INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

A growing trend in the corporate world is the creation of an office for corporate communications

or Public Relations to facilitate the propagation of an organisation’s mission. Quite often, the

office has a cross-functional responsibility of maintaining a constant link with the public and

with all functional units of an organisation including top management (Obisung, 2021). Its

operations vary from one organisation to another principally because of differences in mission,

vision, goals, values, and the products that an organisation is established to offer its customers. It

is therefore not surprising that some organisations have public relations departments that operate

under just one office, whereas in others, one would find many units within the public relations

department. In some institutions, there is a form of decentralisation with a central coordinating

body.

Public relations practice, as it is observed today, has developed from press agentry and

publicity since the turn of the last century. The US academics James Grunig and Todd Hunt

consider that ‘public relations-like activity’ can be traced back to 1800 BC among Greek

rhetoricians, but the direct line of descent from the Aegean to today’s public relations industry is

difficult to detect. It is seen by many as having evolved from the United States, with practitioners

claiming descent from Phineas T. Barnum (of Barnum and Bailey Circus fame). More likely, it

comes from a governmental base in the major combatant nations during the First World War

(Watson & Noble, 2007).

The need to control information and to motivate the populations of Great Britain, France,

and the United States led to the formation of government propaganda organisations. An example
is the US Committee on Public Information, which conducted informational communication

programmes to induce changes in public opinion. This one-way informational concept of public

relations as the practice of persuasive publicity continued as the dominant mode throughout the

20th century. It was epitomised in the United States and the UK by the role undertaken by press

agents who offered to get clients’ names in the press in return for payment based on the lineage

that appeared.

A significant contribution to the development of public relations came from Edward

Bernays in the 1920s. He promoted a more sophisticated one-way approach to communications

by contending that public relations attempts to engineer public support through the use of

information, persuasion, and adjustment. For many public relations practitioners, persuasion is

the desired outcome of their activities, whether it is to change the attitude of government towards

a client, promote an employer’s point of view, or create awareness of a product or service.

Bernays did not simplistically advocate crude, one-way communications. His aim was to apply

social science methods first to research the situation and then to create the most effective

methods of communication.

In Nigeria, the earliest accounts of public relations were attributed to the establishment of

the War Information Office by the British colonial government in 1943. The department was

headed by a Briton named D.C. Fletcher, leading a team that included a public relations officer,

an assistant public relations officer, and other personnel (Babaleye, 2021). This office was

created to sustain local support for World War II. However, beyond wartime propaganda, it also

extended its operations to image-making for the colonial government against independence

agitations (Ajala, 2005). At the end of the war, the office was renamed the Public Relations
Office, and its responsibilities expanded to include public health campaigns, mass education, and

tax awareness (Cutlip, 2013).

The term 'public relations' was first used by American President Thomas Jefferson in an

1807 address to Congress (Babaleye, 2021). Since then, various experts have defined public

relations in different ways. One of the most widely accepted definitions presents public relations

as a deliberate, planned, and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding

between an organisation and its publics (Bruns, 2014). Public relations is thus a function that

strategically manages communication between an organisation and its stakeholders, ensuring

transparency, credibility, and reputation management (Castells, 2015).

Numerous studies on public relations in educational institutions have emphasised the role

of PR in university administration (Veena, Dayaneethie, & Zukiswo, 2012). The primary

function of PR in universities is to advance institutional objectives by fostering mutual

understanding between the institution and its various stakeholders. University management,

faculty, and staff all play roles in maintaining the institution’s public image, but PR professionals

coordinate these efforts to present a holistic institutional identity.

Over the years, Nigerian universities have adopted professional public relations practices

due to the increasing complexity of stakeholder engagement. Common challenges such as

student protests, strikes, cult activities, inadequate accommodation, tuition hikes, and limited

amenities have proven to be difficult issues in university administration in Nigeria. Akwa Ibom

State University and University of Calabar have had their fair share of crises, including frequent

strike actions by both teaching and non-teaching staff. Recently, staff members of the institution

embarked on a warning strike over the non-payment of employment benefits by the state
government. The institution also grapples with cases of cult clashes on campus. Additionally,

reports of the dismissal of ten lecturers by the university management for engaging in sexual

harassment of female students recently sparked a serious uproar in the media.

There is no doubt that such issues can have serious reputational implications for the

institution’s image. Hence, there is a need to develop effective public relations strategies to

manage crises affecting the university. Public relations play a fundamental role in effective

crisis management which hinges on robust public relations (PR) strategies, which are essential in

mitigating the adverse effects of crises and maintaining institutional credibility (Fearn-Banks,

2022). Public Relations (PR) serves as a strategic communication tool that organisations employ

to foster trust, transparency, and goodwill with their stakeholders (Grunig & Hunt, 2021),

managing stakeholder perceptions and ensuring effective crisis response (Heath & Coombs,

2023). AKSU and UNICAL, like other higher institutions, have faced challenges that necessitate

effective PR interventions to sustain its image and operational stability.

1.1.1 Brief History of Akwa Ibom State University(AKSU)

The concept of Akwa Ibom State University started in October, 2000, when the State

Government inaugurated a Committee for its establishment. The Committee which consisted of

academics, technical experts and professionals submitted an interim report to the then State

Governor in April 2001 and a final report in September, 2001 (Akwa Ibom State University,

n.d.).

Following the acceptance of the report of the University Establishment Committee, the

State Government set up an Implementation Committee in December 2001 to carry out the
necessary basic functions including the drafting of the enabling law towards the takeoff of the

university. The Bill establishing the Akwa Ibom State University of Technology (AKUTECH)

was passed by the Akwa Ibom State House of Assembly and signed into Law by the then

Executive Governor of the State, Arc. (Obong) Victor Attah on 16th of April, 2003 (Akwa Ibom

State University, n.d.).

Given the socio-economic realities in the state, and in order to meet the yearnings and

aspirations of the totality of Akwa Ibom people, major changes in the concept and scope of the

university had become necessary. Although the philosophy of a technically-biased university was

retained, His Excellency, Chief (Dr.) Godswill Obot Akpabio, the Executive Governor of Akwa

Ibom felt that the policy thrust of Government should be the establishment of a conventional,

multi-campus institution known as Akwa Ibom State University, hence, the change of the name

of the university from Akwa Ibom State University of Technology (AKUTECH) to Akwa Ibom

State University (AKSU) (Akwa Ibom State University, n.d.).

The bill formally establishing Akwa Ibom State University was signed into law by His

Excellency, Chief (Dr.) Godswill Obot Akpabio, the Executive Governor of Akwa Ibom in

September 2010. Professor Sunday W. Petters was appointed the substantive Vice-Chancellor

with effect from 1st January 2010. Full academic activities in Akwa Ibom State University

started on 1st November 2010 with the admission of the first batch of 300 students in the Main

(Mkpat Enin) and Obio Akpa Campuses for the 2010/2011 academic session (Akwa Ibom State

University, n.d.).

This first batch of students were admitted into the Faculties of Engineering, Natural and

Applied Sciences, Oceanography and Naval Architecture and Agriculture. Faculty of Social and
Management Sciences was introduced in the 2011/2012 academic session (Akwa Ibom State

University, n.d.). Currently the university boast of over a population 12000 students spread

across 8 faculties and 44 departments.

1.1.2 Brief History of University of Calabar

University of Calabar grew out of the Calabar campus of University of Nigeria (UNN), Nigeria,

which began functioning during the 1973 academic session with 154 students and a small cadre

of academic, administration and professional staff (UNICAL n.d).

In April 1975, the Federal Military Government of Nigeria announced that as part of the

National Development Plan, seven new Universities were to be established at various locations

in the country. The University of Calabar was one of the seven Universities set up under this

programme.

Located in Calabar Municipal, an ancient city with a long tradition of culture and contact

with western civilization, the already developed area of the University occupies a 17-hectare site

on the eastern side of the town, between the Great Qua River and the Calabar River.

Additional land has been acquired on both sides of the Great Qua River for the development of

the University. Academic activities actually commenced in the 1973/74 session, in what was

then a Campus of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) (UNICAL n.d).

As a Federal institution, the University strives to bring about an atmosphere conducive to

patriotic interaction between people from all parts of the world including Nigerians from all

States and language groups. Therefore, all States of the federation are represented in the student

population of the Institution. On academic programming, the University adopts a flexible and
forward-looking attitude. Thus, from its inception, the University adopted the four-year

integrated degree programme based on the semester, and course system in the Faculties.

The University also makes conscious use of local materials for instructional purposes, in

the sincere effort to make her programmes relevant to the needs of Nigeria. Though not

responsible to Cross River State in which it is located, the University is responsive to the genuine

aspirations and interests of her immediate community and interacts freely with that community

through her programmes in Adult and Continuing Education, comprehensive health scheme, as

well as symposia, seminars and workshops organized frequently on and off-campus (UNICAL

n.d).

Founded at the peak of the cultural renaissance of the country, and situated in an area of

the country distinguished for her rich culture, the University prides itself as a significant

academic custodian of the rich culture of the people through the performances of the Department

of Theatre Arts, which has established an enviable record for itself within Nigeria and abroad.

Founded in 1975 under the National Higher Education Expansion Programme of the Federal

Military Government, the University of Calabar ranks among the leading and largest of Nigeria's

second generation universities. It witnessed phenomenal physical, academic and staff growth in

its first decade of existence. Those were the halcyon days of the petroleum revenue boom, the

third quinquennial National Development Plan (UNICAL, n.d).

From its nucleus on the Duke Town Campus, the University rapidly expanded into a busy

academic community that is housed in a vast constellation of modern academic blocks, students'

residential halls and staff quarters. The student population rose from 896 in 1976, spread in the

Faculties of Arts, Science and Social Sciences to over 30,000 full-time and part-time degree, and
diploma students in the 2001/2002 session. By the 2003/2004 session, some diploma

programmes were phased out. Currently, the student population stands at 40,645 (UNICAL n.d).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Since the turn of the 21st century, the practice of Public Relations has been given more and more

attention. PR has received a considerable degree of relevance within industrial practice as many

organisations now recognise and acknowledge the roles of PR in organisations as top

management roles. Similarly, there has been increased attention paid towards the study and

research of public relations and its functions. Some studies have examined in a critical sense,

what the practice and concept of Public Relations is (McKie & Sriramesh, 2017). Many

researchers have focused on understanding the practice of PR as a top part of top management of

organisations and its roles (Sterne, 2008; Anggreni, 2018). Within the scope of public relations

literature, researchers have paid much attention to how public relations can be used as a tool in

managing organisational crisis (Alzahrani, 2016; Kacewska & Bsoul, 2017). Other studies have

also argued crisis management as a Public Relations functions (Grunig, 2001). Crisis

management researchers have focused extensively on managing crisis within corporate

organisations.

One critical area where PR has proven indispensable is crisis management. Crises defined

as disruptive unexpected events that threaten an organisation’s stability are often a recurring

feature of institutional life. In the Nigerian university system, crises are particularly prevalent,

with issues such as staff strikes, funding shortages, and poor working conditions frequently
disrupting academic activities. Universities are expected to deliver on teaching, research,

community service, and knowledge dissemination (FRN, 1981). Section 46 of the constitution of

the Federal Republic of Nigeria 2004, asserts that Universities (and other tertiary institutions)

shall pursue educational goals provided in section 45 through, among others, teaching; research

and development; virile staff development programmes; generation and dissemination of

knowledge, to mention a few. However, these goals are often challenged by crisis involving

administrators, academic and non-academic staff, and students- each with different expectations

and interests. When these expectations are unmet, tensions often escalate into crises in the form

of strike actions (Alabi, 2010).

AKSU and UNICAL have, in recent years, experienced significant crises including

frequent strike actions by teaching and non-teaching staff and the students. For instance, at

AKSU, the institution has grappled with significant crises stemming from inadequate funding

and staff welfare concerns. In early 2024, non-academic staff unions, including the Non-

Academic Staff Union (NASU) and its affiliates, issued a 14-day ultimatum threatening to shut

down the university due to poor funding that adversely affected academic infrastructure and staff

welfare. The grievances highlighted issues such as non-payment of hazard allowances, lack of

conducive teaching environments, and insufficient subvention leading to inadequate facilities

(Eze & Chukwuemeka, 2024).

Similarly, UNICAL has faced its share of crises. In December 2023, the university

announced a 100% increase in tuition fees, prompting widespread student protests that disrupted

academic activities and attracted national media attention. Earlier, in August 2023, students from

the Faculty of Law protested against the Dean, Prof. Cyril Ndifon, over allegations of sexual
harassment. The protests led to investigations by the Public Complaints Commission and calls

from rights groups for immediate disciplinary actions and the passage of the Sexual Harassment

Bill into law.

With prevailing situation, public relations have emerged as vital tool for managing crisis.

