Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Calabanga | Pasacao | Pili | Sipocot

Animal Reproduction
Terminologies
 Androgen is a male sex hormone, such as testosterone; A type of hormone
that promotes the development and maintenance of male sex
characteristics.
 Artificial insemination (AI) is when semen is placed into the cervix.
 Conceptus is the production of conception being the embryo/fetus together with
the surrounding membranes(s).
 Corpus luteum (plural corpora lutea; Latin for “yellow body”) produces
progesterone that in turn allows and maintains pregnancy.
 Estrous is an adjective describing the estrous cycle (in U.S. English).
 Estrus is a noun denoting the time of heat.
Terminologies
 Function of the gonads is to produce gametes and sex hormones.
 Gonad is the ovary in females and testis in males; the primary reproductive
organ
 Libido is the desire to mate.
 Monoestrous is where there is a single estrus followed by an absence of
ovarian activity.
 Polyestrous is where an animal will show repeated estrus separated by 16–23
days depending on the species.
 Reflex ovulators show estrus but require mating to ovulate.
Terminologies
 Pregnancy recognition is when the conceptus signals its presence to the
mother to allow pregnancy to continue.
 The primordial germ cell migrates to the site destined to be the gonad. Cells
become gonocytes in the developing gonad and ultimately become gametes.
 Progesterone is the hormone that is essential to the maintenance of pregnancy.
Terminologies
 Sertoli cells are in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. They function as “nurse
cells” for developing spermatozoa.
 Testis (plural testes) is the primary male reproductive organ because it
produces spermatozoa. The testes also produce the male reproductive hormone
testosterone.
 Vas deferens connects the epididymis with the urethra. It provides an
environment suitable for survival of spermatozoa and the additions of the
secretions of the accessory glands resulting in semen.
Male Sexual Characteristics
Female Sexual Characteristics
 Male Reproductive Organs
Testes
• primary reproductive organs, with spermatozoa produced in very large numbers
in the seminiferous tubules
• in addition, they have specific cells in the interstitium between the seminiferous
tubules, the Leydig cells. These produces the hormone testosterone (TST)
• The testes are located outside the body in a bag-like structure, called scrotum
• This enables the temperature of the testes to be maintained at low temperature
(3-5 degree Celsius) than the body, without which spermatogenesis becomes
very inefficient, and the animal is largely infertile
• In cold weather, the testes are brought close to the body because of the
contraction of cremaster muscles connecting the testes to the abdominal cavity
and the tunica dartos muscles in the scrotal wall.
10
Seminiferous tubules- hollow structure in which the germ
cells differentiate to spermatozoa.

Epididymis- is a coiled structure also in the scrotum.

Functions of epididymis includes;
 Storage of quiescent but live spermatozoa before
ejaculation
 Maturation of spermatozoa
 Addition of nutrient to the semen for spermatozoa to use
for movement; epididymis is between the testes to the vas
deferens
MALE ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS
• Situated along the pelvic portion of the urethra
• Comprises of vesicular gland, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands; it varies
depending on species
• Ampullary gland- surrounds the terminal part of the ductus deferens
 Male Reproductive Organs
Seminal vesicles
• produces secretions that are added to the spermatozoa.
• These contains proteins to stimulate capacitation of the spermatozoa after
ejaculation and gelling or clotting of the semen
• In addition, there are significant quantities of the sugar fructose together with
citrate; which is to provide energy for the spermatozoa
• There are also prostaglandins, which stimulates contraction of the female
reproductive tract
• Boars: has a very large seminal vesicles; there is a tremendous need for
these secretions to produce the average of 0.35 pt (175 mL) of ejaculate in
the boar, with some boars producing about 1 pt of ejaculate
 Male Reproductive Organs

Prostate gland
• produces secretions that are added to the spermatozoa.
• The secretions are slightly alkaline (to neutralize the
lactic acid present because spermatozoa are stored in
the epididymis) and contain low concentration of proteins
BULBOURETHRAL GLAND
• Found in all domestic animals except in dog; situated into
the dorsal aspect of the pelvic urethra close to the pelvic
exit

**All accessory sex glands has a well-developed soft tissue

capsules and internal septum, rich in smooth muscle fibers;
these muscle fibers are innervated by the ANS and are
responsible for expelling the secretion of the glands
 Male Reproductive Organs
Sagittal view of the bull reproductive tract anatomy.

