Chapter-1

Introduction
Marcus Tullius Cicero, the great Roman orator defined culture as

“cultivation of the soul”1 Cicero used the contemporary agrarian metaphor

which means that culture is the development of the philosophical soul, the

highest ideal for human development. This idea was more elucidated by

Samuel von Pufendorf in a modern context as “the modern ways by which

humans overcome barbarianism”. In the most recent past with the growing

ideas of universalization and the world becoming a village, global village,

Richard Velkley put forth the most recent definition of culture as:

“Culture originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of

its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers,

who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of "modern

liberalism and Enlightenment". Thus a contrast between "culture" and

"civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as

such”.2

1
Marcus Tullius Cicero et al, Tusculanes, Nismes: J. Gaude Publishers, France.
(1812). p. 273
2 RichardVelkley, The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in
Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in
Question. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30. ISBN 978-0226852560.

1
 But the most common meaning of culture is considered as the general

customs and traditions or simply way of life of a specific group at a specific

time.3The ability to grow or cultivate culture is the hallmark of human beings

and its origin is considered around 50000 years ago. During the course of

cultural development, man passed many milestones during which he acquired

many symbols and icons depicting his cultural advances.4 Cultures are prone

to change which can be brought into action at two stages. First internal, where

certain forces try to continue the culture without any further advances, while

contrary to this certain forces try to bring in changes. Culture is affected by

the external forces as well which includes natural phenomenon as well as the

desire to achieve the best possible joys of life. These factors are responsible

for the ever developing cultural plethora of the world in which certain groups

or modern nations have achieved the status of developed, some are trying to

develop while others are stagnant at their present status of the culture.

3 Cambridge English Dictionary. Archived from the original on August 9, 2018.

principles. Scientific Reports. ISSN 2045-2322, Published online 2013 May 7.

2
Heritage is cordially related to culture as it means those special events,

traditions and symbols that came into being during the process of cultural

development.

As present study aims at bringing forth the cultural heritage of Jammu

and Kashmir that too of hinterland regions, hence it becomes necessary to

navigate from general to specific study of cultural heritage. Keeping the above

discussed points in view, we will study the cultural heritage of Jammu and

Kashmir in general then that of the hinterlands in specific in order to have a

better understanding of the various forces that help in the transformation of the

culture and heritage.

Jammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state of Indian union. It was

formerly a princely state acquired by Dogra ruler Maharaja Gulab Singh from

East India Company in lieu of seventy five lakh Nanakshahis5. The state of

Jammu and Kashmir comprises of three geographically, physically, ethnically

and historically three different divisions which are the Valley of Kashmir,

Jammu and Ladakh. Valley of Kashmir, one of the three geographic divisions

of the state is known as Rishi Vaer (garden of Rishis) because of its unique

5
Altaf Hussain Para, The Making of Modern Kashmir, Sheikh Abdullah and the
Politics of the State, Chapter I,Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Historically
known as Treaty of Amritsar, concluded between Maharaja Gulab Singh and East
India Company in 1846. Altaf Hussain Para calls it “The Heartless Treaty that sold an
entire population”.

3
cultural heritage. It has remained a cradle of various cultures beginning with

the Neolithic culture, the traces of which have been found in Burzahom and

Gufkral6. The archaeological remains found till date in Kashmir reveals that

Kashmir witnessed the Neolithic revolution which marks the transformation of

nomadic hunters and gatherers towards sedentary cultivators. In this regard

Burzhom is considered a prime site where in 1931 excavation was conducted

by Archaeological Survey of India in 1931 under T.N Khazanchi. One of the

important things that were recovered from Burzhom is a stone slab inscribed

with a petroglyph depicting a male and a female in a hunting scene, hunting

Stag (Hangul)7 with a dog and two sun like symbols ( circle with 8 flagella

like projections).