PR helps institutions engage stakeholders, communicate transparently, and foster trust during

difficult times (Coombs, 2019). Studies have shown that public relations strategies have been

widely deployed as a tool for building good corporate image and information management in the

corporate business world (Ogbuehi, 2012; Uduji, 2013); and in managing strike actions and

general information in tertiary educational institutions (Aikins & Adu-Oppong, 2015; Okwumba,

2015). Through strategies such as stakeholder dialogue, media engagement, and internal

communication, PR help in minimising damage and restoring order. However, despite its

importance, the application of PR in crisis management within Nigerian universities, particularly

at AKSU and UNICAL remains underexplored.

Not much is known about the practice of public relations in AKSU and UNICA. This

lacuna is what this study seeks to fill by assessing public relations strategies and practices

adopted by the management of Akwa Ibom State University and University of Calabar in

managing crises situations on campus.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study aims to:

1. identify the key public relations strategies employed in crisis management at Akwa Ibom

State University and University of Calabar.

 2. find out PR tools adopted by the management of Akwa Ibom State University and

University of Calabar in fostering positive relationship among students and staffers of the

university

3. assess the effectiveness of PR interventions in mitigating crises within the universities.

4. identify the challenges faced by the PR department in managing crises at AKSU and

UNICAL.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the public relations strategies employed in crisis management at AKSU and

UNICAL?

2. What are the PR tools utilised by the management of Akwa Ibom State University and

University of Calabar in fostering positive relationship among students and staffs of the

university?

3. How effective are PR interventions in mitigating crises within the universities?

4. What challenges does the PR department face in managing crises at AKSU and

UNICAL?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H0: There is no significant relationship between public relations practices and crisis

management.

H1: There is a significant relationship between public relations practices and crisis

management.
1.6 Significance of the Study

This study holds considerable significance for various stakeholders, particularly policymakers,

educational institutions, and academic researchers, by providing insights into the role of public

relations (PR) in managing institutional crises in Nigerian universities.

The findings of this research will guide educational policymakers at the state and federal

levels in formulating and implementing crisis communication policies tailored to the realities of

Nigerian higher institutions. By understanding how PR strategies have been utilized,

policymakers can develop frameworks that strengthen institutional crisis readiness,

accountability, and public engagement. This is essential for ensuring the stability of public

universities and mitigating disruptions that hinder educational delivery.

For university administrators and PR units at AKSU and UNICAL, the study will provide

a critical evaluation of their past crisis responses, highlighting both best practices and areas for

improvement. The results will help these institutions to strengthen their PR departments, adopt

more proactive and strategic crisis communication plans, and improve stakeholder relations,

including those with students, staff, and the public. Ultimately, this contributes to institutional

resilience, reputation management, and stakeholder trust during and after crises.

This study will add to the growing body of knowledge on crisis communication and

public relations within the context of Nigerian higher education. By offering empirical data and

comparative insights, it fills a gap in literature concerning how state universities manage

complex crises through PR practices. It will serve as a useful reference for future studies in

communication, public relations, educational management, and organizational crisis response

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on public relations strategies at Akwa Ibom State University and University

of Calabar, specifically assessing the role, effectiveness, and challenges of PR in handling

institutional crises. The study will examine past crisis situations at AKSU and UNICAL, review

PR strategies employed, and evaluate their effectiveness in crisis resolution.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Crisis Management: Crisis management refers to the organised efforts by university leadership

and PR units to anticipate, respond to, and recover from crises through timely communication,

stakeholder engagement, damage control, and implementation of corrective measures to restore

normalcy.

Crisis: A crisis is any event or situation that significantly disrupts the normal operations of the

university, threatens its reputation, causes public concern, or triggers internal unrest among

stakeholders such as students, staff, or the wider community. Examples include strikes, student

protests, allegations of misconduct, and security threats.

Practices: Practices are the specific methods, strategies, and actions employed by the

universities’ PR departments in carrying out their communication responsibilities. These include

press releases, social media engagement, stakeholder briefings, and internal memos used before,

during, or after crises.

Public Relations: In this study, public relations refer to the strategic communication activities

carried out by the PR or information units of Akwa Ibom State University and the University of
Calabar to build and maintain a positive image, engage stakeholders, and manage public

perception especially during times of crisis.

University: In this study, a university is defined as a tertiary education institution (specifically

Akwa Ibom State University and the University of Calabar) that provides undergraduate and

postgraduate education and is subject to public scrutiny, regulatory oversight, and internal

governance structures that influence how crises are managed

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review Concept

2.1.1 Public Relations (PR)

What is public relations? For many, the simplistic answer is getting their name (company, client,

self) into newsprint or on air in a report or article; for others it is publicity that attracts response

through name recognition or rising sales. Governments see it as dispersal of information, for

example in a health promotion campaign. Measuring the results of these one-way (outward only)

processes is usually done by accumulating press cuttings and broadcast transcripts and giving a

value to the mentions (such as advertising equivalent cost), column inches and airtime. These

may be descriptions of some everyday public relations activities, but they do not define the

public relations process nor explain the meaning of the term ‘public relations’.

The management function of public relations is most frequently expressed in definitions.

One of the most widely taught, especially in the United States, is that of Cutlip, Center and

Broom (2006: p.5): ‘Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains

mutually beneficial relationships between an organisation and the publics on whom its success or

failure depends.’ There are several phrases to note in this well-known definition. They first

describe public relations as a ‘management function’, which implies it is a deliberate, planned

action that has an outcome in mind. This is reinforced by ‘identifies, establishes and maintains’,

which demonstrates research and a continuum of activity. ‘Mutually beneficial relationships’

relates to a two-way communication process through which the organisation will act in the

interests of both itself and the groups or publics with which it interacts. This definition goes one

stage further than others do by defining publics as those ‘on whom its success or failure

depends’. This verges on tautology as publics by their very nature are of central importance to an

organisation by giving it a reputation and a commercial, governmental or other organisational

raison d’être. However, this is a comment that queries an aspect of this definition, not its central

thrust of being a managed process of two-way communications.

 The World Association of Public Relations Practitioners met in Mexico City in 1978 and

formulated a definition of public relations, popularly known as the “Mexican Statement”.

According to this statement, as cited in Asemah (2011) and Ogande (2015), public relations is

defined as the art and social science of analysing trends, predicting their consequences,

counselling organisational leaders, and implementing a planned programme of action that

benefits both an organisation and its publics. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA,

2015) describes public relations as a strategic communication process that builds mutually

beneficial relationships between organisations and their publics. Public relation is seen as vital

for maintaining an organisation’s image and for communicating its message to customers,

investors, and the general public. A positive perception of a company or non-profit organisation

can increase its sales and improve its bottom line.

In the UK, the common definition is that proposed by the Chartered Institute of Public

Relations (CIPR). It embodies many of the aspects of the US definitions but notably omits the

management function and says: ‘[Public relations] is the planned and sustained effort to establish

and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics’

(www.cipr.co.uk). It does share the continuum element of ‘planned and sustained effort’ with

objectives of establishing and maintaining goodwill and understanding, also an aspiration for

two-way communications. As in the Cutlip, Center and Broom definition, there is a strong

aspirational element that presupposes there is a nirvana of perfect communications which could

be reached, if only ‘goodwill and understanding’ were established.

Lee (2015) defines public relations as the organised effort to communicate in an

organised form and to modify attitude and behaviour towards an organisational needs and

aspiration. By organised effort to communicate, public relations aim at using or prepares

speeches for corporate officials, organising community activities, producing journals, exhibition,

research as well as advising management on internal and external relations. Coombs and

Holladay (2015) note that public relations, as a form of public communication, is associated with

special responsibilities and the need to practise ethical communication, with an emphasis on two-

way dialogue in the public arena. Public relations practitioners may act as communication

managers who organise and integrate communication activities, or as writers who craft messages

to attract public attention and garner support for the organisation.

Esuh (2012) observes that some of the goals of public relations are to create, maintain,

and protect an organisation’s reputation, as well as to enhance its prestige and present a

favourable image. Image building is essential in the eyes of an organisation’s internal and

external publics. Skinner (2010) asserts that “in a modern democracy, every organisation

survives ultimately only by public consent; as such, public relations enables an organisation to

influence public opinion, judgement and behaviour, with the obvious implication that an

organisation is dependent on the moral and financial support of its various publics in order to

survive”. Clearly, public relations is fundamentally about communication; it persuades people to

accept an idea, a product, or a company, and to take the necessary actions accordingly.

Therefore, how an organisation relates to its publics can make or mar its success.

Harlow in 1976 scoured through 472 definitions of public relations and came up with the

following definitions:

Public relations is a distinctive management function which

helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication,
understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an
organisation and its publics; involves the management of
problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and
 responsive to public opinions; defines and emphasizes the
responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps
management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change;
serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and
uses research and ethical communication techniques as its
principal tools (Andargie, 2020).
The British Institute of Public Relations (1994) cited in Asemah (2023) defines public

relation as deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish mutual understanding between an

organisation and the public. This means that public relations is a strategic communication

process companies, individuals, and organisations use to build mutually beneficial relationships

with the public. A public relations specialist drafts a specialised communication plan and uses

media and other direct and indirect mediums to create and maintain a positive brand image and a

strong relationship with the target audience.

Asemah (2023) views public relations as a systematic approach to issues in the

management of organisations with the sole aim of promoting organisations image, programmes

and policies, through a deliberate planned communication for mutual co-existence. In other

words, public relations is that process of articulating organisation programmes through concerted

effort and by ensuring smooth lines of communication, good will rapport and mutual

understanding between an organisation and it publics. The main objective of public relations is to

maintain a positive reputation of the brand and maintain a strategic relationship with the public,

prospective customers, partners, investors, employees and other stakeholders who leads to a

positive image of the brand and makes it seem honest, successful, important, and relevant

(Aashish Pahwa, 2019).

Daymon (2010) explains that a public relations officer with expertise in counselling,

psychology, and education can assist an organisation’s management in making decisions that
affect the organisation. Kotler and Armstrong (2009) opine that effective public relations are

developed with a company’s various public audiences by obtaining favourable publicity,

building up corporate reputation, and managing unfavourable rumours, stories, and events.

Public relations practitioners promote the image of management and bolster a good reputation

through their activities and the use of pertinent tools such as print and broadcast media. It is no

overstatement to say that when public relations is organised effectively, it creates a harmonious

alignment between an organisation and its publics in terms of reputation. The need for public

relations is increasingly recognised in many organisations.

It is evident that public relation is an appropriate instrument used by an organisation to

attain its goals and objectives. This is achieved through planned and executed programmes which

are intended to influence public opinion in manner that the mutuality between the organisation

and its publics is favourably upheld for the purpose of sustaining the goodwill and understanding

of such publics for corporate survival (Keghku, 2015).

Almost all large organisations either maintain an in-house public relations department or

outsource their public relations requirements to a specialised firm. Whether an organisation is

profit-making or non-profit-making, government-owned or privately owned, it requires the

services of public relations to maintain a favourable image among its internal and external

publics. Al-Janaibi (2012) states that public relations is used to build relationships with

employees, customers, stakeholders, voters, or the general public. No wonder many

organisations engage in public relations practices to build, polish, and maintain their reputation

in the public sphere. It is a truism that an organisation cannot function effectively without a

dedicated public relations practitioner.

2.1.2 The Role of Public Relations in Organisations

Many corporate scandals witnessed around many organisations made abundantly clear, an

organisation's reputation is paramount to its success, if not its survival. As a result, corporate

credibility is at an all-time low, and public mistrust has spilled over into organisations. This

creates a considerable need to restore public faith, and public relations plays a vital role in

leading the charge (Kazoleas, 2017).

The recognition and acceptance of public relations as a vital communication tool in the

hands of all organisations in all modern societies cannot be overemphasised. As the size and

number of both commercial and non-commercial organisations increase with expansion,

communication links between members of the different publics is seriously disrupted,

complicated and rendered ineffective in most cases. People are, therefore, often unaware of what

such organisations do and as a result, goodwill and understanding, which these organisations

need is often times difficult to harness. Consequent upon this, sustained public relations

communication becomes essential as it enables organisations to explain their actions and policies

to the publics in order to secure and maintain enhanced public understanding, acceptance and

goodwill.

Public relations is acknowledged to be very vital to the survival of organisations,

institutions and individuals. Through its multifaceted functions of evaluating attitudes and

executing actions, public relations eliminates suspicion and friction; thereby providing bridges of

understanding upon which goodwill reigns between an organisation and the publicsthat deal with

it.As a planned communication, public relations is capable of redeeming an organisation's image

(however poor an organisation finds itself) and in its place, restore confidence, goodwill and
mutual understanding and patronage that every organisation needs for survival. This all

important role of public relations in human endeavour made Nwosu (2016, p. 8) to assert that:

Public relations touches on all aspects of corporate life and

operations of every organisation, but it is also because
public relations has to do with managing communications
information, public interest, internal and external goodwill
or reputation and different relationships all of which every
organisation needs to continue to exist. For government in
contemporary society, public relations hold the key for
mutual understanding between them and their citizens.
The import of Nwosu's assertion is that public relations is needed by every organisation that

wishes to survive in the fierce competitive market. It is axiomatic that public relations is the form

of communication which principally aims at winning the goodwill and support of the

organisation. Public relations is a creator of favourable image, a builder of goodwill between an

organisation and its teeming publics. Public relations is such a facilitator and a harmoniser of

issues, problems, crises and conflicts.