Sagittal view of an excised bull reproductive tract. A -ampulla; BP -body

of prostate; CM -cremaster muscle; CP -crus penis; DD -ductus deferens;
GP -glans penis; IcM -ischiocavernosus muscle; PS -penile shaft; RPM -
retractor penis muscle; SF -sigmoid flexure; TE -tail of epididymis; T -
testis; UM -urethralis muscle; UB -urinary bladder; VG -vesicular gland.
Male Reproductive Organs

Boar

Dog (take note of the

presence of os penis or
baculum)

Stallion
 Male Reproductive Organs

• The vas deferens and urethra are the ducts through which
spermatozoa passes along during ejaculation
• The urethra connects the bladder and the vas deferens
with the tip of the penis
• Urine from the bladder also passes through it; during
ejaculation, semen is expelled into the vagina or cervix in
some species
• The secretion from the Cowper’s gland acts to clean the
urethra
 Male Reproductive Organs
• The penis becomes erect at times of sexual arousal such that it can be
inserted into the vagina
• The corpus cavernosum (corpora cavernosa) is a spongy tissue surrounding
the urethra in the penis
• During sexual arousal, corpora cavernosa becomes rigid due to it being
engorged with blood because there is much less blood draining from the penis.
• In bulls, rams, and boar, the sigmoid flexure and the retractor muscle extend
the penis from the sheath
• In dogs, cats, and most primates there is a bone in the penis that facilitates
erection. E.g Os penis or baculum
Penis are classified according to the connective tissue content into a
fibroelastic penis and musculocavernous penis

Fibroelastic penis- Has small blood spaces divided by a substantial

amount of tough fibroelastic tissue enclosed by thick tunica albuginea
surrounding both the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum.

Musculocavernous penis- Blood spaces are larger and the tunic and
intervening septum is much more delicate and muscular. A relatively
larger volume of blood is required to achieve erection which is marked
by a significant increase in both diameter and length of the penis.
PREPUCE- cutaneous sheath around the free part of the of the penis
in a quiescent state. It has a thinner laminae continuous with the skin
over the glans penis. Its outer lamina is continuous with the skin on
the abdomen.
Function of Male Reproductive Organ
Synonym for
Cowper’s gland is
bulbourethral gland
 Microanatomy of the Seminiferous tubules

Seminiferous tubules are coiled tubes located within

the testicles, and are the specific location of
meiosis, and the subsequent creation of male
gametes, namely spermatozoa.
 Nervous Control of Erection and Ejaculation
 Sensory input is delivered to the spinal cord
via branches of the pudendal nerve.
 Nitric oxide activates relaxation of corporal
cavernosal smooth muscle tissue resulting
in increased blood flow into the penis
resulting in an erection.
 Autonomic nerves are involved with
emission of seminal fluid, while motor input
to the bulbospongiosus muscles causes
expulsion.
 Spinothalamic nerves are involved with
integrating this complex signaling.
 Avian Male Reproduction
 Sperm remains viable at body temperature.

 The avian male reproductive tract is entirely

inside the body.

 The testes (elliptical and yellow in color)

produce sperm, and then the sperm travels
through a vas deferens to the cloaca.
Location of the male
reproductive system
 Each vas deferens opens into a small in a chicken (Image
bump, or papilla, on the back wall of the by Dr. Jacquie Jacob,
cloaca. The papillae (plural of papilla) serve University of
as the mating organs Reproductive tract of a male Kentucky).
chicken (Image by Dr. Jacquie
 Castration in roosters is called Jacob, University of Kentucky).
caponization.
Female Reproductive Organ

Isolated reproductive organs of cow (A), ewe (B), and mare (C)
 Female Reproductive Organs
Ovary
• There are two ovaries whose principal function is to produce ova; the ova
develop in follicles associated with other cells a developing fluid-filled lumen
• The follicle develops from a primary, to a secondary, to a tertiary follicle.
• When the follicle is fully mature (Graafian follicle), it produces estradiol.
• This stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and then the ovulation of
ova surrounded by a thin membrane called zona pellucida.
• One or multiple follicles can ovulate at the same time; the remnants of a follicle
after ovulation first form corpus hemorrhagicum (bloody or red body), and
this develops into corpus luteum (yellow body)
• The CL produces progesterone and after functioning in the estrous cycle
or pregnancy, the CL breaks down by the process of luteolysis for the
corpus albicans(white body)
Function of the Female Reproductive Organ
 Female Reproductive Organs

• The ovum is caught in the infundibulum of the oviduct.