As long as the historical narrative about origin of Kashmir is

considered, it is believed that it was a majestic lake called Satisar.8 Nilmat

Puran, the oldest literary work on Kashmir history quoted by Kalhana for

writing his narrative, describes the whole process of draining the gigantic lake

and killing of Jalodhbhava, the water borne demon who used to harass the

people living most probably on the foothills. Though Kalhan has used the

6
Ajaz Ahmad Banday,Prehistoric Kashmir” Archaeological History of
Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures, New Delhi 2009. PP.26-29
7 Kashmir Stag(Cervus canadensis hanglu), the state animal of Jammu and Kashmir is

a sub species of Indian Elk. It is an endangered animal and Dachigam Natioanl Park
has been reserved for it. It is interesting to note that Dachigam and Burzhom are
adjacent to each other in the Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir.
8Nilmat Puran, Ed. De Vreese Leiden, 1936, P. 39.

4
terms like kulindas, pisacas for them, but it seems only the exaggeration of the

folk tradition carried forward by the Brahmins who used to craft such tales to

maintain their grip of superiority in the society.9 Naga Cult existed in Kashmir

long before the arrival of Hinduism and certain traditions of Kashmir are till

date considered to be a part of Nag Cult especially the homage and respect

towards the Nags10. In Kashmir springs are considered to be the abode of

spirits which bring prosperity to the land especially in an agrarian economy,

being the sources of almost all the major rivers especially the Jehlum River as

it arises from Veri Nag spring located in the Annatnag district of the state.11

Hinduism can be considered to be the first main religion that flourished in

Kashmir after the mass conversion of aborigines, mostly followers of Naga

Cult. The contact with Aryans led to the transformation of existing culture and

the cultural process was boosted with Buddhism which replaced traditional

Hinduism followed by monism in the form of Saivism of Kashmir, also called

Trika. It was replaced by Islam in the 13th century CE which is still the major

religion practiced in the valley. Thus all the forces responsible for cultural

9
Mohd Ashraf Dar, Earliest History of Kashmir (Archaeological and Geological
Perspective), International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies
(IJIRAS), Vol. 3, Issue.13, pp. 390395. (ISSN- 2394-4404).
10 Nag in Kashmiri means a Spring unlike its most familiar namesake, serpent.
11 Dar, M.A, Buddhism Among the Religions of Ancient Kashmir, Notionpress (2019),

pp.97-99

5
transformation discussed in the first portion of this study can be found active

in case of the cultural development of Kashmir.

Though the State of Jammu and Kashmir is marked by the

heterogeneity of its physiographic, ethnic-religious, linguistic and cultural

features, it has evolved over a period of time a common composite cultural

heritage. Its indigenous art and culture, language and literature, social

formations, festivals in Jammu and Kashmir need to be revived for restoring

its composite socio-cultural ethos and providing a positive alternative to the

people to articulate their ethno-cultural aspirations. It is in this perspective that

this research has come into being so that the traditional social structures, rich

and variegated cultural heritage of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh and its

composite cultural ethos are recorded and highlighted in their true dimensions.

Eminent scholars, academics and specialists on Kashmir have contributed to

this book, covering different dimensions of the rich and variegated cultural

heritage of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh from ancient to contemporary times.

As such, this research provides the basic and essential inputs for the study of

multi-layered social and cultural edifice of Jammu and Kashmir State thus

helping in unravelling the mystique of Kashmiriyat, term which has been quite

common during the recent past in order to neutralize the violence unleashed in

Kahmir since 90’s.

6
 Aims and objectives, scope of subject and

importance of work.
The core aim of the present study is to enquire, analyze and understand

the precious cultural heritage of hinterlands, the zones which lie at the border

of so called westernized urban foci and the traditional rural areas. The

hinterlands perhaps present the best avenue to understand the syncretic form

of rapidly changing human attributes and there certainly lies a layer though

thin which helps us to understand the sustainability of the heritage in its

diverse forms. This study hence revolves around the practicality of themes

rather than their theoretical tone about which we have huge material already.

This study will thus raise certain relevant questions and will try to look for

their answer through concrete and logical evidences employing historical and

multidisciplinary approach.

