of both sides through it:

On the left we can use Stokes’ theorem, while on the right we can pull the derivative
outside the integral:

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

where is the flux of the magnetic field through the surface . Faraday’s law tells
us that a changing magnetic field induces a current around a circuit.

A similar analysis helps with Ampère’s law:

We pick a surface and integrate:

Then we simplify each side.

where is the flux of the electric field through the surface , and is the total

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current flowing through the surface . Ampère’s law tells us that a flowing current induces
a magnetic field around the current, and Maxwell’s correction tells us that a changing
electric field behaves just like a current made of moving charges.

We collect these together into the integral form of Maxwell’s equations:

Retarded potentials

We are now in a position to solve Maxwell's equations. Recall that in steady-state, Maxwell's
equations reduce to

(502)

(503)

The solutions to these equations are easily found using the Green's function for Poisson's
equation (480):

(504)

(505)

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The time-dependent Maxwell equations reduce to

(506)

(507)

We can solve these equations using the time-dependent Green's function (499). From Eq. (486)
we find that

(508)

with a similar equation for . Using the well-known property of delta-functions, these
equations reduce to

(509)

(510)

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These are the general solutions to Maxwell's equations. Note that the time-dependent solutions,
(509) and (510), are the same as the steady-state solutions, (504) and (505), apart from the weird
way in which time appears in the former. According to Eqs. (509) and (510), if we want to work
out the potentials at position and time then we have to perform integrals of the charge
density and current density over all space (just like in the steady-state situation). However, when
we calculate the contribution of charges and currents at position to these integrals we do not

use the values at time , instead we use the values at some earlier time . What is
this earlier time? It is simply the latest time at which a light signal emitted from position
would be received at position before time . This is called the retarded time. Likewise, the
potentials (509) and (510) are called retarded potentials. It is often useful to adopt the following
notation
(511)

The square brackets denote retardation (i.e., using the retarded time instead of the real time).
Using this notation Eqs. (509) and (510), become

(512)

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

(513)

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

The time dependence in the above equations is taken as read.

We are now in a position to understand electromagnetism at its most fundamental level. A charge

distribution can thought of as built up out of a collection, or series, of charges which

instantaneously come into existence, at some point and some time , and then disappear
again. Mathematically, this is written

(514)

Likewise, we can think of a current distribution as built up out of a collection or series of

currents which instantaneously appear and then disappear:

(515)

Each of these ephemeral charges and currents excites a spherical wave in the appropriate
potential. Thus, the charge density at and sends out a wave in the scalar potential:

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Likewise, the current density at and sends out a wave in the vector potential:
(516)

(517)

These waves can be thought of as messengers which inform other charges and currents about the
charges and currents present at position and time . However, these messengers travel at a
finite speed: i.e., the speed of light. So, by the time they reach other charges and currents their
message is a little out of date. Every charge and every current in the Universe emits these
spherical waves. The resultant scalar and vector potential fields are given by Eqs. (512) and
(513). Of course, we can turn these fields into electric and magnetic fields using Eqs. (421) and
(422). We can then evaluate the force exerted on charges using the Lorentz formula. We can see
that we have now escaped from the apparent action at a distance nature of Coulomb's law and the
Biot-Savart law. Electromagnetic information is carried by spherical waves in the vector and
scalar potentials, and, therefore, travels at the velocity of light. Thus, if we change the position of
a charge then a distant charge can only respond after a time delay sufficient for a spherical wave
to propagate from the former to the latter charge.

Let us compare the steady-state law

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(518)

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

with the corresponding time-dependent law

(519)

These two formulae look very similar indeed, but there is an important difference. We can
imagine (rather pictorially) that every charge in the Universe is continuously performing the
integral (519), and is also performing a similar integral to find the vector potential. After
evaluating both potentials, the charge can calculate the fields, and, using the Lorentz force law, it
can then work out its equation of motion. The problem is that the information the charge receives
from the rest of the Universe is carried by our spherical waves, and is always slightly out of date
(because the waves travel at a finite speed). As the charge considers more and more distant
charges or currents, its information gets more and more out of date. (Similarly, when
astronomers look out to more and more distant galaxies in the Universe, they are also looking
backwards in time. In fact, the light we receive from the most distant observable galaxies was
emitted when the Universe was only about one third of its present age.) So, what does our
electron do? It simply uses the most up to date information about distant charges and currents

which it possesses. So, instead of incorporating the charge density in its integral, the

electron uses the retarded charge density (i.e., the density evaluated at the retarded

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time). This is effectively what Eq. (519) says.