Commenting on the relevance of public relations in organisations, Gininkawa (2008, p.

626) says ''public relations translates into effective communication with one's publics.'' Public

relations, according to Ginikanwa (2008), assists organisations to achieve their goals. Thus, the

growing competition and increasing social responsibility has necessitated various managements

to engage in more deliberate wooing of staff and customers. Growth minded companies strive to

create and sustain cordial relationships and mutual understanding amongst their various publics.

Management functions and processes are, therefore, intertwined with public relations. With

proper balance, management actions and programmes can easily earn public understanding and

acceptance. The import is that organisations must achieve their aims and objectives, whether

long-term or short-term.
 To, therefore, achieve such aims and objectives, public relations becomes handy. This is

because as earlier mentioned, the main purpose of communication is to influence behaviour.

Public relations, which is a planned communication can be used to positively influence the

attitudes of both the external and internal publics towards the policies and programmes of the

organisation. This explains why Okafor (2002) says ''the need for a sustainable mutual

relationship between and or among families, communities, societies, governments and

organisations arose because of various difficulties encountered by human beings as they relate

with one another in their day to day activities. Consequently, asking why we need public

relations is like asking why we need friends, acceptance, understanding, goodwill and support

from others.'' Okafor went further to say that public relations is necessary because as individuals,

governments, organisations are concerned, there is need:

a. For business to grow.

b. To win support for favourable legislation.

c. To establish and maintain loyally and respect of all those who are already friends with us,

particularly our internal and important external publics.

d. To be able to gather, process, store and retrieve relevant information, which is very important

for modern business management.

e. To combat false information and propaganda around us and initiate a planned programme of

action to reverse all negative trends.

f. To establish and maintain cordial relationship with our shareholders, wholesalers and

creditors.

g. To help the management to evaluate and interpret the opinions, attitudes and aspirations of

the various publics and its internal and external activities.

h. To inform the publics of government or organisation's policies and day to day activities.

i. To manage crises and issues.

j. To take care of complaints outside and within the organisation. ·

k. To establish and maintain constant and effective relationship with the media.

This implies, therefore, that any organisation that neglects the practice of public relations,

does so at its own peril, as it will constantly experience one form of crisis and the other. Thus,

Nkwocha (2004) says that as ''a function and philosophy of modern management in all

organisations, both commercial and non-commercial, public relations helps in formulating and

implementing corporate policy and strategy, for profitability, growth, survival and goodwill of

the organisation. Public relations enable an organisation to achieve its sets goals and objectives.''

When for example an organisation sets the long term objective of say, having more customers, it

has to relate effectively with the publics, creating awareness about the organisation, thereby

making the people to accept the programmes and products of the organisation.

2.1.3 Public Relations as a Management Tool

Public Relations is the heart of modern management function aimed at making friends for the

organisation, retaining these friends and building internal and external goodwill on the

reasonable assumption that these are strongly needed for an organisation to remain in whatever

business it is engaged in, as well as to grow and prosper in it (Nwosu 1990). The aim of PR

practices is generally to achieve good character and responsibility. It means that the job of the

Public Relations Officer is to get the management to behave in such a way that they would be

seen to have good character and be responsible citizens.

For institutions to achieve their goals, they must develop effective relationship with their

publics such as employees, customers, shareholders and other institutions and with the society at
large. The management of institutions needs to understand the attitude and values of their publics

in order to achieve institutional goals. The goals themselves are shaped by the external

environment. The Public Relations practitioner acts as a counsellor to management, and as a

mediator, helping to translate private aims into reasonable, publicly acceptable policy and

actions.

The Public Relations executive in an organisation should perform management function

of directing management and coordinating all activities aimed at creating favourable image to

effective management of man and resources of the organisation. In essence, Public Relations

activities or programmes whether as a management orientation or social act, are developed in

such a way that they will have multiple effects on the company, the staff and the external policy.

Public Relations programmes or actions are reciprocal and have mutually-manifest effects on the

parties involved. The strategies used by the PR personnel according Asemah (2023) includes:

1. Written material: In order to build a corporate image/reputation, public relations

practitioner should also prepare written material to reach and influence their target

markets. The materials should include annual report, brochures, articles and

organisation’s newsletter and magazines:

2. Corporate identity materials: These can also help to create a co-operate identity that the

publics immediately recognises like logo, stationary, brochures, signs, business forms,

business cards (Amaresan, 2019).

3. News: One major strategy is news. It is the duty of PR Practitioner to do everything

possible to facilitate the flow of news from the organisation and its activities to the notice

of the wide publics (Kazoleas, 2017).

 4. Special Events: Another common PR strategy for corporate image / reputation is special

events, ranging from news conference, press tours, grand opening or educational

programmes designed to reach and interest target publics (Kazoleas, 2017).

5. Press conference: These take the form of a meeting or where a major announcement is

made and guests are invited to ask questions. A press conference may be given in

preference to a press release, the matter under review merits some explanation, which

may not be covered adequately in the press itself (Amaresan, 2019)

6. Speeches: This can also create product and organisation publicity. Organisation

executives would field questions to the media or give talks at trade associations or sales

meeting (Asemah, 2023).

2.1.4 Crisis and Crisis Communication

Taneja, Pryor, Sewell and Recuero (2014) define crisis as a series of unforeseen events that

launch a group, team or an organisation into a downward spiral that is quick and will have long

term effects if the situation is not rapidly handled effectively and efficiently. Hermann (1972)

cited in Taneja et al. (2014, p. 78) argues that a crisis is a “situation that incorporates the

following three conditions: (a) a surprise (b) a threat to high-priority goals, and (c) a restricted

amount of time available for response”. In all types of organisations from the wealthiest empires

to the “mom and pop” stores, crises occur and decision makers must be ready to act fast when

they occur (Taneja et al., 2014, p. 78).

Crises are inevitable occurrences in the society; virtually all nations of the world are

affected by one form of crisis of the other (Asemah, 2023). In a crisis situation, corporate values

that are important during times of normalcy and stability may not be as critical. For instance, the

normal emphasis on cost saving would no longer be appropriate when it is necessary to take
urgent steps to save lives in a natural disaster. Crisis is simply seen as a negative circumstance

involving an organisation and its stakeholders, such as employees, customers and investors. A

crisis according to Institute of Public Relations (2007), can create three related threats; and these

include public safety, financial loss and reputation loss.

Some crises, such as industrial accidents and product harm, can result in injuries and even

loss of lives. Crises can create financial loss by disrupting operations, creating a loss of market

share/purchase intentions or spawning lawsuits related to the crisis. Crisis refers to sequence of

unwanted events at the workplace which lead to disturbances and major unrest amongst the

individuals. Crisis generally arises on a short notice and triggers a feeling of threat and fear in the

employees. In simpler words crisis leads to uncertainty and causes major harm to the

organisation and its employees (Management Study Guide, 2020). It is essential for the

employees to sense the early signs of crisis and warn the employees against the negative

consequences of the same.

Crisis does not only affect the smooth functioning of the organisation, but also pose a

threat to its brand name (Management Study Guide, 2020). A crisis is, therefore, seen as any

situation that may result in the loss of public trust, support and legitimacy for businesses, brands

and public institutions. The foregoing implies that crisis is an unpredictable major threat that can

have a negative effect on an organisation, industry or stakeholders (Caombs, 1992, p. 2). Crisis is

an accidental occurrence or an accident that is never envisaged or planned (Asemah, etal 2018).

It generally characterised by the absence of peace and a disruption in an organisation daily

routine and procedures. Asemah etal (2018), citing Ubani (1996) explains that crisis is a period

of heightened uncertainty that increases the need to plan and a point in time in which external

and internal pressure change the objectives and operations of an organisation.

2.1.4.1 Types of Crisis

There are different types of crisis and each of the crises depends on who was responsible for the

crisis and how the crisis affects the reputation of the organisation (Asemah, 2023). The history

with the crisis of organisation determines the threat to the organisation's reputation. Below are

some of the types of crises:

1. Victim Crisis: This type of crisis occurs when the organisation is perceived to be a victim of

the crisis. For example, a victim crisis can happen when the organisation is rumoured to be at

fault. This event can destroy the physical infrastructure of a company, leaving it with no facility

to conduct its business. In cases like these, a victim crisis presents the organisation with little to

no reputational threat because the situation is unavoidable and the company has no way of

preventing it (Amaresan, 2019).

2. Accidental Crisis This type of crisis occurs when the organisation is at fault for the crisis, but

its actions were unintentional. An accidental crisis can occur when an organisation faces product

or equipment failure like when Samsung had to recall the Galaxy Note 7 in 2016 due to batteries

catching on fire and exploding (Amaresan, 2019). More so, accidental crises can occur when an

accuser challenges the organisation.

3. Preventable Crisis: This occurs when the organisation intentionally takes a risk that leads to a

negative outcome or event. A preventable crisis is the worst possible threat to an organisation

because there is a high reputational threat to the business. In these situations, there is immense

pressure placed on the organisation's response as well as their actions moving forward after the

crises (Amaresan, 2019).

 Crisis have also been categorised into personal, organisational, national, international or

global. Personal crisis as the name implies, are incidents that happen to an individual's private

life. It could be at home, work, relationships and families. Organisational crises are crises that

affect corporate institutions and establishments. National crises are crises that affect a country it

is a time where a country experience difficulty, uncertainties and threats that is potential

destructive to different facet of the country. It could be security, economic, agricultural, health

and political aspects of the nation. International crisis is a crisis that occurs between sovereign

states. Global crisis are crisis that affects the entire world. An example is COVID-19 pandemic

that rocked virtually all nations of the world.

Crisis can also be grouped into the known-unknown crisis and the unknown unknown

crisis

1. Known Unknown Crisis: These are crises that are predictable or a possibility because they

are peculiar to certain organisations. For instance, students' protest and unrest is a peculiar crisis

in higher institutions. This is the “known” aspect if this crisis. The “unknown” aspect is that

there is no definite time when this crisis will occur. Babaleye (2013), citing Black (1998)

describes known unknown crisis as the type of misfortune that may occurs because of the nature

the business of the corporate organisation is involved. Known Unknown crisis may be fore-

shadowed by series of events and may also have some warning signs or indicators before

translating to a full-blown crisis. It can be likened to a gathering in the clouds before rain fall.

2. Unknown Unknown Crisis: These types of crises are unanticipated and unpredictable. They

are usually sudden and not pre-empted. Natural disasters such as earthquake, volcanoes, etc. fall

in this category (Babaleye, 2013).

2.1.4.2 Phases of Crisis

Every crisis is always in four phases. An organisation must communicate during each of these

phases and evolve its communication along the way. Crisis is in the following five stages:

1. The Pre-Crisis Phase: This stage involves planning and education. The organisation should

monitor emerging risks, anticipate possible crises, educate interested parties about possible

risks and suggest actions in the event of a crisis. It reaches out to necessary authorities and

groups for collaboration and future help. The organisation creates potential messages and

communications systems and tests them. It also identifies the crisis communication team that

will communicate during the event (Rouse, 2020).

2. Initial Phase: During the initial phase, the crisis has started and the organisation begins

communicating. Because it may be a confusing and intense period, the organisation needs to

seek to provide clear and accurate direction, provide resources for more information and

calm fears if necessary (Rouse, 2020).

3. Maintenance Phase: The organisation communicates updates on the crisis and details any

ongoing risks. At this time, the organisation gathers feedback from anyone affected by the

crisis, corrects any misinformation and continues to assess the situation and how it is

responding (Rouse, 2020).

4. Resolution State: When the crisis reaches the resolution phase, the situation has effectively

ended, but recovery remains and communication continues. The organisation should

communicate how it is recovering and rebuilding, and provide more detailed information

about how the crisis happened. The resolution phase is also a good time to remind people

how to be prepared in the event of another crisis (Rouse, 2020).

5. Evaluation: During evaluation, two-way communication is important. The organisation

evaluates and assesses how the response went and how it could be improved. The

organisation reviews the crisis communication plan and updates or improves it accordingly.

An after-action report comprehensively documents the crisis and response (Rouse, 2020).