The objectives of the present study will be as follows:

1. To examine and explore the nature and content of the ancient hinterland

heritage of Jammu and Kashmir.

2 To examine the influence of modernization over the heritage in hinterlands.

3. To analyse the syncretic form of behaviour between the rural and urban
centres.

7
4. To examine the phenomenon of changing trends in heritage transformation

at a local level. (Here local means Jammu & Kashmir)

5. The understanding at local level will be compared with the same trend at

regional level.

6. Finally to draw logical conclusions as discussed in the aims portion of the

present study, that is to understand the practicality of hinterland heritage

from ancient to modern times.

Previous Researchs and Research Methodology

culture and heritage. In fact the separate departments in universities have been

established to explore the culture and heritage. In case of Jammu and Kashmir

many such works exist and scholars are still making further research in this

direction. While most of these works have analysed the theme in a general

perspective and wherever the historical nature of this theme has been

described, it is mostly of some urban centres. Present study is an effort to

understand the heritage and culture preserved in the hinterlands of Jammu and

Kashmir State. For such a study, it seems mandatory to navigate from general

to localized study. For this purpose literature for review and basic information

regarding the theme was selected carefully ranging from general information

about culture and heritage to specific regional.

8
Among the primary sources, we are fortunate to have perhaps the first

historical source as per the western notion of history, the famous Rajtarangini

of Kalhana. This text of 12th CE stands extremely important when we speak

about the cultural heritage of ancient Kashmir. Right from the origin of

Kashmir, we find a continuous narrative though mostly of political nature till

12th CE. In addition to political history, Rajtarangini do addresses the cultural

aspects of Kashmir. The most important thing important from the perspective

of present study is the mention of those heritage sites mostly Buddhist stupas

and temples which still exist as local places of worship or in ruins that

provides a chance of more clear introspection. Another important thing

regarding the present is the existence of various legends which help us to

attest the folklore which forms an important source of this study.

Nilmat Puran is perhaps the sole important historical work for the present

study. This text ascribed to mythological legend King Nala was translated into

English by Ved Kumari. This text of extreme antiquity is a mine of

information regarding the culture of ancient Kashmir. One of the peculiarities

of Nilmat Purana is the mention of various sacred places, springs and festivals

which helps us to know the rich culture and heritage of Kashmir.12

12
Kumari Ved. (Trans). (1968)NilmataPurana. Srinagar: J&K Academy of Art, Culture
And Languages.

9
 In addition to these primary sources, we have some secondary sources

as well. The importance of secondary sources lies in the interpretation of these

sources in context to the special aspects of Kashmir like polity, society,

economy, cultural heritage and religion. Some noteworthy previous researches

on heritage of Jammu and Kashmir are:-

Hardy Henry (1869) Illustrations of Ancient Buildings in Kashmir:

London is a list of Plans, Drawings, Photographs and their details taken by the

author on the orders of Government of India. The book is very rich in details

of ancient heritage of Jammu and Kashmir. This book throughs light on the

ancient bulindings of Kashmir. This is a treasure house of the ancient

mounments of Kashmir.

Monuments of Ancient Kashmir (1933) by R.C Kak is the premier. Kak has

personally visited in length and breadth of Kashmir including the hinterlands

and recorded the monumental heritage. Kak has given the precise architectural

information of these monuments with some extra information based on

popular folklore. After the onset of insurgency in 1989 CE, an era of chaos

and destruction engulfed Kashmir and the worst aspect of this chaos led to the

destruction of already fragile monuments and most importantly the

representatives of Kashmir Culture, the Pandits who became victims of Mass

10
 13
Exodus. This work helps us to reconstruct the culture-heritage legacy of

Kashmir. Fortunately, this work has preserved the graphic content of these

monuments which also helps us in the reconstruction of these monuments

graphically using advanced technology to grasp the cultural aspect of the

antiquity.

