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Process Control Loops
In this section, you will learn about how control components and control algorithms are integrated to create a
process control system. Because in some processes many variables must be controlled, and each variable can
have an impact on the entire system, control systems must be designed to respond to disturbances at any point
in the system and to mitigate the effect of those disturbances throughout the system.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
❑ Explain how a multivariable loop is different from a single loop.
❑ Differentiate feedback and feedforward control loops in terms of their operation, design, benefits, and
limitations
❑ Perform the following functions for each type of standard process control loop (i.e., pressure, flow, level,
and temperature):
• State the type of control typically used and explain why it is used
• Identify and describe considerations for equipment selection (e.g., speed, noise)
• Identify typical equipment requirements
• Diagram the loop using ISA symbology
❑ Explain the basic implementation process, including a description of equipment requirements and
considerations, for each of the following types of control:
• Cascade control
• Batch control
• Ratio control
• Selective control
• Fuzzy control
❑ Describe benefits and limitations of each type of control listed above
❑ Give examples of process applications in which each type of control described in this section might be
used
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.
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Single Control Loops
Control loops can be divided into two categories: Single variable Activities
loops and multi-variable loops.
1. What type of control loop takes
FEEDBACK CONTROL action in response to measured
deviation from setpoint?
A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the
measurement to a controller for comparison to setpoint. If the
process variable is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return the 1 Discrete control loop
process variable to setpoint. Figure 7.18 illustrates a feedback loop in 2 Multi-step control loop
which a transmitter measures the temperature of a fluid and, if 3 Open loop
necessary, opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluid’s 4 Feedback control loop
temperature.
Controller
Process
fluid
Steam valve
Transmitter
Feedback Loop
An everyday example of a feedback loop is the cruise control system
in an automobile. A setpoint is established for speed. When the car
begins to climb a hill, the speed drops below setpoint and the
controller adjusts the throttle to return the car’s speed to setpoint.
Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry.
The advantage of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the
desired process variable. The disadvantage to feedback loops is that
the process variable must leave setpoint for action to be taken.
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Examples of Single Control Loops
While each application has its own characteristics, some general
statements can be made about pressure, flow, level, and temperature
Activities
loops. 2. How does a high-volume pressure
control loop react as compared to a
PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS small-volume pressure control loop?
Pressure control loops vary in speed—that is, they can respond to
changes in load or to control action slowly or quickly. The speed 1 Same rate
required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the volume of 2 Quicker
the process fluid. High-volume systems (e.g., large natural gas storage 3 Slower
facilities) tend to change more slowly than low-volume systems
4 Extremely fast
(Figure 7.21).
Pneumatic
controller
Relief
valve
Pressure
transmitter
Process
fluid
Fluid
pump
A Pressure Loop
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Examples of Single Control Loops
FLOW CONTROL LOOPS Activities
Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that respond 3. Flow control loops are generally
to changes quickly. Therefore, flow control equipment must have fast considered to be slow responding
sampling and response times. Because flow transmitters tend to be loops. Is this statement true or false?
rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid fluctuations or noise
in the control signal. To compensate for noise, many flow transmitters
have a damping function that filters out noise. Sometimes, filters are
added between the transmitter and the control system. Because the
temperature of the process fluid affects its density, temperature
measurements are often taken with flow measurements and
compensation for temperature is accounted for in the flow
calculation. Typically, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller, and a
valve or pump are used in flow control loops (Figure 7.22).
Pneumatic
controller
Flow
transmitter
Valve
Process
fluid
Fluid
pump
A Flow Loop
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Examples of Single Control Loops
LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS Activities
The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the 4. Redundant control systems are
size and shape of the process vessel (e.g., larger vessels take longer to sometimes used in level applications
fill than smaller ones) and the flow rate of the input and outflow because preventing tank overflow is
pipes. Manufacturers may use one of many different measurement
often critically important. Is this
technologies to determine level, including radar, ultrasonic, float
statement true or false?
gauge, and pressure measurement. The final control element in a level
control loop is usually a valve on the input and/or outflow
connections to the tank (Figure 7.23). Because it is often critical to
avoid tank overflow, redundant level control systems are sometimes
employed.