2.1.4.3 Factors Affecting Crisis

As Ray (1999) described, there are seven factors influencing a crisis. These are:

a. Pre-crisis planning: Management’s ability to handle a crisis situation and the potential of a

crisis to escalate is often determined by the quality and thoroughness of the company’s prior

planning.

b. Organisational perception: The level of uncertainty is often determined by the perceptions of

the decision makers.

c. Stakeholder perception: Stakeholder perceptions of an organisation’s credibility influence the

perceived effectiveness of that organisation’s response in a given situation.

d. Uncertainty: The absence of needed information is a primary characteristic of a crisis and an

influential factor in determining the direction of the crisis.

e. Stress: A crisis is a manager’s worst nightmare. Lost lives, financial devastation, and fear of

damaged credibility and legitimacy increase the level of stress associated with a crisis. In the

context of a crisis, stress can impact management’s ability to effectively communicate and

manage the crisis.

f. Involved groups: A number of individuals and groups may be directly involved. Various

parties who are basically unfamiliar with one another must learn to adapt and relate: victims;

government authorities; elected officials and politicians; and crisis management teams.

g. Decision making: A crisis is a situation requiring quick decisions between a limited numbers

of options. A lack of action generally results in negative consequences.

2.1.4.4 Crisis management

Crisis management is one of the most critical aspects of modern communications (Tench and

Yeomans, 2009). As Petrovici (2014) crises management represents a set of factors designed

particularly to prevent crises and reduce the damage to the organisation and the audiences

involved. According to Coombs (2015), crisis management represents a set of factors designed

to combat crises and to lessen the actual damage inflicted. Whereas Ray (1999) states that crisis

management is a continuous process of recognizing and responding to factors associated with a

potential or actual crisis and its resolution. The fundamental idea or tenet in crisis management is

that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares comprehensive

strategies and remedies. Therefore, crisis management deals with the analysis of a crisis by

looking at some clues or signs, and recommending methods of prevention and involvement.

Caponigro (2000) defines crisis management as the function that works to minimize the

impact of a crisis and help the organisation gain control of the situation, while Whitman and

Mattord (2003) define crisis management as the actions taken during and after a disaster. As

Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006), in terms of image, the prejudices for the organisation may be

extremely serious if the crisis situation is not managed correctly, so as to curb its negative

effects. Crisis management becomes, in this case, a strategic imperative, because it is only a
matter of time until any company may be affected by an organisational crisis, or a crisis

generated by a product, which could threaten its performances or even its future. In this context,

it goes without saying that good communication during a crisis can only be beneficial, able to

improve and even stop the negative reactions of the public. Crisis management is a challenge any

organisation can face and one that many fail. When crisis management fails, stakeholders and

organisations suffer. All organisations must become prepared for crises (Coombs, 2015).

Organisations, therefore, should either take proactive measure or attempt to lessen the damage if

crisis once happened in its existence.

Crisis management has evolved from emergency preparedness and, drawing from that

base, comprises a set of four interrelated factors: prevention, preparation, response, and revision.

Prevention, also known as mitigation, represents the steps taken to avoid crises. Crisis managers

often detect warning signs and then take actions designed to prevent the crisis. Prevention is

largely unseen by the public. News stories about crises that did not happen are rare. Preparation

is the best-known factor in crisis management because it includes the crisis management plan

(CMP). If people know nothing else about crisis management, they know an organisation should

have a CMP. The CMP is the tip of the crisis management iceberg. Although people think the

CMP is the crisis management process, in actuality most of the process is unseen.

Response is the application of the preparation components to a crisis. A crisis can be

simulated (as in an exercise) or real. The preparation components must be tested regularly. The

testing involves running simulated crises and drills that determine the fitness of the CMP, crisis

team members, spokespersons, and the communication system. A real crisis involves the

execution of the same crisis management resources, only the outcomes are real rather than
hypothetical. Response is very public during an actual crisis. An organisations crisis

management response is frequently reported and critiqued in the news media.

Revision is the fourth crisis factor. It involves evaluation of the organisation’s response in

simulated and real crises, determining what it did right and what it did wrong during its crisis

management performance. The organisation uses this insight to revise its prevention, preparation,

and response efforts. While proper management of an existing crisis is important, actively

planning to prevent crises and to mitigate the effects of those crises which cannot be prevented is

critical. Thus, organisations should avoid negligence in preparing themselves to prevent, or if not

to reduce the crises. Although as the saying goes that crisis panning is like buying insurance, the

attention has been given to this key component of crisis management is still derisory. However,

it should be noted that ‟Effective crisis management protects companies, their reputations and, at

times, can salvage their very existence” (Tench &Yeomans, 2009).

2.1.4.5 Crisis Management Techniques

1. Risk Management: This entails monitoring for situations that can trigger a crisis incident and

nipping it in the board. Risk management is the process of identifying, controlling and managing

a potential threat or situation that may result in a crisis. Risk management focuses on averting a

potential crisis situation; the focus here is prevention. It can be compared to managing and

treating the symptoms of a disease in this context crisis, instead of the crisis itself (Asemah,

2023).

2. Crisis Simulation: Regular crisis simulation exercise will enhance an organisation's ability to

handle an actual crisis situation. Crisis simulation is not praying for a crisis, but preparing for a

crisis. Every organisation is susceptive to one form of crisis or the another. For instance, an
organisation that is susceptible to a fire outbreak due to the nature of their establishment can

regularly engage in a fire drill simulation to better equip them for an actual crisis (Asemah,

2023) 2.1.4.6 Issue Management and Preventive Strategies of Crisis

Issues management is the panacea for crisis management. What is issues management? Issues

management is a pro-active approach to identifying concern or issue that currently faces an

organisation or will be faced in the near future by the organisation, say in the next one to three

years. Issues management encompasses dealing with the issues identified with the intention of

enhancing the image, credibility, reputation of the organisation, preserving the markets and

managing the crises before they occur. A case that arises for discussion with the possibility of

having an effect on an organisation is called an issue (Oyekola, 2003).

The art of issues management requires awareness analysis of the causes and effects of the

issues, a plan of action and monitoring of the result to determine how the plan has fared.

Awareness involves knowing happenings and trends and their implications to the organisation

and the society at large. Whenever issues are managed competently and professionally, though it

may not completely prevent crises, it certainly mitigates the negative effect. Prevention is better

than cure is a popular position. Being proactive in public relations is key (Nkwocha, 2004). It

should be noted that public relations cannot carve a rotten wood (Odigbo, 2007 cited in Nwodu,

Bel-Molokwu and Aliede, 2014).

The public relations manager should ensure that all acts that could lead to crisis are

checked at the pre-crisis stage. The publics and stakeholders of the organisation must be engaged

very well. Different causes or issues that can lead to crisis had been identified earlier. With these

causes/issues, how do you prevent crisis? For industrial relations, labour must be well engaged

and their welfare should be given adequate attention. This will also work to prevent product
failure. Market trends should be monitored in order to be above market changes, minimise

effects of world events on the operations of the organisation, check sabotage and outside attack.

The environmental should be scanned in order to be aware of regulations changes through

regulatory affairs which is a key function of public relations. Competent hands must be

employed for management as this will managerial incompetence, misdemeanour and

environmental conflicts.

2.1.4.7 Crisis communication

Little understanding of communication is needed in explaining crisis communication.

Communication as defined by (Griffin, 2009) "is the relational process of creating and

interpreting messages that elicit a response". He emphasized the importance of people in

communication, noting that that "words do not mean things; people mean things". This mean

communication has no value if words are not received and interpreted by people (Griffin, 2009).

In addition, crises communication can be described as communication that is used by

organisations before the crisis, during the crisis and after a crisis. It is critical for organisations to

ensure they manage their messages, manage and control their communication and manage and

control the crises; therefore, it is always dangerous and fatal for any organisation failing to

communicate appropriate messages competently during crises (Abu Farha, 2015). Sema (2008)

argued that information shared by and between public authorities, the media, organisations,

groups and affected individuals before the crisis, during crisis in an organisation are related to

the discourse of crisis communication in an organisation. The ability to communicate before,

during and after a crisis occur is required for effective communication during a crisis (Abu

Farha, 2015).

Crisis communication is simply seen as the collection, processing and dissemination of

information required to address a crisis situation. Arthur (2020) notes that it is the dialogue

between the organisation and its publics prior to, during and after the negative occurrence. The

dialogue details strategies and tactics designed to minimise damage to the image of the

organisation. Crisis communications is an aspect of public relations that deals with protecting

individuals, companies and organisations facing challenges to their public image and reputation.

It is quite different from the traditional public relations, which concentrates on generating and

harnessing positive earned media to boost brand awareness and reputation.

Crisis communication is aimed at containing negative earned media by ensuring prompt,

honest and informative communication between all parties. This shows that crisis

communication is aimed preventing crisis from taking place and in a situation whereby an

organisation is already facing a crisis situation, it is aimed at mitigating the effect of the crisis by

doling out information that will help to effectively manage the crisis and prevent it from

escalating further. There, corporations must continually carry out sound information aimed at

managing crisis. Thus, Business dictionary (2020) sees crisis communication as the effort taken

by a company to communicate with the public and stockholders when an unexpected event

occurs that could have a negative impact on the company's reputation. This can also refer to the

efforts of business or governmental entities to inform employees or the public of a potential

hazard such as an impending storm which could have a catastrophic impact.

The foregoing implies that crisis communication is a special area which centres on the

reputation of the individuals as well as the organisation. The aim is to communicate as frequently
as possible so at to create goodwill between an organisation and itself so as to maintain peace.

Thus, it is seen as an initiative which aims at protecting the reputation of the organisation and

maintaining its public image. Crisis communication specialists, therefore, fight against several

challenges which tend to harm the reputation and image of the organisation. Crisis can have a

negative effect on brand image. Crisis communication experts are employed to save an

organisation's reputation against various threats and unwanted challenges. Brand identity is one

of the most valuable assets of an organisation. The main purpose of crisis communication team is

to protect the brand identity and maintain the organisation's firm standing within the industry

(Management Study Guide, 2020).

There are different objectives of crisis communication; some of the objectives as identified

by Arthur (2020) are to provide accurate, timely information to all targeted internal and external

audiences; to demonstrate concern for the safety of lives; to safeguard organisational facilities

and assets and to maintain a positive image of the organisation as a good corporate or community

citizen. Crisis communications protects and reduces the impact of the various threats to

individuals or to organisations and their stakeholders. Mistakes, serious errors of judgement or

natural disasters cannot be foreseen. This means that every public-facing organisation or

individual is vulnerable to crises. Thus, proper crisis communication, as noted by Smarp (2020)

can benefit an organisation in the following ways:

i. Protect your employees and other stakeholders during a crisis.

ii. Build trust in the workplace.

iii. Prevent the spread of misinformation in the workplace.

iv. Prevent panic and help employees feel secure.

 v. Prevent the threat a crisis may have on the organisation's strategic objectives,

reputation and viability.

vi. Align employees with the overall crisis management strategy and enable them to

work towards the same goals.

vii. Align the internal and external messages.

viii. Keep customers loyal. Keep the reputation of being an attractive employer.

2.1.4.8 Crisis Response Strategies

Organisations not only make sense of, learn from, and communicate about risks, but also

communicatively respond to the crisis event and its aftermath. Hasan (2013) is of the opinion

that in crisis situation, publicity is the fastest and most credible means of response. Nevertheless,

there are 3 general response strategies that can be deployed in crisis situation: Deny Strategy-

this is to out rightly deny that the organisation is responsible for the crisis. Diminish Strategy-

diminish strategy is to weaken the connection between organisation and the crisis. Deal Strategy-

this strategy addresses stakeholders' concern directly, by offering compensation or accepting full

responsibility for the crisis.

Dionisopoulos and Vibbert (2013), identified four self-defence strategies of crisis

communication: (1) denial, (2) bolstering, (3) differentiation, and (4) transcendence. Corporate

apologia paved the way for crisis communication research and practices to concentrate on issues

of organisational reputation or image and social legitimacy (Coombs et al., 2010). Rowland and

Jerome’s (2004) in their work list the following image maintenance strategies which includes:

demonstrating concern for the victims, bolstering organisational values, denying intent to do

harm, and preventing recurrence.

 Brinson and Benoit (2009) extend corporate apologia research through five image

restoration strategies relevant to organisational crisis communication: (1) denial, (2) evasion of

responsibility, (3) offensiveness reduction, (4) corrective action, and (5) mortification. Three out

of the five image restoration strategies are further specified: (a) denial may be simple, denial of

responsibility or more complex blame shifting; (b) evasion may include provocation, feasibility,

accident, and good intentions; and (c) offensiveness reduction may include bolstering,

minimization, differentiation, transcendence, attacking the accuser, and compensation. Scholars

have applied Image Restoration Theory to a number of notable cases, including Texaco’s public

allegations of racism.

2.1.4.9 Crisis Communication Plan

A crisis communication plan is a comprehensive document that includes details about audiences,

contact information and messaging. It should also contain a glossary of terms relevant to the

crisis to ensure that the language used in all communications remains consistent. The crisis

communication plan should contain contact information for each potential audience. That

information must be easily accessible during a crisis and the contact information should be

comprehensive, including names, phone numbers, addresses and email addresses (Rouse, 2020).