• The oviduct functions to move the ovum to the uterus and as the site
for fertilization
• After fertilization, the ovum is called the zygote or conceptus
• Uterus is the site where the embryo implants and the fetus develops
• The walls of the uterus are composed of a glandular layer
(endometrium), and layer of smooth muscles (myometrium)
Female Reproductive Organ

Isolated reproductive organs of cow (A), ewe (B), and mare (C)
Comparative anatomy of the uterus

The bicornuate uterus has two large uterine horns, a uterine body and a
single cervix – porcine, canine and feline, ruminants and equine. In
canines, felines and swine, the uterine horns are highly developed.
Clinical Significance:
Pyometra is a life-threatening, inflammatory bacterial infection of the
uterus of mature intact female canines. The word “pyometra” literally
means pus in the uterus
 Female Reproductive Organs
• the cervix is a barrier between the uterus and vagina; it is normally constricted
because of connective tissue and muscles with a mucus plug to prevent foreign
materials such as pathogens entering the uterus.
• During estrus, there is some relaxation and before parturition, the connective
tissue breaks down to facilitate delivery of the neonate
• It is relatively relaxed to allow the passage of sperm into the uterus; during
pregnancy, it remains tightly closed, sealing the uterus from the vagina
• The vagina is the site for insemination, and when expanded, becomes part of
the birth canal during the birth process
• The vulva is the external opening. It consists of labia majora (of the same
embryonic origin as the scrotum in male), labia minora, and clitoris, which
is erectile tissue with same embryonic origin as the penis in male.
 Hen Reproductive System
 In almost all species of birds, including poultry, only the left ovary and oviduct are
functional.
 Although the female embryo has two ovaries, only the left one develops.
 The right one typically regresses during development and is nonfunctional
(rudimentary) in the adult bird.
 Infundibulum: it functions by engulfing the ovulated ovum, where fertilization occurs. The
ovum spends 15-30 minutes here
 Magnum: it functions by adding concentrated egg white proteins and membranes to the egg.
The ovum spends 2-3 hours here
 Isthmus: it functions by adding fluid to egg white. The ovum spends 1-2 hours here
 Uterus: it functions by adding calcium carbonate shell to the egg with calcium coming as
ionized calcium from the blood and the carbonate coming from bicarbonates also in the
blood. The ovum spends 20-26 hours here.
 Vagina: it functions by expelling the egg due to muscular contractions (this called
ovipostion), and is the site for insemination and spermatozoa storage in vaginal ducts or
glands. The ovum spends only a few minutes here
SEGMENTS OF THE OVIDUCT
FORMATION OF EGG

Oviduct segment Length Function Time spent

(cm)
Infundibulum 8 Pick up of the ovulated ova; 15 min
site of fertilization
Magnum 33 Secretion of albumin 3 hr
Isthmus 10 Secretion of shell membrane 1 ½ hr
Shell gland 12 Addition of fluid to egg 20 hr
(plumping); stratification of
albumin and shell production
Vagina 12 Sperm storage and egg 1 min
transport
 Development of Reproductive Organs

Germ cells—cells that give rise to gametes—play a key role in sexual differentiation by affecting gonad development
 Development of Reproductive Organs
A sex-determination system is a biological system
that determines the development of sexual
characteristics in an organism.

 Sex is genetically determined.

 Mammals having XY (or much less commonly XXY)

sex chromosomes will develop testes.

 In contrast, XX or X0 individuals develop as a

female with two ovaries.

 Males have an X together with a Y chromosome that

is small and gene poor.

 Females have two X chromosomes.

 The principal gene controlling the sex of a mammal

is the Sry gene (sex-determining region Y gene) on
the Y chromosome.

 A mammal with a Sry gene in virtually all cases

develops testes.
 Development of Reproductive Organs
Sex Determination in Birds

 Female birds have a W and Z

chromosome, and males have two Z
chromosomes.

 The W chromosome is small, like the Y

chromosome in mammals.

 The sex- determining genes in birds

are not known, but at least some are
probably on the W chromosome.
Reproductive Hormones
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone: GnRH is a
modified peptide with 10 amino acid residues. It has
been also called LH-releasing hormone in the past.
Gonadotropin Inhibiting Hormone: GnIH inhibits the
release of both gonadotropins, LH and FSH, in both
mammals and birds.
Reproductive Hormones
Luteinizing Hormone: LH is a glycoprotein hormone
that is produced by the anterior pituitary gland
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone: FSH is a glycoprotein
hormone that is produced by the anterior pituitary gland
Testosterone is the male sex hormone. It is a steroid,
and like all steroids it is synthesized from cholesterol.
Estrogens, such as estradiol, estrone, and estriol are
the female sex hormones. They are steroids produced
by the follicle before ovulation..
Reproductive Hormones
 Progesterone. Its major role is maintaining pregnancy.
 Prostaglandins are modified fatty acids that play critically important roles in
reproduction. One prostaglandin, prostaglandin F2α, causes the breakdown of
the CL and stimulates contractions of the uterus. Prostaglandin E1, causes the
laying of the egg in the chicken.