Converter
Level
controller
Differential
pressure
transmitter
A Level Loop
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Examples of Single Control Loops
TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS Activities
Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process 5. What type of control strategy is
fluid, temperature loops tend to be relatively slow. Feedforward often used to increase the speed
control strategies are often used to increase the speed of the of a temperature control loop?
temperature loop response. RTDs or thermocouples are typical
temperature sensors. Temperature transmitters and controllers are
used, although it is not uncommon to see temperature sensors wired
directly to the input interface of a controller. The final control element 1 Feedforward control
for a temperature loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner or a valve 2 Feedback control
to some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes, cool process fluid is 3 Cascade control
added to the mix to maintain temperature (Figure 7.24). 4 Ratio control
Controller
Process
fluid Temperature
transmitter
Valve
A Temperature Loop
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS Activities
Multivariable loops are control loops in which a primary controller 6. A multivariable control loop
controls one process variable by sending signals to a controller of a contains a primary and
different loop that impacts the process variable of the primary loop. secondary controller assigned
For example, the primary process variable may be the temperature of to different process variables? Is
the fluid in a tank that is heated by a steam jacket (a pressurized steam this statement true or false?
chamber surrounding the tank). To control the primary variable
(temperature), the primary (master) controller signals the secondary
(slave) controller that is controlling steam pressure. The primary
controller will manipulate the setpoint of the secondary controller to
maintain the setpoint temperature of the primary process variable
(Figure 7.17).
.
Primary
controller
Transmitter
SP
Secondary
controller Valve
Transmitter
Multivariable Loop
When tuning a control loop, it is important to take into account the
presence of multivariable loops. The standard procedure is to tune the
secondary loop before tuning the primary loop because adjustments
to the secondary loop impact the primary loop. Tuning the primary
loop will not impact the secondary loop tuning.
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
FEEDFORWARD CONTROL Activities
Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load 7. What type of control loop
disturbances and controls them before they can impact the process anticipates and controls load
variable. For feedforward control to work, the user must have a disturbances before they can
mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will impact the process variable?
impact the process variable. Figure 7.19 shows a feedforward loop in
which a flow transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based on
how much cold fluid passes through the flow sensor.
1 Feedback control loop
2 Feedforward control loop
Flow
transmitter Controller
3 Ratio control loop
4 Single variable loop
Cold
process
fluid
Steam valve
Feedforward Control
An advantage of feedforward control is that error is prevented, rather
than corrected. However, it is difficult to account for all possible load
disturbances in a system through feedforward control. Factors such as
outside temperature, buildup in pipes, consistency of raw materials,
humidity, and moisture content can all become load disturbances and
cannot always be effectively accounted for in a feedforward system.
In general, feedforward systems should be used in cases where the
controlled variable has the potential of being a major load disturbance
on the process variable ultimately being controlled. The added
complexity and expense of feedforward control may not be equal to
the benefits of increased control in the case of a variable that causes
only a small load disturbance.
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
FEEDFORWARD PLUS FEEDBACK Activities
Because of the difficulty of accounting for every possible load 8. A controller with a summing function
disturbance in a feedforward system, feedforward systems are often totals the input from both the
combined with feedback systems. Controllers with summing feedforward loop and the feedback
functions are used in these combined systems to total the input from loop and sends a unified signal to
both the feedforward loop and the feedback loop, and send a unified the final control element. This is
signal to the final control element. Figure 7.20 shows a
how a single control signal is sent to
feedforward-plus-feedback loop in which both a flow transmitter and
the final control element in a
a temperature transmitter provide information for controlling a hot
feedforward plus feedback system.
steam valve.