Potential audiences for crisis communication include customers, employees and their

families, survivors of the incident and their families, media, the neighbouring community,

company management and investors, government officials and other authorities and suppliers.

With each crisis, an organisation must determine who to contact, when and how (Rouse, 2020).

It is a set of guidelines used to prepare a business for an emergency or unexpected event. These
plans include steps to take when a crisis first emerges, how to communicate with the public and

how to prevent the issue from occurring again. Crisis communication plans focus on the

company's response and how it will communicate with its stakeholders. These steps ensure

information reaches employees, partners, customers, media, the general public and any other

valuable stakeholders. Most importantly, these plans guarantee a quick release of information, as

well as a consistent message on all company platforms (Amaresan, 2020).

Management of every organisation must have a template of managing a crisis. Such may

include a committee that is set up for the task. Appointment of spokesperson for crisis is another

task that the template must cater for. This may be the CEO and/or the Public Relations Manager

or the expert whose field was where the crisis emanated from. The first voice advantage is very

important and it should be well placed in the crisis management and communication template.

When there are no crises, the template should be tested for mastering and fine tuning. Proactive

engagement at pre-crisis stage with publics and stakeholders is essential. This underlines the

position of Nkwocha (2004) that crisis management is proactive, preventive and pre-planned in

nature.

Otto Lerbinger cited in Dougall, Burke and Feldman (2004) gives an eight-point plan that

public relations manager should adopt when developing crisis management template. These are:

1. Inform the house management of the issue and of the potential crisis/danger that may

occur.

2. Activate a crisis team that is fully trained and prepared to deal with such issues.

3. Notify relevant authorities that have a vested interest in the crisis.

4. Notify employees, and other target publics that could be affected by the crisis and of the

danger that might occur as a result of the situation.

 5. Obtain thorough facts that give all the information. These can be used for media

statement and help ascertain the seriousness of the position.

6. Establish a crisis centre close to the action.

7. Appoint a media spokesperson who is properly trained in media questioning techniques

and who is fully briefed on the crisis.

8. Disclose all information honestly and quickly.

This is as was posited by Ivy Leadbetter Lee in 1906 during the Anthracite Coal Roads and Mine

Company industrial crisis in America. Lee submitted that he must be empowered to tell the

people nothing but the whole fact for the crisis communication, if he thought it necessary to do

so and this led to his Declaration of Principles to the media (Black, 1989).

The crisis communication plan must have a comprehensive element that explains how the

crisis communication will be carried out; thus, the communication plan is broken into a number

of elements. The elements as identified by Bararia (2018) are:

1. Detailed Plan: The plan should outline and explain how your organisation will

communicate about the crisis and handle the crisis. Within the plan, you need to include the

purpose of the plan, which explains why the plan is needed; the activation criteria, where you

identify who can activate the plan and under what circumstances and the procedures where

you outline the steps that need to be taken in regard to internal and external communication,

include who is responsible for what and what tools (e-mail, voicemail, intranet, news release,

Twitter, etc.) will be used to carry out the plan.

2. Crisis Communication Team: The crisis communication team is responsible for collecting

information, creating and disseminating key messages and working with the media. The team

also monitors response to the crisis and crisis communication. Within the plan, identify the
 members of the crisis communication team and describe their roles. Who will act as

spokesperson and will there be more than one? Who will field media calls? Who will handle

internal communication? Who will serve as backups in each role? Include contact

information for all team members, including personal cell phone numbers.

3. Key Messages: Consider all possible crises your organisation could face and develop key

messages to be used in response. Also consider what possible questions you could be asked

by the media and draft responses to those. You may want to develop a vulnerability or grid

assessment to help you determine how likely different types of crises are to occur at your

organisation or within your community. While you may not use the messages verbatim, they

can serve as a starting point and help you quickly pull statements together when needed.

Your messages should identify the cause of the crisis, provide a brief description of what

happened, provide a timetable for future plans, communicate compassion for any victims of

the crisis and there is need to provide suggestions for protection if appropriate (remembering

to wash your hands during a flu outbreak).

4. Internal Communications Procedures: Once a crisis occurs, determine how employees will

receive key messages whether through department meetings, voicemail, the company intranet

or all of the above. Consider how employees would be reached in a crisis if you’re building

or internal communications were no longer available. Employees also should be made aware

of your organisation's media and social media policy and they should understand that they

are not to talk to the media. Include a copy of these policies in the appendices of the plan.

5. Contacts and Media List: During a crisis you will not have time to go searching for phone

numbers. Gather contact information for local government offices, public health departments,

evacuation centres, police and fire departments, Red Cross centres, suppliers and any other
 organisations you may need to communicate with during a crisis. For the media list, include

contact information for local, national and trade press as well as trade and influential industry

bloggers.

6. Appendices: This section includes guidelines, checklists and forms that support and facilitate

crisis communication. Appendices may include:

1. First steps checklist.

2. Media policy.

3. Social media policy.

4. Media call log to document calls/communication received from members of the

media.

5. Internal and external communication checklists.

6. Fact sheets.

7. Profiles and biographies for each key administrator.

8. Copies of organisation logos/photos.

9. News release template.

10. Copies of the organisation' s business continuity/disaster recovery plans.

11. Contact information for employees, crisis communication team members (including

any outside legal or public relations representation) and the media (Bararia, 2018).

2.1.4.9 Effective Crisis Communication Strategies

Corporations must have effective communication strategy; thus, the following steps to effective

crisis communication strategy must be considered:

1. Create a Crisis Communication Plan: Crisis communication needs a well-set plan and

objectives. Without the proper plan, crisis communicators are less likely to follow the
 company rules and they may not be able to align employees with the overall strategy. The

crisis communication plan should also identify all the possible situations in which crisis

communication is needed (Bernstein, 2020).

2. Appoint your Crisis Communication Team and Spokesperson: Choosing and appointing

the right people who will be in your crisis communication team is extremely important. It is

very important to understand that even though the company's CEO is an important figure,

people from other departments such as managers, HR professionals, operations, internal

communications and public relations departments should be involved in the strategy. The

person you assign as the spokesperson should be trained and experienced in how to handle

crisis and emergency, communicate well with the employees, react on a timely basis and

always be ready to answer employees' specific questions. Categorically, any organisation

should ensure, via appropriate policies and training that only authorised spokespersons speak

for it. This is particularly important during a crisis. Each crisis communications team should

have people who have been pre-screened and trained to be the lead and/or backup

spokespersons for different channels of communications. All organisational spokespersons

during a crisis situation must have the right skills, the right position, the right training and the

right skills (Sharp, 2020).

3. Train Communicators and help them Develop Good Communication Skills: Appropriate

training and skill development are essential to help a crisis spokesperson succeed in their job.

Besides training available to crisis communication professionals, it is extremely important

that these people have good communication skills. Thus, proper communication skills are the

most valuable skills a spokesperson can possess as they have a significant impact on how to

gain employees attention, connect with employees, build trust in the workplace and make
 employees work towards the same goals. All stakeholders, internal and external, are just as

capable of misunderstanding or misinterpreting information about your organisation as the

media. It is your responsibility to minimise the chance of that happening. Spokesperson

training teaches you to be prepared, to be ready to respond in a way that optimises the

response of all stakeholders (Sharp, 2020).

4. Bring the Board Members on Board: Board members should be well aware of the

company's crisis management strategy and they should be aligned with the rest of the leaders

and crisis communicators. Who are the internal and external stakeholders that matter to your

organisation? Employees are considered to be your most important audience because every

employee is a public relations representative and crisis manager for your organisation

whether you want them to be or not! But ultimately, all stakeholders will be talking about

you to others not on your contact list, so it is up to you to ensure that they receive the

messages you would like them to repeat elsewhere (Bernstein, 2020).

5. Close the Gap between “Feeling ready” vs. “being ready: There is a significant gap

between people feeling and really being ready to cope with and handle crisis situations. Thus,

companies would respond effectively if a crisis strikes tomorrow. Companies need to engage

in monitoring internal communications to detect trouble ahead (Bernstein, 2020).

6. Understand your Audiences: Workplace crisis communicators need to have a very good

understanding of their audience. In most situations, there will be multiple audiences a

spokesperson would have to communicate and connect to. Therefore, the ability to segment

those audiences properly and adjust the approach and messages to them is crucial for

successful crisis communication. Also, depending on the type of crisis, not every employee

may be the right audience to communicate with. In any situation, however, the message
 needs to be delivered on a timely manner, it needs to be clear and easy to understand. Timely

communication is crucial because the worst thing that can happen is for your employees to

hear about the crisis from a source different from their own employer (Sharp, 2020).

7. Develop Holding Statements and Deliver Messages that Matter to your defined

Audiences: While full message development must await the outbreak of an actual crisis,

holding statements messages designed for use immediately after a crisis break can be

developed in advance to be used for a wide variety of scenarios to which the organisation is

perceived to be vulnerable, based on the assessment you conducted in the first step. Once you

manage to define your audiences, adjusting the internal crisis communication content is the

next important step. Remember that not every employee should receive every message

during an emergency as this approach just slows down employees' response time by

overwhelming them with irrelevant information. Ideally, your internal communication

solution should be able to target specific individuals and departments to ensure the most

pertinent information gets to those who need it most (Sharp, 2020).

8. Implement a Two-way Crisis Communication: It is very important to understand that

during a crisis, employees are a valuable asset because they are the voice of the company and

they can be your strongest advocates. For that reason, crisis communication should not go

one- way. Crisis communication should enable employees to join the two-way conversations,

raise their concerns and ask questions. However, many employers base their crisis

communication on employee newsletters and similar way of communicating that do not

enable employees to share their voice and thoughts (Sharp, 2020).

9. Communicate in Real-Time using the Right Communication Channels: In companies

that communicate mainly through emails, intranets or even instant messaging apps, it is not
 uncommon for employees to miss out on important company updates. During the crisis,

employers cannot afford this to happen. Therefore, employers need to make sure to use the

right internal communication channels that will be considered as their main source of

information during the crisis times (Sharp, 2020).

10. Give a Special Attention to your Non-Wired Employees: Emails or intranets can be very

inefficient in providing crisis communications to non-wired employees, remote employees or

employees who may be away from their desks. In addition, they are very ineffective during a

power failure. Therefore, the most effective way to communicate during an emergency or

crisis is via mobile technology, which goes wherever your employees go (Sharp, 2020).

11. Make Sure Your Messages Are Accurate and Consistent: During crisis, companies are

under a microscope of the public and the media. When communicating with employees, it is

important to deliver the right information even if that sometimes means answering with “I do

not know.” Giving wrong information to the employees can cause the spread of

misinformation which can significantly hurt employees' trust that they have in their

employers. Messages delivered to employees have to be consistent no matter which

communication channel you use and whether you are communicating with internal or

external stakeholders (Sharp, 2020).

12. Monitor Communication and Employees' Behaviours and React on a Timely Manner:

Unfortunately, many employers do not have insights into their employee engagement with

the crisis-related content delivered to them. This causes high levels of uncertainty and fear

that employees have not even got or read the critical updates (Sharp, 2020).

13. Perform a Post-Crisis Analysis: When the crisis is over, employers need to ask themselves

what they learn from this; even though these situations are not comfortable to anyone, they
 should serve as a good learning curve. The five questions every employer should address

after the crisis include: What did we do right? What did we do wrong? How to improve crisis

communication next time? What are the critical crisis communication elements that have a

big and direct impact on how the crisis was handled? And how can we better prepare our

crisis communication team? (Bernstein, 2020; Smarp, 2020).

2.1.4.10 Risk awareness and management processes in crisis communication

Crisis communication processes include risk awareness and management processes that have

been heavily influenced by both management science (i.e., normal accident the ory and high

reliability theory) and emergency management (i.e., warning systems) scholarship. Perrow’s

(1999) normal accident theory argues that highly complex environments are by nature accident

prone. Simply, ecologies where interactive complexity (unexpected events are not always clear)

and tight coupling (high interdependence) exist will experience normal accidents where the

system outputs are paused or limited. Technology creates these breakdowns in the system.

Weick and colleagues argue that these types of organisations must operate reliably. High

reliability organisation (HRO) literature has contributed to risk mitigation and crisis response.

HROs operate nearly error free in high risk environments (Weick & Roberts, 1993),

subsequently functioning as models of reliable organizing.

Scholars have studied a variety of HROs including nuclear aircraft carriers, wildland

firefighters, police units, urban search and rescue task forces, and emergency rooms. In extant

research, the crux of reliability has been explained through collective mind, which Weick and

Sutcliffe (2007) argue can be applied to all organisations to enhance organisational reliability

and crisis response by providing risk awareness before, during, and after crisis. However, the

essence of collective mind is to prevent failure regardless of the complexities present within
organising processes. Mindfulness is conceived of in terms of its opposite–heedless,

unquestioned habits. When heedful operation is coupled with interrelatedness, or collective

action, organisations can operate in a highly reliable way.