 Oxytocin is a peptide hormone produced by the posterior pituitary gland. It

causes uterine contractions during the birthing process and milk to be let down
from the mammary gland.
 .
Male Reproductive Hormones
Female Reproductive Hormones
Female Reproductive Hormones
Gametogenesis
 Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells
undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes.
 Spermatogenesis occur throughout the life of the male animal, except in the seasonal
breeders, when it is restricted to the breeding season.
 In the female, the number of oocytes in the ovary is established at birth.
 After birth, there is the loss of oocytes after ovulation or follicular atresia and by cell
death. Cell division requires duplication of the genome by mitosis (or meiosis).
 In addition, there are nuclear mitochondria replication factors released from the
nucleus to stimulate mitochondrial multiplication.
Gametogenesis
 Meiosis is a type
of cell division in
sexually
reproducing
organisms that
reduces the
number of
chromosomes in
gametes (the sex
cells, or egg and
sperm).
 Spermatogenesis
 Spermatogenesis requires
the hormone FSH and
testosterone. To produce
motile spermatozoa,
spermatogenesis involves
three distinct processes:

The process of spermatogenesis as the cells

progress from primary spermatocytes, to
secondary spermatocytes, to spermatids, to
sperm
Oogenesis
 Oogenesis begins when the 2n
oogonium undergoes mitosis, producing
a primary oocyte.
 The primary oocytes arrest in prophase I
before birth.
 After puberty, meiosis of one oocyte per
menstrual cycle continues, resulting in a
1n secondary oocyte that arrests in
metaphase II and a polar body.
 Upon ovulation and sperm entry, meiosis
is completed and fertilization occurs,
resulting in a polar body and a fertilized
egg.
Image credit: OpenStax Biology.
Parts of the Sperm
Development of the Follicle
 The maturation of a follicle is shown
in a clockwise direction proceeding
from the primordial follicles.
 FSH stimulates the growth of a
tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates
the production of estrogen by
granulosa and theca cells.
 Once the follicle is mature, it
ruptures and releases the oocyte.
 Cells remaining in the follicle then
develop into the corpus luteum.
 The corpus albicans, is a scar on
the surface of the ovary that is a
remnant of ovulation.
Development of the Follicle
Primary follicle
 The oocyte is surrounded by a

single layer of (cuboidal) cells and a

basement membrane.
 The cells around the oocyte are

destined to become granulosa cells.

 Bovine oocytes normally are about

0.1 mm in diameter.
 Most primary follicles are located

near the surface of the ovaries.

Development of the Follicle
Secondary follicle
 This is located near the surface of

the ovary. The tunica albuginea

covering the surface of the ovary is
on the right.
 The oocyte is usually about 120 μm

in diameter, has a small darkly

staining nucleus, and is surrounded
by several layers of small darkly
staining granulosa cells.
Development of the Follicle
Pre-ovulatory or Graafian follicle
 The follicle is bulging from the