Is this statement true or false?
Feedforward
controller Summing Feedback
controller controller
Flow
transmitter
Process
fluid Temperature
transmitter
Steam valve
Feedforward Plus Feedback Control
System
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
This module has discussed specific types of control loops, what
components are used in them, and some of the applications (e.g., flow,
Activities
pressure, temperature) they are applied to. In practice, however, many 9. Ratio control is the term used to
independent and interconnected loops are combined to control the describe a system in which the
workings of a typical plant. This section will acquaint you with some controller of the primary loop determines
of the methods of control currently being used in process industries. the setpoint of a secondary loop. Is
this statement true or false?
CASCADE CONTROL
Cascade control is a control system in which a secondary (slave)
control loop is set up to control a variable that is a major source of load
disturbance for another primary (master) control loop. The controller
of the primary loop determines the setpoint of the summing contoller in
the secondary loop (Figure 7.25).
Secondary Primary
controller controller
Process
fluid
Temperature
Flow transmitter
transmitter
Valve
Cascade Control
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
BATCH CONTROL Activities
Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to finish 10. Which term describes a control
in batches. For example, mixing the ingredients for a juice drinks is system in which controlled
often a batch process. Typically, a limited amount of one flavor (e.g., flow is added proportionately to
orange drink or apple drink) is mixed at a time. For these reasons, it is an uncontrolled flow?
not practical to have a continuous process running. Batch processes
often involve getting the correct proportion of ingredients into the
batch. Level, flow, pressure, temperature, and often mass
measurements are used at various stages of batch processes. 1 Selective control
2 Cascade control
A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be frequently
3 Ratio control
restarted. Start-up presents control problems because, typically, all
measurements in the system are below setpoint at start-up. Another 4 Fuzzy control
disadvantage is that as recipes change, control instruments may need
to be recalibrated.
RATIO CONTROL
Imagine a process in which an acid must be diluted with water in the
proportion two parts water to one part acid. If a tank has an acid
supply on one side of a mixing vessel and a water supply on the other,
a control system could be developed to control the ratio of acid to
water, even though the water supply itself may not be controlled. This
type of control system is called ratio control (Figure 7.26). Ratio
control is used in many applications and involves a contoller that
receives input from a flow measurement device on the unregulated
(wild) flow. The controller performs a ratio calculation and signals the
appropriate setpoint to another controller that sets the flow of the
second fluid so that the proper proportion of the second fluid can be
added.
Ratio control might be used where a continuous process is going on
and an additive is being put into the flow (e.g., chlorination of water).
Water flow Acid flow
Ratio Control
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
SELECTIVE CONTROL Activities
Selective control refers to a control system in which the more 11. In which type of control system
important of two variables will be maintained. For example, in a will the more important of two
boiler control system, if fuel flow outpaces air flow, then variables be maintained?
uncombusted fuel can build up in the boiler and cause an explosion.
Selective control is used to allow for an air-rich mixture, but never a
fuel-rich mixture. Selective control is most often used when
equipment must be protected or safety maintained, even at the cost of 1 Fuzzy control
not maintaining an optimal process variable setpoint. 2 Cascade control
3 Ratio control
FUZZY CONTROL 4 Selective control
Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive control in which the controller
uses fuzzy logic to make decisions about adjusting the process. Fuzzy
logic is a form of computer logic where whether something is or is
not included in a set is based on a grading scale in which multiple
factors are accounted for and rated by the computer. The essential
idea of fuzzy control is to create a kind of artificial intelligence that
will account for numerous variables, formulate a theory of how to
make improvements, adjust the process, and learn from the result.
Fuzzy control is a relatively new technology. Because a machine 12. ___________ control is the term
makes process control changes without consulting humans, fuzzy used to describe a control system in
control removes from operators some of the ability, but none of the which the controller uses computer
responsibility, to control a process. logic to make decisions about adjusting
the process.
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