Early History and Culture of Kashmir (1957) by S.C Ray is perhaps the

earliest secondary source regarding the Earliest Kashmir. Its beauty lies in its

Interpretation of ancient sources. It gives a detailed description of Cultural

history of Kashmir and the fusion of various cultures that still stands

preserved in the hinterlands. From the perspective of present study, it is like

the corner stone on which the edifice of cultural heritage of Kashmir

especially Ancient Kashmir rests.

Pal, Pratapaditya (1989), Indian Sculpture: 700–1800, University of

California Press,

The sheer abundance and bewildering variety of Indian model are praised in

this second volume of the inventory reasoned of the Los Angeles County

Museum's assortment. Almost 200 figures delivered during eleven centuries

Mass Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits is the darkest hour in the history of Kashmir.
13

Kashmiri Pandits represent a unique culture, a syncretized form of Naga, Buddhist,

11
are portrayed. Of these, one-fourth of the pieces are essential for the Nasli and

Alice Heeramaneck Collection, while the leftover 3/4 have been gained since

1970. This awe inspiring assortment, while not addressing all the significant

styles of figure that prospered on the

Culture and Political History of Kashmir (1994) by [Link] in three

volumes is an encyclopedia of Kashmir history. This work tells in minute

details about the political and cultural history of Kashmir right from the

mythological origin of

Kashmir. As in the present study, we are concerned with the cultural heritage

of Jammu and Kashmir, it helps us to trace the said theme in chronological

order.

The Cultural Heritage of Ladakh (1994) in two volumes by David L.

Snellgrove and Tadeusz Skorupski is the main work on the subject of Cultural

Heritage of Ladakh. It is related to the diverse culture of Ladakh imbibing

Indian features as well as the Tibetan features. This book is extremely helpful

regarding the present study as it explores more the hinterland cultural heritage.

The Rich Heritage of J & K, Studies in Art, Architecture, History

and Culture of the Region (1998) authored by Somnath Waklu is another

work of extreme importance regarding the present study. Beauty of this book

is that is has addressed these themes separately in case of Jammu and Kashmir

12
which helps us in grasping the thematic design of heritage and culture of these

regions. Culture, history, art and architecture has been discussed in a

hierarchical manner so giving a real insight in evolution and transformation of

these themes. It helps us to understand the primitive culture that has been

retained in the hinterlands to some extent and thus from the perspective of

present study, it stands extremely important.

Kashmir and Its Monumental Glory (2002) by R.C. Agarwal is also

an important work regarding the present study. In addition to Cultural-

Heritage content right from the dawn of Kashmir history, it describes in great

details the ecology and environment of Kashmir from beginning. It is helpful

in tracing the ecological conservative trends that are a part and parcel of the

hinterland of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This work has the peculiarity of

correlating the ecological preservation with the historical evolution that helps

in knowing the various theme of cultural heritage in a hierarchical manner.

Another important feature of this work is vivid description of various religious

developments in Jammu and Kashmir along with the cultural assimilation due

to it. Perhaps the best thing about this work is the graphical and cartographical

representation of various cultural zones that certainly helps us in tracing the

cultural ethos of hinterlands.

13
 Zutshi, Chitralekha (2004). Languages of Belonging; Islam, Regional

Identity, and the Making of Kashmir, Oxford University press

Conveying the peruse from the nineteenth-century marketplaces of Srinagar to

the tip top political fighting that characterizes the postcolonial period, the

writer of this investigation effectively composes the "advanced" history of

Kashmir into the more extensive historiography of South Asia. Albeit

proposed for researchers and understudies of history, Chitralekha Zutshi's

liquid style additionally makes this book open to those from different fields

keen on the political economy of the area. Deftly dealing with recorded and

distributed material in three territorial dialects, Zutshi adequately expresses

her case in counterpoise to the thought of Kashmiriyat—the homog enizing

talk that has come to overwhelm Indian Kashmir's political talk. More than six

exhaustive sections, Zutshi outlines that "Kashmir has never been segregated,

separate, or displayed an excellent culture where strict networks have

essentially lived in common concordance since forever ago" (324).