Collective mind is operationalised through five processes: (1) preoccupation with failure,

(2) sensitivity to operations, (3) reluctance to simplify interpretations, (4) commitment to

resilience, and (5) deference to expertise. When organisational actors simultaneously enact these

five mindful processes, they are constituting a collective mind that is able to anticipate risk,

mitigate emerging risks, and respond to crises with resilience and expertise. Finally, a noted

strength of HRO work resides in the recognition of improvisation within organisational crisis

decision making and engagement to navigate risks. Improvisation displays how experts are

capable of adhering to organisational scripts and deviating from those scripts in innovative and

effective ways that do not disrupt organisational flow and enable response in order to overcome

or avoid risk.

For organisations to avoid, mitigate, and communicate about risks, risk assessment is a

valuable tool. Risk assessment methodologies and modelling vary from formalised procedures

and computerised modelling to less formalised procedures. Nevertheless, risks threaten

organisational normalcy. How organisations communicate risks through warnings before,

during, and after a crisis can influence decision making about threat response. Example warning

systems for the general public in the United States include the Emergency Alert System (a

television and radio broadcast system) and the former Homeland Security Advisory System (a

colour coded terrorist threat warning system).

On a smaller scale, organisations may have internal warning systems such as email, text

message, and other mediated means to communicate threats. For example, following the 2007
Virginia Tech school shooting, colleges and universities nationwide in the United States

assessed their vulnerabilities to an active shooter and developed crisis management strategies

and warning systems in the event of an active shooter on their campuses. Using various software

programming, some schools, colleges, and universities employ text and phone alerts in addition

to outdoor sirens and announcements to provide warnings. Scholars have sought to explain how

to best warn stakeholders about risks and determined that credible, clear, and consistent warning

messages are most likely to be perceived and acted upon by receivers (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013).

Lindell, Prater, and Perry’s (2007) work with risk communication identifies eight

warning stages and corresponding outcomes. Warning stages include (1) risk identification, (2)

risk assessment, (3) searching for protective action, (4) protective action assessment subsuming

self-efficacy, safety, and timing, (5) protective action implementation, (6) information needs

assessment, (7) communication action assessment, and (8) communication action

implementation. Communicating risk with stakeholders may be more effective with clear,

accurate, timely, and expert information about risk and corresponding protective actions;

however, there are other message factors that may affect risk communication, especially culture.

Thus, risk communication should also evaluate the cultural appropriateness of risk messages and

proposed protective actions (Aldoory,2010).

2.1.5 Strategic Management in organisations

The word strategy originated from a Greek word “strategia” which means the art of war. Strategy

can be defined as the determination of the basic purposes and managerial objectives of the

organisation along with the adoption of particular courses of action and the selection of specific

resource allocations (Harrison, 2003). Ansoff (1965) contended that the application of strategies

resulted from the realisation that an organisation needs a well-defined scope and direction, which
objectives alone cannot provide. Early strategic scholars such as Andrews (1971) contended that

strategy is a rational decision-making process by which the organisation’s resources are matched

with opportunities arising from the competitive environment strategic decisions are highly

complex and involve a host of dynamic variables. Thorelli (1977) viewed strategy as the primary

means of reaching the focal objective. The focal objective is whatever objective is in mind at the

moment.

According to Hashim (2008) strategies can help an organisation in the following ways;

providing a broad concept of the firm’s business; set forth specific guidelines by which the firm

can conduct its search; and supplement the firm’s objective with decision rules which narrow the

firm’s selection process to the most attractive opportunities. Generally, there are three different

levels of strategies. Namely: corporate level strategies; Business/Competitive strategies;

Functional strategy (Wheelen & Hunger, 2003). The application of business strategy is used not

only for large firms but also for small firms. In terms of the application of competitive strategy

according to Hashim et al (2004), it was done at the business unit level.

Strategic Management process is a sequence of activities which comprised of evaluating

the external and the internal environment surrounding the organisation, formulating the

strategies, executing the strategies, evaluating and controlling the performance of the

organisations in a specified time frame (Wheelen & Hunger, 2003). In addition, strategic

management is an ongoing process that analyses and monitors the operations of organisations

and taking corrective actions where ever and whenever it is required by immediate reactions to

the changes in the environment. Members of the organisations will have a better understanding

on the directions of the organisations through strategic management. Besides, strategic

management provides the employees with broader perspective of an organisation. It creates

better employee and employer relationship by better understanding on their job functions and

their involvement in formulating the action plan (Hashim, 2008).

Strategic management acts as a platform in managing employees by maximizing their

capabilities to achieve their organisational objectives. Employees will become more trustworthy,

more committed and more satisfied as they could cooperate among themselves independently to

perform their job functions. Also, the employees will have a better understanding of the changes

in the environment and react accordingly to the changes by aligning their actions in achieving the

targeted output and the organisational objectives (Hashim, 2008).

Moreover, one of the important roles of strategic management is to align different functional

areas of the organisation and to ensure these functional areas cooperates each other in a strong

teamwork. Lastly, organisational objectives are clear to every member of the organisations

(Hashim, 2008).

2.1.5.1 Functions of Strategic Management

a) Environmental assessment

Environmental scanning is defined as the monitoring, evaluating, and disseminating of

information to key managers within the organisation, Kumar, K.S. and Strandholm, K.R.,

(2001). The findings of Ngamkroeckjoti & M. Johri, (2000) found that factors such as the

increase of environmental awareness of managers, the assessment of strengths and weaknesses

of the environment, the aid in problem recognition and thereby the facilitation of organisational

adaptation to environmental changes describes the effectiveness of environmental scanning

systems in business organisation.

b) Strategic Formulation
Strategy is developed from rationalizing the situation with the business environments to improve

the performance. The first approach is based on the decision process in which the strategy

development emphasized on answering the question of: Where are we going?; how to get there?;

what actions to take?; how to know we are on track? (Lorange, 1980). Harrison, 2003, defined

strategic formulation as “the process of planning strategies and it is often divided into the

corporate, business and the functional levels” (Harrison, 2003 p.19). Harrison 2003, has divided

strategic formulation into three levels which comprises corporate level strategy formulation,

business level strategy formulation and functional level strategy formulation. Strategy is

developed from rationalizing the situation with the business environments to improve the

performance. The first approach is based on the decision process in which the strategy

development

c) Strategic Implementations

Harrisons, 2003 define strategic implementation as “managing the stakeholder relationships and

organisational resources in a manner that moves the organisation towards the successful

execution of its strategies, consistent with its strategic direction” (Harrison, 2003 p.19).

Implementing strategies successfully means matching the planned and the realizing strategies,

with the aim to reach the organisational vision (Hashim, 2008).

The components of strategy implementation are communication, interpretation, adoption

and action. It is a paradigm where budgets are allocated and procedures are laid down according

to the formulated plan. This phase is the most difficult part of strategy process that is how to

implementing the strategy. Based on the review of literature of strategic management and public

relations, so many strategies that have been formulated and implemented but fail to arrive at the

objectives. However, “there has been surprisingly little work that has explicitly examined the
link between the processes by which strategic decision are made and their influence on strategy”

(Maritan and Schendel, 1997, p. 259).

It is very important for every businessman, either owners or managers to know and

understand the linkage between strategy process and the outcomes of it to maintain their

competitiveness in the market. The famous word of Pettigrew “the what, why and how

outcomes” must be systematically addressed. (Pettigrew, 1997, p.340). The absent of linkages to

the outcomes will expose the implementation of strategy to be in a highly risky situation. It is

accepted that companies often fail to turn strategy into action due to lack of aligned performance

measures (Bourne, M., Mills, J., Wilcox, M., Neely, A., Platts, K., 2000).

In order to overcome these limitations, we must have the capabilities of doing it. Although

there is a lot of research on the application of strategic management in business processes but

there are some limitations such as lack of linkages to the outcomes, need to focus on certain

discrete decisions as compared to the actual decisions and actions, concentration on single

processes level rather than involvement on the whole processes of strategic management

(Ahmad, S., 2005).

All these limitations need to be addressed. In order to overcome these limitations, we must

have the capabilities of doing it. These capabilities must be superior to other competitors and

Wheelen and Hunger calls it as distinctive capabilities (2012).

d. Evaluation and Control

Evaluation and control, is the final part of the strategic management process. It provides the

necessary feedback on whether the formulated strategies have been successfully implemented

(by keeping track of progress towards the objectives); strategies have been formulated correctly
in the first place (by measuring business results as well as customer and employee satisfaction).

They also provide a basis for rewarding and promoting success. Organisations must measure the

performance of individuals, teams, business units and processes against mutually defined

objectives. The criteria used must be directly related to the reasons for measurement and

represent a careful balance between efficiency (doing things right), effectiveness (doing the right

things) and evolution (the ability to adapt to change and sustain a competitive position).

2.2 Theoretical framework

2.2.1 Two-way symmetrical model

Two-way symmetrical model was by J. Grunig in 1989. Grunig (1989) recognised the two-way

symmetrical model as a way of practicing public relations through “using bargaining,

negotiating, and strategies of conflict resolution to bring about symbiotic changes in the ideas,

attitudes, and behaviours between the organisation and its publics”. The two-way symmetrical

model is characterised as most ethical and effective in practice, which provides a normative

theory for achieving excellent communication management. From a directional perspective, two-

way communication, allows for the exchange of information flows freely between systems, such

as organisations, publics, managements, and employees. From a purposive perspective,

symmetrical communication seeks moving equilibrium through cooperation and mutual

adjustment (Grunig, 1992). Grunig argued that organisations will become much more effective

through two-way symmetrical public relations than through one-way communication or

asymmetrical positions. Grunig presents several reasons why a two-way symmetrical

relationship is best including; there are no clear boundaries between organizations and other
systems due to free flow of information; conflicts will be resolved through negotiation and

communication due to thoughts of cooperation and mutual benefits; and the input of all people is

valued (Grunig,1992).

The success of PR campaign lies in two-way communication. It is imperative to the

sender of any message to get the reactions of the receiver through the feedback mechanism.

Through the feedback, an organization fine-tunes its product or services before they are sold to

the (consuming publics). Lindeborg (1994) cited in Asemah (2021), opines that two-way

symmetrical public relations “serve as a mechanism by which organisations and publics interact

to manage interdependence and conflict for the benefit of all”. It infers that everyone involved is

equal and that everything can be solved through dialogue, discussion and negotiation. Grunig&

Hunt, (1984) suggests that by promoting bonds of mutual trust between the organisation and its

publics by empowering them to shape and collaborate on organisational goals through feedback,

the organisations public relationship is strengthened.

While all the previous models of public relations have their focus in making the

organisation look good to the public, the two-way symmetrical model focuses on the ways and

manners of improving relationships between organisations and their publics (Laufer, and Wang,

2017). The two-way symmetrical model has been promoted as the first choice of organisations

that prefer to practice public relations in an excellent and most professional way. Usually, the

model uses a press conference or community and town hall strategy to allow members of the

public to be involved in knowledge sharing about their organisation.

This model is considered as the most ethical model of public relations because it uses

ethical and dialogue based communication which always helps to enhance the efficiency and

clout of the organisation among public circles (Megan and Noer, 2020). The basic objective of
the two-way symmetrical model is to negotiate with publics by providing them accurate

information, to resolve conflicts by providing the publics with suitable solutions and to

encourage mutual understanding and respect between the organisation and its publics through an

open and ethical communication policy.

The Two-way Symmetrical model is of great relevance to the present. Through two-way

communication, AKSU’s management of the can be able to monitor the feelings of its various

stakeholders on its policies. This can be achieved by creating feedback channels for stakeholders

to communicate with management. Also, with reciprocal communication, management can use

the feedbacks gotten to adjust it policies and decisions.

2.2.2 Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)

Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) was developed by Coombs in 2007. The

theory provides a framework for understanding how organisations should respond to crises

based on public perception and the level of responsibility attributed to the organisation.

(Coombs, 2017). SCCT includes strategists for crisis management who should align the strategic

crisis response with crisis obligation levels and the reputational challenge presented by a crisis

(Coombs, 2017). SCCT components identify crisis outcomes by focusing on a reputational

threat, corporate branding, and organisational reputation repair (Coombs, 2017). According to

the SCCT, organisation survival depends on the public relations director's ability to obtain

critical resources from the external environment for the long term (Almarshoodi, 2020). Crisis

response strategies seemingly make it easier for an organisation to categorise and deal with a

crisis.
 SCCT encompasses applications that researchers use in various psychosocial domains

such as educational achievement, health behaviours, organisational management, and affective

reactions (Kim, 2017). Marsen (2020) determined that organisational success depends on an

organisation's ability to adjust its structure to reduce reliance on others for resources and obtain

required external support. Organisational public relations directors use various procedures to

reduce uncertainty in resource flow (Sellnow et al., 2017). Consonants to SCCT, establishing

inter-organisational relationships are an appropriate procedure to attain organisational resources,

maintain dependence, and reduce uncertainty (Elliott & Villegas, 2020). Public relations

directors seek to increase organisational support by establishing a collaborative relationship with

corporate partners (Coombs, 2017).