surface of the ovary before

ovulation.
 The preovulatory follicle contains

the ovum surrounded by the zona

pellucida and cumulus oophorus
(granulose cells), a fluid-filled cavity
or lumen, and the granulosa and
theca internal cells that together
produce the estrogen hormone,
estradiol.
The Estrous Cycle
 Estrous cycles are named for the cyclic appearance of behavioral sexual activity
(estrus) that occurs in all mammals except for higher primates.
 Menstrual cycles, which occur only in primates, are named for the regular appearance of
menses due to the shedding of the endometrial lining of the uterus.
 Length of the cycle varies among species.
 Polyestrous animals can go into heat several times per year; ex. pigs, cows, cat
 Seasonally polyestrous animals like mare undergoes regular estrous cycles during a
portion of the year (late spring, summer and early fall) and none at others (winter).
 Monestrous species, such as canids and bears, have only one breeding season per year.
 A few mammalian species, such as rabbits, do not have an estrous cycle, instead being
induced to ovulate by the act of mating and are able to conceive at almost any arbitrary
moment.
The Estrous Cycle
 Cyclic ovarian function is under the control of three
interacting components: hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and
ovary.
 The hypothalamus contains neurons that release the
neuropeptide GnRH into the hypophysial portal vasculature,
which then acts on the anterior pituitary to stimulate the
release of the gonadotropins, LH and FSH.
 The gonadotropins acting on the ovary provide the
hormonal signals that regulate the ovarian cycle and
stimulate production of estradiol and progesterone.
 In turn, the steroid hormones are part of exquisitely
sensitive feedback loops that suppress or stimulate the
release of GnRH from the hypothalamus and LH and FSH
from the anterior pituitary.
 Therefore, normal ovarian cycles are regulated by feed-
forward and feedback control systems. In addition to the
internal hormonal signals that control ovarian cycles, external
signals are important in some species. For example, the rat
estrous cycle is critically linked to the daily circadian rhythm,
whereas the sheep estrous cycle is dependent on
photoperiod to stimulate periods of seasonal breeding.
Stages of Estrous Cycle
 Proestrus: the period between the regression of the corpus luteum of the previous
cycle and estrus.
 Estrus: when high amount of estrogen is presents in the blood. Also called “in heat”
 Metestrus: the corpus luteum develops under the influence of LH and starts to
produce increasing amounts of progesterone.
 Diestrus: the period between metestrus and the beginning of the regression of the
corpus luteum.
 Anestrus: complete absence of estrus
 Features of the Reproductive Cycle

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 Features of the Reproductive Cycle

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Mating
 Mating or coitus involves the male
mounting a receptive female, that
is, a female at estrus or heat.
 The erect penis is inserted into the
vagina in mammals, with
ejaculation into the posterior vagina
or cervix, depending on species.
Capacitation
 The spermatozoa move into the oviduct to
fertilize the ovum.
 Movement is due to the tail of the spermatozoa,
together with both muscular and cilia-caused
movement of fluid in the female tract.
 After ejaculation, the spermatozoa undergo a
change such that they become capable of
fertilizing the ovum.
 This is a process called capacitation and is
triggered by specific protein(s) from seminal
vesicles.
 In mammals, spermatozoa retain their ability to
fertilize for only about 24–30 hours after mating.
 The egg cell lives about 12 hours after it is
released if it is not fertilized.
 In mammals, the oviduct can act as a short-term
sperm reservoir, storing the sperm before the
arrival of the ovum.
Fertilization
 After a sperm cell comes in contact with the
outer layers of an egg cell, the acrosome,
which is a prominence at the anterior tip of
the spermatozoa, undergoes a series of
well-defined structural changes that opens a
path for the sperm nucleus.
 Fertilization happens with the the fusion of
gametes to give rise to a zygote and
initiate its development into a new individual
organism or offspring.
 The zygote divides to form a blastocyst and,
upon entering the uterus, implants in the
endometrium, beginning pregnancy or
gestation.
On Artificial Insemination
 Artificial insemination is the technique in
which semen with living sperms is
collected from the male and
introduced into female reproductive
tract at proper time with the help of
instruments.
 This has been found to result in a normal
offspring.
 In this process, the semen is
inseminated into the female by placing a
portion of it either in a collected or diluted
form into the cervix or uterus by
mechanical methods at the proper time
and under most hygienic conditions.
Pregnancy or Gestation
 Gestation is the time during which an animal is pregnant.
 The duration of gestation varies with species
 There is a continuum in development in utero with a number of distinct processes,
including the following:
 Cell division being immediately after fertilization
Pregnancy or Gestation
 The fertilized ovum or zygote, or
preimplantation embryo hatching
from the membrane surrounding it,
the zona pellucida
 Differentiation with the formation of
embryonic/fetal membranes and the
major layers: endoderm, mesoderm,
and ectoderm
 Implantation, which requires
shedding of the zona pellucida,
correct orientation of the blastocyst,
adhesion or sticking, and, finally,
invasion of the endometrium.
Pregnancy or Gestation
 Embryonic development with organ formation initiated. Once all the organ systems are
developed, bone formation has started, and implantation has occurred, the embryo is called
the fetus.
 Growth and development of the fetus.

Pig embryo development from day 20 (D20) to day 42

(D42).
Embryonic/Fetal Membrane
 The embryo/fetus develops
surrounded or partially
surrounded by embryonic/fetal
membranes.
 The membranes are the
chorion, made up of ectoderm
and mesoderm;
 amnion, made up of ectoderm
and mesoderm;
 allantois, made up of
endoderm and mesoderm; and
 yolk sac, made up of
endoderm and mesoderm
Placenta
 The placenta is the site of
contact between the
developing embryo/fetus and
the mother.
 Nutrients, respiratory gases,
and wastes are exchanged
across the placenta.