Precolonial Kashmiri culture adjusted the specific and the general, obliging

nearby interests by saddling otherworldly political and strict affiliations. A

move toward the "strict" part of personality alone, just as the possibility of a

since quite a while ago abused Kashmiri "country," just combine after 1846,

when the British fused the valley into the Dogra Kingdom. The main

supporter of this social turn is distinguished as British intercession in state

14
organization, especially land settlements, which subverted the landed tip top

and made classes of grain dealers and laborers, albeit a droop in the crucial

cloak exchange additionally destabilized long-standing financial designs. This

opened the entryway for the Dogra state to bring together in a "Hindu"

colloquialism, and its resistance, under the developing impact of British

Indian instruction, to characterize itself regarding a majoritarian "Kashmiri

Muslim" people group; both clouded the divergent interests of Kashmir's

general population. Conversely, Kashmiriyat is uncovered as the apparatus of

political elites with "common patriot" positions and is "soundly situated inside

the story and plan of the Indian country state," considering "an outflow of

Kashmiri provincial or strict yearnings" (329).

Despite the fact that Zutshi's theory grows the degree of understanding

at this point managed the cost of Kashmir, her endeavour to compose inside a

particular hypothetical way to deal with South Asia's set of experiences

implies that she additionally acquires every one of its impediments. No place

is this more evident than in her treatment of the job of "Islam," which seems

dependent on a modest bunch of books or articles managing a particular part

of Islamic idea or foundations, regardless of whether in Kashmir or

somewhere else. In this manner, despite the fact that Zutshi can

unquestionably guarantee that precolonial Kashmiri culture adjusted the

specific and the widespread, she can't recognize which precepts and

15
additionally organizations legitimatized convenience, nor offer a clarification

of how precolonial changes in doctrinal/institutional direction affected the cul

tural turns saw in the pioneer time sources that contain the main part of her

essential material. In spite of the fact that giving political economy lucidity,

Zutshi's treatment of delegates from different schools of Islamic idea can be

confounding, as in section three. Such reservations aside, Zutshi stays

effective in completely showing that"political arrangements accounts—Indian,

Pakistani, recalcitrance, are destroyed"

Adams, Jonathan S. (2007). The future of the wild: radical

conservation for a crowded world, Boston: Beacon Press: With proper

earnestness and an intensive comprehension of history and the issues,

Jonathan Adams offers a sound preservation procedure in The Future of the

Wild, utilizing the most recent in protection science just as the cravings of

neighborhood networks to ensure where individuals reside and work. With

current models, Adams shows how every little achievement draws

traditionalists nearer to making secured scenes sufficiently enormous to help

creatures like buffalo and wolves. Just with opportunity to wander through and

between these immense grounds, utilizing wild passages, can such enormous

creatures prosper.

16
 The Making of Early Kashmir, People and Landscape in the

Rajatarangini (2018) also provides ample insight in the transforming culture

and imbibition of new dimension to the existing cultural edifice of Kashmir.

Buddhism among the Religions of Ancient Kashmir (2019) is

another recently published work of Mohd Ashraf Dar in which an attempt to

string together the cultural development since the earliest times especially

from the perspective of the religion has been discussed in a lucid manner.

Some recent researches on the ancient religious milieu of Kashmir like that of

Shonaleeka Kaul

Research Methodology

Present study aims to explore the culture and heritage of hinterland of

Jammu and Kashmir State. Culture has a unique peculiarity of keeping itself

alive generation after generation. Culture is transmitted from one generation to

other with continuity and change. Heritage has a varied nature. It includes

mam made as well as natural sites. Keeping in view the complex nature of

present study an interdisciplinary approach will be used to carry out the

present research as it includes a range of discipline like history, geography,

anthropology, geography, geology, oral history and archaeology. We are

trying to understand the cultural heritage of hinterlands which are often

17
neglected in the history. In order to know the factual position of the cultural

progression, we need to rely to some extent on the legends and folklore.

18