Consider a thought experiment in which a charge appears at position at time , persists

for a while, and then disappears at time . What is the electric field generated by such a
charge? Using Eq. (519), we find that

(520)

Now, (since there are no currents, and therefore no vector potential is generated),
so

(521)

This solution is shown pictorially in Fig. 37. We can see that the charge effectively emits a
Coulomb electric field which propagates radially away from the charge at the speed of light.
Likewise, it is easy to show that a current carrying wire effectively emits an Ampèrian magnetic
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

field at the speed of light.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Figure 37:

We can now appreciate the essential difference between time-dependent electromagnetism and
the action at a distance laws of Coulomb and Biot & Savart. In the latter theories, the field-lines
act rather like rigid wires attached to charges (or circulating around currents). If the charges (or
currents) move then so do the field-lines, leading inevitably to unphysical action at a distance
type behaviour. In the time-dependent theory, charges act rather like water sprinklers: i.e., they

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spray out the Coulomb field in all directions at the speed of light. Similarly, current carrying
wires throw out magnetic field loops at the speed of light. If we move a charge (or current) then
field-lines emitted beforehand are not affected, so the field at a distant charge (or current) only
responds to the change in position after a time delay sufficient for the field to propagate between
the two charges (or currents) at the speed of light.

In Coulomb's law and the Biot-Savart law, it is not entirely obvious that the electric and
magnetic fields have a real existence. After all, the only measurable quantities are the forces
acting between charges and currents. We can describe the force acting on a given charge or
current, due to the other charges and currents in the Universe, in terms of the local electric and
magnetic fields, but we have no way of knowing whether these fields persist when the charge or
current is not present (i.e., we could argue that electric and magnetic fields are just a convenient
way of calculating forces, but, in reality, the forces are transmitted directly between charges and
currents by some form of magic). However, it is patently obvious that electric and magnetic
fields have a real existence in the time-dependent theory. Consider the following thought

experiment. Suppose that a charge comes into existence for a period of time, emits a

Coulomb field, and then disappears. Suppose that a distant charge interacts with this field,
but is sufficiently far from the first charge that by the time the field arrives the first charge has
already disappeared. The force exerted on the second charge is only ascribable to the electric
field: it cannot be ascribed to the first charge, because this charge no longer exists by the time the
force is exerted. The electric field clearly transmits energy and momentum between the two
charges. Anything which possesses energy and momentum is ``real'' in a physical sense. Later on
in this course, we shall demonstrate that electric and magnetic fields conserve energy and
momentum.

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Figure1:
Let us now consider a moving charge. Such a charge is continually emitting spherical waves in
the scalar potential, and the resulting wavefront pattern is sketched in Fig. 1. Clearly, the
wavefronts are more closely spaced in front of the charge than they are behind it, suggesting that
the electric field in front is larger than the field behind. In a medium, such as water or air, where
waves travel at a finite speed, (say), it is possible to get a very interesting effect if the wave
source travels at some velocity which exceeds the wave speed. This is illustrated in Fig.2.

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Figure2:
The locus of the outermost wave front is now a cone instead of a sphere. The wave intensity on
the cone is extremely large: this is a shock wave! The half-angle of the shock wave cone is

simply . In water, shock waves are produced by fast moving boats. We call
these bow waves. In air, shock waves are produced by speeding bullets and supersonic jets. In the
latter case, we call these sonic booms. Is there any such thing as an electromagnetic shock wave?
At first sight, the answer to this question would appear to be, no. After all, electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light, and no wave source (i.e., an electrically charged particle) can
travel faster than this velocity. This is a rather disappointing conclusion. However, when an
electromagnetic wave travels through matter a remarkable thing happens. The oscillating electric
field of the wave induces a slight separation of the positive and negative charges in the atoms
which make up the material. We call separated positive and negative charges an electric dipole.
Of course, the atomic dipoles oscillate in sympathy with the field which induces them. However,
an oscillating electric dipole radiates electromagnetic waves. Amazingly, when we add the
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original wave to these induced waves.

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This is possible since the waves are traveling slower than the velocity of light in vacuum. In
practice, the particle has to be traveling pretty close to the velocity of light in vacuum (i.e., it has to
be relativistic), but modern particle accelerators produce copious amounts of such particles. Now,
we can get an electromagnetic shock wave. We expect an intense cone of emission, just like the
bow wave produced by a fast ship. In fact, this type of radiation has been observed. It is
calledCherenkov radiation, and it is very useful in high energy physics. Cherenkov radiation is
typically produced by surrounding a particle accelerator with perspex blocks. Relativistic charged
particles emanating from the accelerator pass through the perspex traveling faster than the local

velocity of light, and therefore emit Cherenkov radiation. We know the velocity of light ( , say)
in perspex (this can be worked out from the refractive index), so if we can measure the half angle
of the radiation cone emitted by each particle then

we can evaluate the speed of the particle via the geometric relation

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Uniform plane wave

Introduction:
In our study of static fields so far, we have observed that static electric fields are produced by
electric charges, static magnetic fields are produced by charges in motion or by steady current.
Further, static electric field is a conservative field and has no curl, the static magnetic field is
continuous and its divergence is zero. The fundamental relationships for static electric fields
among the field quantities can be summarized as:

(1)

(2)
For a linear and isotropic medium,

(3)
Similarly for the magnetostatic case

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(5)

(6)

It can be seen that for static case, the electric field vectors and and magnetic field

vectors and form separate pairs.