Resource dependency guidance is essential for organisations to understand external

dependencies' difficulty (Claeys & Coombs, 2019). When a crisis takes an organisation by

surprise, the recovery crisis management strategy is necessary to salvage its reputation and

financial futures. Public relations directors can use SCCT to match strategic crisis responses to

the level of crisis responsibility. SCCT modelling aids in identifying crisis outcomes, including

effect, behavioural intentions, and organisational reputation (Coombs & Tachkova, 2019).

SCCT suggested guidelines can help public relations directors employ for reputational

protection during a crisis disruption. Not only is SCCT based on a business leader's

comprehension of organisational crises, it also anticipates how organisational leaders will react

to each type of crisis response. Because SCCT is a model for understanding crisis

communication at the strategic level, it does not provide detailed crisis management strategies.

Coombs (2020) pointed out that the crisis response effectiveness is influenced by how the

organisation's leaders managed the pre-crisis phase (prevention and preparation) and the post-
crisis stage (learning from mistakes and successes). In contrast, social media dynamics limit

developing a crisis response or preparation phase of a crisis (Coombs, 2017). In correlation with

SCCT, public relations directors can articulate the variables.

SCCT has been widely used in crisis communication research and practice, but it has

been criticised for its one-size-fits-all approach, as it may not fully consider the unique socio-

cultural contexts in which crises unfold (Kim & Sung, 2014). In the context of Nigerian

universities, SCCT is relevant in assessing how university administrators respond to crises such

as student protests, faculty strikes, or reputational damage from misconduct. Since public

perception plays a critical role in shaping the institution's credibility, university PR strategies

must align with SCCT’s recommendations to maintain trust and mitigate damage effectively.

2.2.3 Stakeholder theory

The stakeholder theory is an outcome produced by the battles between Berle and Dodd in 1930s.

Dodd believed that directors are the trustees of corporations, with the result that they have to

balance the interests of all constituents of companies and behave in a socially responsible

manner. However, Freeman is generally credited with popularising the stakeholder concept in

1984. But the concept was first used in 1963 in an internal memorandum at the Stanford

Research Institute. The theory was further expanded upon by Ian Mitroff in 1983, when he

published his book “Stakeholders of the organisational mind.” The theory is a theory of

organisational management and business ethics that addresses morals and values in managing an

organisation. The traditional definition of a stakeholder is any group or individual who can affect

or is affected by the achievement of the organisation's objectives (Freeman1984, cited in

Fontaine, Haarman & Schmid, 2006).

 The general idea of the stakeholder concept is a redefinition of the organisation. In

general, the concept is about what the organisation should be and how it should be

conceptualised. Freeman (2006), cited in Fontaine et al (2006) states that the organisation itself

should be thought of as grouping of stakeholders and the purpose of the organisation should be to

manage their interests, needs and viewpoints. The theory suggests that the purpose of a business

is to create as much value as possible for stakeholders; and further states that for executives to

keep their customers, they must sustain the interest of the customers and align them with their

ongoing plans. Stakeholder Theory argues that organisations must consider the interests of all

stakeholders—not just shareholders—in their decision-making processes.

Stakeholders include employees, students, government agencies, and the public, all of

whom influence or are affected by organisational actions. Since theory emphasises the need for

inclusive dialogue and responsiveness to stakeholder concerns, the interest of all stakeholders

concerned with a business or organisation must be taken into account. The theory looks at the

relationship between an organisation and others within its internal and external environments. It

also looks at how these connections influence how the business conducts its activities. The

theory emphasises the need for organisations to develop certain stakeholder competencies which

include: making a commitment to monitor their interest, developing strategies to effectively deal

with stakeholders and their concerns, dividing and categorising interests into manageable

segments, and ensuring that organisational function addresses the need of stakeholders.

Edward Freeman in 1983 posits the stakeholder theory to include just about anyone

affected by the company and its workings, and opposes the shareholder’s theory that sees the

shareholders as the only ones that the company should care about. Freeman suggests that a

company’s stakeholders are those groups without whose support the organisation would cease to
exist. This view paints the corporate environment as an ecosystem of related groups, all of which

need to be considered and satisfied to keep the company healthy and successful in the long term.

He described a healthy company as one that never loses sight of everyone involved in its success.

The theory is relevant to this study as it sees everyone as important and as such, their views,

complaints and opinions should be considered for the success and growth of the institution.

In relation to the present study, stakeholder theory is very important as it will help management

to properly identify its pertinent stakeholders. AKSU has pertinent stakeholders. They include

student, staff (both teaching and non-teaching), government and the host community, for the

institution to survive and operate functionally, the interest of these various stakeholders must be

taken into consideration if the institution.

2.2.4 Systems Theory

Proposed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968) and later applied to communication studies by Katz

and Kahn (1978), Systems Theory views organisations as interconnected units where different

components work together to achieve stability. The theory argues that organisations exist within

a broader environment and must continuously interact with external stakeholders to adapt to

changes and prevent dysfunction. Effective crisis communication, therefore, depends on

maintaining open and responsive channels between an organisation and its stakeholders. Critics

of Systems Theory argue that it oversimplifies complex organisational dynamics and does not

adequately account for power imbalances within institutions (Luhmann, 1995).

For Nigerian universities, this theory underscores the importance of a well-structured PR

system that ensures transparent communication with students, staff, and external stakeholders.
PR strategies should not only focus on damage control during crises but also on fostering

proactive engagement that prevents crises from escalating. For instance, during student protests,

a well-coordinated system of communication can help universities manage misinformation and

restore institutional harmony.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

2.3.1 Oluwagbemisola, O. O & Oduola, S. O. (2018). Public Relations Strategy and

Conflict Management in University of Lagos. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences,
Volume IX, No IV, 28-41.
The study identified the public relation strategies in managing conflict and examined the effect

of public relation strategies on conflict management in the University of Lagos. This study

utilised both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data were collected through the

administration of questionnaires. The set of questionnaires were administered to academic and

non-academic staffs and final year students of the University of Lagos to gather information in

order to identify Public Relations Strategies in managing conflict and the effect of Public

Relations Strategies on conflict management in the University of Lagos. For the purpose of

questionnaire administration, purposively sampling technique was used to select two hundred

and fifty (250) staff respondents drawn from different departments and three hundred and fifty

(350) students were also purposively selected across the faculties and departments in University

of Lagos. The secondary sources of information that were employed included relevant official

publications and records from the University of Lagos bulletin, journal articles, periodicals and

internet sources.

Data collected through the use of the questionnaire from the staff and students of the

University of Lagos were analysed using descriptive statistics such as percentages, tables and

frequency distribution as well as regression. Finally, the findings show that compromise or
dialogue, collective bargaining, effective communication and confrontation are Public Relations

Strategies adopted in conflict management by the University of Lagos management. Also,

Public Relations experts are given the chance to take part in decision-making process while

management is faithful to the bargain of public relations. The study concluded that Public

Relations Strategies such as collective bargaining and effective communication are effective in

managing conflict. On the other hand, problem-solving and avoidance and preventive, are less

effective in managing conflict.

2.3.2 Isaac, E. (2024). Comparative Analysis of Public Relations Strategies in Crisis

Management Across Industries in Ethiopia. American Journal of Public Relations, Vol.3,
Issue 1, pp 46 – 57.
Isaac in his study compare analysed the use of public relations strategies in crisis management

across industries in Ethiopia. The study adopted a desk study research design by collecting data

from existing resources using secondary data collection sources. Findings from study indicated

that while all sectors recognize the importance of effective communication during a crisis, the

specific strategies employed vary significantly based on industry characteristics. For instance,

the technology sector often prioritizes transparency and rapid information dissemination to

mitigate the rapid spread of misinformation, leveraging social media and digital platforms. In

contrast, the healthcare industry focuses on maintaining public trust and reassurance, often

utilizing spokespersons with high credibility and a calm, authoritative presence. The financial

sector typically emphasizes legal compliance and investor relations, providing detailed and

accurate financial reports to maintain stakeholder confidence. Furthermore, the hospitality

industry tends to adopt a customer-centric approach, aiming to resolve issues swiftly to protect

brand reputation and customer loyalty.

2.3.3 Ayinla, F. L. & Adesola, N. B. (2020). BBC Sex-for-Grades-Report: Nigeria Tertiary
Institutions ‘Crisis Management Strategies and Stakeholders’ Reactions. The Journal of
Society and Media, Vol. 4(1) 156-179.
The study examined the crisis management strategies of Nigerian tertiary institutions and

stakeholders' reactions after the British Broadcasting Corporation's sex-for-grades report.

Adopting qualitative research, the study analysed 13 available press releases of institutions

retrieved from some institutions' websites and sampled the opinions of 20 stakeholders

comprising parents, students, and lecturers through a depth interviews. The study used Coombs’

theory of crisis response strategies: denial, diminish, rebuild, and bolstering as thematic

categories. Findings from the study showed that institutions mostly used denial with diminished

response strategy to blame societal decadence and scapegoat female students for and

downplayed the severity of sexual harassment incidence by the institutions. More so, all the

stakeholders distrust the local media's credibility in reporting sexual harassment cases. However,

female students feel aggrieved that school administrations and the national government

neglected them for failing to outlaw sexual harassment and severely punish offenders.

Therefore, it was recommended that considering stakeholders' perception of sexual harassment

in Nigerian ivory towers, Nigerian higher educational institutions should not adopt a denial

response strategy for sex scandal cases.

2.3.4 Payton, P. (2021). Crisis Management Strategies for Sustaining Organisations

During a Crisis. Walden Dissertation and Doctoral Studies, Walden Dissertation and
Doctoral Collections, https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations.
Grounded in situational crisis communication theory, the purpose of this qualitative multiple

case study was to explore crisis management strategies that some public relations directors use

to maintain an organisation's reputation following a crisis to ensure continued profitability. Data

were collected using semi-structured interviews with three public relations directors from Upper

Manhattan, New York, supporting documents from previous case studies listed on their website,
and journal notes. Data analysed using thematic analysis identified three themes: reactive crisis

communications and decision making, sustainability crisis planning and organisational

reputation, and pre-crisis prevention and preparedness. A key recommendation is for public

relations directors responsible for handling crises to understand the potential threats, crisis, and

organisation encounters, thus innovating crisis management strategies to ensure continued

profitability. Positive social change implications could include improved crisis preparedness and

reduced crisis disruption while reducing damage economically to the organisation and

surrounding communities. The resulting positive social changes can help leaders and

organisations increase profits, create jobs, and support economic development at the local

community level.

2.3.5 Ahmad, S. (2012). Crisis - Strategic Management in Public Relation. International

Journal of Academic Research in Accounting Finance and Management Sciences, 2(4), 64–
85.
This study explored the strategic management approaches in public relations during crisis. The

main objective of this article is to identify the most effective action plan for Public relation. The

review of the strategic management in public relations literature reveals that the relationship

between strategic management and public relations is still vague. Four stages were identified in

the process of establishing the action plan for public relations and eleven strategic actions were

captured based on the review of literature as well as past working experience of the author. The

four stages are environmental assessment, strategic assessment, implementing the action plan

lastly evaluation and corrective actions. In addition, eleven strategic actions were identified for

effective public relations.

2.3.6 Adamolekun, W. & Ogedengbe, K. (2020). Crisis Communication and Stakeholders’

Expectations: Implications for The Practice of Public Relations in Organisations. Idia
Journal of Mass Communication, Igbinedion University, Okada, Volume 5, 21-39.
This study examines crisis communication and management from the perspective of public

relations. It also assesses types, causes, attributes, elements, stages, template and plan for crisis

management as well as issues management, preventive strategies of crisis, elements of crisis

communication and the expectations of the stakeholders of the organisation during crisis.

Primary and secondary research methodologies were employed. The study found that the

expectations of the stakeholders during crisis are different and the expectations are determined

by the interests of the specific stakeholder. While the customers want the organisations to tell

them the truth about the crisis and ways to prevent future occurrences, the media expects that the

organisations allow them to interrogate the crisis and interview the other parties for their sides of

the crisis. However, the media and customers agree that the public relations practitioners in

organisations do not really evaluate their relationships with them and further study is

recommended in this area.

2.3.7 Okoi, S. J & Okon, P. E. (2018). Public Relations Practice in Crisis Management: A
Case Study of Cross River University of Technology (CRUTECH), Calabar. Uniuyo
Journal of Communication Studies, Vol.2, No.1, 34-56.

This study examined the application of public relations strategies in the management of crisis in

the Cross River State University of Technology (CRUTECH). The study adopted the survey

research method and worked on a population of 17,766 while the sample size was 400. Data

were collected through the questionnaire and structured interview. Findings revealed that public

relations activities in CRUTECH were not very effective as the management of the institution

made use of discussion as the major public relations strategy in managing crises. It was,

therefore, recommended that the public relations unit in CRUTECH should be upgraded to a

full-fledged department in order for it to render more public relations services to the institution.
2.3.8 Oyeleke, A. (2020). Public Relations and Crisis Management in Federal Teaching
Hospital Abakaliki and University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu. Ebonyi State
University Journal of Mass Communication, Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp. 194-203.

This study examined public relations and crisis management in University of Nigeria Teaching

Hospital Enugu and Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki. The study was premised on one

theoretical perspectives - the Two Way Symmetric Model. Survey research method was

employed. The population of the study was 10,122 from where a sample of 331 was drawn

using Taro Yamane formula to establish the sample size. Out of 331 copies of the questionnaire

distributed to respondents in both UNTH and FETHA, 323 were returned and used for the

analysis. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequency count,

percentage and inferential statistics of multiple regression analysis. The findings of this study

show that public relations and crisis management strategies in UNTH and FETHA have

significant effects on staff performance. The study recommended that a public relations strategy

should be developed within the context of the organisation’s vision, mission, corporate culture,

policies and continuously engage stakeholders in dialogue, mediation, sensitization programe

and negotiation with the aim of resolving industrial disputes, management and staff union

disputes.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

According to Kothari (2014), research design refers to the advanced planning of the methods to

be adopted for data collection and analysis, ensuring that the study remains focused on its

objectives. The research design provides a structured approach to answering the specified

research questions. Based on a review of relevant literature and identifying gaps in previous

studies, this study proposes a qualitative research approach.

 The qualitative method allows for an in-depth exploration of the subject matter through

interviews with experts. As Creswell (2012: p.6) posits, qualitative research builds a complex,

holistic understanding of the phenomenon by analysing words, incorporating detailed views from

informants, and conducting the study in a natural setting. To achieve this, the study will employ

an exploratory research design. Seale (2004:10) describes exploratory research as an approach

that investigates under-researched aspects of social life, while Kothari (2014) emphasizes the

necessity of flexibility in exploratory research design. This approach is deemed suitable for

generating comprehensive insights into the research problem.

3.2 Population of the Study

The study population consists of individuals and groups relevant to the research problem.

Specifically, the study will focus on staff members of Akwa Ibom State University and

University of Calabar, particularly those involved in Public Relations policy formulation and

implementation. The target population includes 142 members of the Governing Council and 9

members of the Information, Protocol, and Public Relations (IPPR) Units of both institution as

obtained from the Directorate of Human Resources of both universities.

3.3 Sample Size

Creswell (2012) defines a sample as a subset of the target population selected for the study to

generalize findings. Due to the small nature of the study’s population, the entire population will

be studied. According to Damico (2016), when a population is small and well defined, the entire

population is usually studied. Therefore, the sample size of this study will be 151.
3.4 Sampling Technique

Sampling Technique refers to the method used to select individuals or items from a larger

population to participate in research study (Cresswell, 2012). The study will adopt a non-

probability sampling technique, specifically purposive sampling. Purposive sampling also called

judgemental sampling is a sampling technique which the researcher deliberately select

participants based on specific characteristics or qualities relevant to the study. Purposive

sampling will be used because it will enable the researcher to purposefully select participants

based on their expertise and relevance to the study. The researcher intends to select participants,

six (6) who are staff members from the IPPR Units and four (4) from the Governing Council of

the universities for in-depth interviews.

3.5 Description of the Data Gathering Instruments

The primary data collection instrument for this study will be the Interview Guide. The Interview

Guide will facilitate in-depth discussions with key management staff, including the Chief

Security Officer and the Head of the IPPR Unit. The guide will contain eight (8) structured

questions, with two (2) questions dedicated to each research question of the study. The same

Interview Guide will be administered to all participants to maintain consistency and ensure

comprehensive data collection.

3.6 Method of Data Collection

To gather data for this study, permission will be sought from the two universities registrars to

access the Governing Council members. The researcher will also seek permission from the Head

of the Public Relations Unit of both institutions to access the IPPR staff members. Interviews

will be conducted face-to-face by the researcher with the interviewees at their respective offices.
The interview sessions will be recorded using the researchers mobile phone to be transcribed

later. Prospective participants to be interviewed in this study includes:

3.7 Validity of the Research instrument: The validity of the questionnaire and interview

questions will be ensured using face validity technique. To ensure validity, the research

instrument will be subjected to scrutiny by the project supervisor and two communication

scholars who are senior lecturers in the Department of Mass Communication at Akwa Ibom State

University. Corrections will be made based on their feedback.

3.8 Reliability of the research Instrument

To assess reliability, a pre-test will be conducted among media professionals, using a test-retest

strategy. The data from the two tests will be subjected to the main reliability test using Pearson's

r Correlational coefficient statistical procedure.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Thematic analysis will be employed to analyse the data collected in this study. Thematic analysis

involves identifying, organising, and interpreting patterns within qualitative data (cresswell). Yin

(2003) defines themes as overarching ideas that emerge during the research process. Therefore,

the collected data will be systematically categorised into themes and sub-themes based on

emerging patterns from the interview responses. This approach will enable the researcher to

derive meaningful insights and address the research questions effectively.

References
Adamolekun, W. & Ogedengbe, K. (2020). Crisis Communication and Stakeholders’
Expectations: Implications for The Practice of Public Relations in Organisations. Idia
Journal of Mass Communication, Igbinedion University, Okada, 5, 21-39
Ahmad, S. (2012). Crisis - Strategic Management in Public Relation. International Journal of
Academic Research in Accounting Finance and Management Sciences, 2(4), 64–85.
Aikins, E.D. and Adu-Oppong, A.A. (2015). Using public relations as a management tool in
tertiary institutions. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 4(2), 1-15.

Akwa Ibom State University. (n.d). Brief History of the University. https://aksu.edu.ng/newsite/
history-of-the-university/

Alzahrani, F. (2016). The Role of Public Relaions in Organisational Crisis Management.

International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 17(2), 1085-1086.
Amaresan, S. (2019). Situational crisis communication theory and how it helps a business.
Retrieved fromhttps://blog.hubspot.com/service/situational- crisis- communication-
theory.
Amaresan, S. (2020). Six crisis communication plan examples and how to write your own.
Retrieved from https://blog.hubspot.com/service/crisis- communication-plan
Arthur, W. (2020). Crisis communication. Retrieved from https://pagecentertraining.psu.edu/
publicrelationsethic/ethics in crisismanagement/lesson-1-prominent-ethical-issues- in-
crisis-situations/crisis-communication/.
Asemah, E. (2012). Understanding Public relations. Jos: Lizborn Press.
Asemah, E. (2023). Perspectives in Advertising and Public Relations. (ed). Jos: Matkol Prints
Asemah, E. S. & Nwammuo, A. N. (2018). All about financial and employee relations. Jos:
University Press.
Ayinla, F. L. & Adesola, N. B. (2020). BBC Sex-for-Grades-Report: Nigeria Tertiary Institutions
‘Crisis Management Strategies and Stakeholders’ Reactions. The Journal of Society and
Media, 4(1) 156-179.
Babaleye, T. (2013). Principles and practice of public relations: Lagos: Banktab Limited
Publication.
Bararia, R. (2018). Significance of crisis communications: Internal and external. Retrieved
from https://reputationtoday.in/significance-of-crisis-communications-internal-and
external/.
Coombs, T. W. (2010). Parameters for crisis communication. In T. W. Coombs & S. J Holladay
(Eds.). The Handbook of Crisis Communication. London: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Coombs, W. T & Hollandry, S.J. (2015). Public Relations identity in research: Enlightenment
or illusion. Public Relations Quarterly. 1(1) 13-25.
Gonzalez, L., & Munoz, C. (2019). Crisis communication in Mexican firms: Strategies and
impacts. Journal of Business Research, 106, 200-209.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.09.036
Grunig, J, Grunig L, and Dozier, D. (2006). The excellence theory. In C. Botan & V. Hazleton
(eds), Public Relations Theory II. New York City: Routledge..
Grunig, J. and Grunig, L. (1992). Models of public relations and communication. In Grunig (ed),
Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, New Jersey: J
Erlbaum.
Grunig, J. and Hunt, T. (1984). Managing Public Relations. California: Thomson Wadsworth,
Belmont.
Grunig, J. E. (1992). Communication, public relations and effective organisations: an overview
of the book. In J. E. Grunig (Ed), Excellence in Public Relations and Communication
management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Grunig, J. E. (2011). Public Relations and Strategic Management: Institutionalizing

Organization-Public Relationships in Contemporary Soceity. Central European Journal
of Communication, 12(3), 12 - 30.

Grunig, J. E. (2011). Public Relations and Strategic Management: Institutionalising

Organisation-Public Relationships in Contemporary Society. Central European Journal
of Communication, 6(8), 12 - 30.
Gupta, S., & Kumar, V. (2020). Crisis communication strategies in emerging markets: Evidence
from India. Journal of Business Research, 115, 101-109.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.04.001
Harrison, J. S., & Wicks, A. C. (2021). Stakeholder theory, value, and firm performance.
Business Ethics Quarterly, 31(2), 203-230. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2020.31
Hassan, S. (2013). Mass Communication: Perspectives and concepts (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
CBS.
Institute for Public Relations. (2007). Crisis management and communications. Rettrieved from
https://instituteforpr.org/crisis-management-and- communications/.
Isaac, E. (2024). Comparative Analysis of Public Relations Strategies in Crisis Management
Across Industries in Ethiopia. American Journal of Public Relations, 3(1), 46 – 57.
Management Study Guide. (2020 b). Crisis communication: Meaning, need and its process.
Retrieved from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/crisis- communication.html.
Management Study Guide. (2020a). Integrated marketing communications. Retrieved from
https://www.managementstudyguide.com/integrated-marketing-communications.html.

McKie, D., & Sriramesh, K. (2017). Public Relations. In S. Craig, & L. Lewin, The International
Encyclopedia of Organisational Communication (pp. 1-16). Chicago: John Wiley &
Sons.
Ogbuehi, E.I. (2012). The impact of public relations on performance of Nigerian Banks after
mergers and acquisitions. Unpublished M.Sc Dissertation Submitted to the Department of
Marketing, University Of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu.
Okoi, S. J & Okon, P. E. (2018). Public Relations Practice in Crisis Management: A Case Study
of Cross River University of Technology (CRUTECH), Calabar. Uniuyo Journal of
Communication Studies, 2(1), 34-56.
Okwumba, E. (2015). The relevance of public relations strategies in managing strike actions in
Nigerian universities. Proceedings of The IRES 3rd International Conference, Dubai,
UAE, 4th July, pp. 71- 73.
Oluwagbemisola, O. O & Oduola, S. O. (2018). Public Relations Strategy and Conflict
Management in University of Lagos. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences,IX,(IV), 28-
41.
Oyeleke, A. (2020). Public Relations and Crisis Management in Federal Teaching Hospital
Abakaliki and University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu. Ebonyi State University
Journal of Mass Communication, 7(1), 194-203.
Payton, P. (2021). Crisis Management Strategies for Sustaining Organisations During a Crisis.
Walden Dissertation and Doctoral Studies, Walden Dissertation and Doctoral
Collections, https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations
Sisson, D. C., & Bowen, S. A. (2017). Reputation management and authenticity: A case stuy of
Starbucks’ UK tax crisis and “# SpreadTheCheer” campaign. Journal of Communication
Management, 21(3), 287-302. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-06- 2016-0043
 Skarbek, D. (2020). Qualitative research methods for institutional analysis. Journal of
Institutional Economics, 16(4), 409-422. https://doi.org/10.1017/S174413741900078X
156
Skinner, C., Vonessen, L., Mersham, G. and Motau, S. (2010). Handbook of public relations
(9th ed). Oxford University Press South Africa (pty) Ltd. Cape Town.
Smarp. (2020). Crisis communication: Definition, importance and best practices. Retrieved
from https://blog.smarp.com/crisis-communication-definition-importance-best-practices.
Smith, B. G., Smith, S. B., & Knighton, D. (2018). Social media dialogues in a crisis: A mixed-
methods approach to identifying publics on social media. Public relations review, 44(4),
562-573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2018.07.005
Smith, K. D. (2019). Four Ps for effective communication. Journal American Water Works
Association, 111(7), 54-59. https://doi.org/10.1002/awwa.1325

Sterne, G. (2008). Public Relations Among the Functions of Management: A New Perspective.
Public Relations Journal, 5(9), 1-14.

University of Calabar. (n.d). About Unical, https://unical.edu.ng/newtest/about