In this chapter we will consider the time varying scenario. In the time varying case we
will observe that a changing magnetic field will produce a changing electric field and vice versa.
We begin our discussion with Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction and then
present the Maxwell's equations which form the foundation for the electromagnetic theory.

Faraday's Law of electromagnetic Induction:

Michael Faraday, in 1831 discovered experimentally that a current was induced in a
conducting loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed. In terms of fields, we can say
that a time varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf) which causes a current
in a closed circuit. The quantitative relation between the induced emf (the voltage that arises

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

from conductors moving in a magnetic field or from changing magnetic fields) and the rate of
change of flux linkage developed based on experimental observation is known as Faraday's law.
Mathematically, the induced emf can be written as

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Emf = Volts (7)

where is the flux linkage over the closed path.

A non zero may result due to any of the following:

(a) time changing flux linkage a stationary closed path.
(b) relative motion between a steady flux a closed path.
(c) a combination of the above two cases.
The negative sign in equation (7) was introduced by Lenz in order to comply with the
polarity of the induced emf. The negative sign implies that the induced emf will cause a current
flow in the closed loop in such a direction so as to oppose the change in the linking magnetic
flux which produces it. (It may be noted that as far as the induced emf is concerned, the closed
path forming a loop does not necessarily have to be conductive).

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If the closed path is in the form of N tightly wound turns of a coil, the change in the
magnetic flux linking the coil induces an emf in each turn of the coil and total emf is the sum of
the induced emfs of the individual turns, i.e.,

Emf = Volts (8)

By defining the total flux linkage as

(9)
The emf can be written as

Emf = (10)
Continuing with equation (3), over a closed contour 'C' we can write

Emf = (11)
where is the induced electric field on the conductor to sustain the current.
Further, total flux enclosed by the contour 'C ' is given by

(12)
Where S is the surface for which 'C' is the contour.

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From (11) and using (12) in (3) we can write

(13)
By applying stokes theorem

(14)
Therefore, we can write

(15)
which is the Faraday's law in the point form

We have said that non zero can be produced in a several ways. One particular case is when a
time varying flux linking a stationary closed path induces an emf. The emf induced in a
stationary closed path by a time varying magnetic field is called a transformer emf .

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Statically and dynamically induced EMFs:
Motional EMF:
Let us consider a conductor moving in a steady magnetic field as shown in the fig 2.

Fig 2

If a charge Q moves in a magnetic field , it experiences a force

(16)
This force will cause the electrons in the conductor to drift towards one end and leave the other
end positively charged, thus creating a field and charge separation continuous until electric and
magnetic forces balance and an equilibrium is reached very quickly, the net force on the moving
conductor is zero.

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can be interpreted as an induced electric field which is called the motional electric
field

(17)
If the moving conductor is a part of the closed circuit C, the generated emf around the circuit is

. This emf is called the motional emf.

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Modification of Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields :

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Concept of displacementcurrent

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Maxwell’s fourth equation, Curl (E)=‐ dB/dt:

Equation (5.1) and (5.2) gives the relationship among the field quantities in the static field. For
time varying case, the relationship among the field vectors written as

(1)

…………..(2)

(3)

(4)
In addition, from the principle of conservation of charges we get the equation of continuity

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The equation must be consistent with equation of continuity
We observe that

(5)

Since is zero for any vector .

Thus applies only for the static case i.e., for the scenario when .
A classic example for this is given below .
Suppose we are in the process of charging up a capacitor as shown in fig 3.

Fig 3
Let us apply the Ampere's Law for the Amperian loop shown in fig 3. Ienc = I is the total current
passing through the loop. But if we draw a baloon shaped surface as in fig 5.3, no current passes
through this surface and hence Ienc = 0. But for non steady currents such as this one, the concept
of current enclosed by a loop is ill-defined since it depends on what surface you use. In fact

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Ampere's Law should also hold true for time varying case as well, then comes the idea of
displacement current which will be introduced in the next few slides.
We can write for time varying case,

………….(1)

…………….(2)

………… (3)
The equation (3) is valid for static as well as for time varying case.Equation (3) indicates that a

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time varying electric field will give rise to a magnetic field even in the absence of The term

has a dimension of current densities and is called the displacement current density.

Introduction of in equation is one of the major contributions of Jame's Clerk

Maxwell. The modified set of equations

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

is known as the Maxwell's equation and this set of equations apply in the time varying scenario,

static fields are being a particular case .

In the integral form
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(8)

………… (9)

(10)

(11)
The modification of Ampere's law by Maxwell has led to the development of a
unified electromagnetic field theory. By introducing the displacement current term,
Maxwell could predict the propagation of EM waves. Existence of EM waves was
later demonstrated by Hertz experimentally which led to the new era of radio
communication.

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