Schematic diagram of a human placenta. The fetal side

comprises chorionic plate, chorionic surface arteries,
and veins connected to the umbilical arteries and vein.
The maternal side consists of the maternal decidua and
basal plate with maternal vessels. The middle portion
comprises placental villi in maternal blood.
 Embryonic/Fetal Membrane Involved
 Choriovitelline (embryonic
chorion and yolk sac), which is
found early in pig development
plus in horses

 Chorioallantoic (embryonic
chorion and allantois), as in
cattle, sheep, dogs, and cats
Maternal/Embryonic Layers
 Epitheliochorial: with six layers between maternal (epithelium, connective tissue, and
endothelium) and fetal (chorionic epithelium, mesenchyme, and endothelium) blood, e.g.,
horses
 Syndesmochorial: with the loss of maternal epithelium, e.g., cattle
 Endotheliochorial: with the loss of maternal epithelium and connective tissue
 Hemochorial: with the loss of all three maternal layers, e.g., humans
 Morphological classification of placentas
Diffuse: this type of placenta occurs
over the entire surface of the uterine
luminal epithelium with formation of
folds/villi and is found in horses and
pigs.

Multicotyledonary: this type of

placenta is characterized by many spot-
like placental regions of the
endometrium known as caruncles

Zonary: this type of placenta shows an

intimate interdigitating contact zone that
forms a belt around the chorionic sac.

Discoid/bidiscoid: this type of placenta

is characterized by a single (discoid) or
double disc (bidiscoid), and interaction
is confined to a roughly circular area.
Pregnancy Recognition
 In cattle, the trophectoderm of the
conceptus releases a signal protein,
interferon t, that inhibits the
production of prostaglandin F2α from
the uterus. Otherwise, the
prostaglandin F2α will pass to the CL
(in the ovary), causing it to regress and
ceasing to produce progesterone, the
hormone essential to pregnancy.
 In pigs, conceptus generated
estrogens prevent prostaglandin F2
from reaching the CL.
 Approximate Gestation Period
Domestic Days Domestic Days *Individuals may
Animals Animals range 20 days from
Cat 65 Rabbit 31 these averages.
Cattle Sheep 150
Angus 281 Buffalo 281-334
Brahman 292
Brown Swiss 290 Other Animals Days
Holstein 279 Bison 280
Simmental 289 Deer (Mule and 200
Dog 62-64 White-tailed)
Donkey 365 Reindeer 225
Goat 150 Camel 365-400
Horse* 335-342 Elephant 660
Llama, Alpaca 335-365 Guinea pig 59-72
Pig 114
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 Approximate Incubation Period of Birds
Domestic Birds Days Caged and Game Birds Days
Chicken 21 Pigeon 18
Duck 28 Quail 16
Muscovy duck 35 Swan 35
Goose 28 Parrot 26
Guinea fowl 28 Budgerigar 18
Turkey 28

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Stages of Parturition
 In phase 1, the uterus contracts
until the cervix is completely
dilated.The end of phase 1 is
marked by “transition.”
 The uterus contracts, delivering
the neonate through the birth
canal in phase 2.
 In phase 3, the uterus contracts,
delivering the placenta and fetal
membranes

Main behavioral patterns during parturition in water buffalo. The exhibition of

restlessness, back arching, and tail movements are considered good behavioral
signs of the onset of parturition. Lying transitions, tail raising, or grooming are
patterns observed during the last parturition stage, and their frequency or time of
duration (assessed for 11 h pre-calving and expressed as number of times or min in
the pictures) increases during calving.
Reproductive Problems
 Cryptorchidism
 Also known as undescended testis, is the

failure of one or both testes to descend into the

scrotum
 Unilateral cryptorchidism: only one testis is

retained in the body cavity

 Bilateral cryptorchidism: two testes are retained
This photograph of an undescended
 Undescended testes are associated with reduced
testicle (black arrow) was taken
fertility during laproscopic surgery on a
 The condition is heritable. cryptorchid horse. The testicle (black
arrow) is resting in the abdomen next
 All breeds of horses may be exhibit
to the inguinal canal (white arrow).
cryptorchidism, but there is a higher frequency in
Quarter Horses, Saddlebreds, Percherons, and
ponies.
 It is particularly common in dogs, with an

incidence rate of over 10% depending on the

breed.
Reproductive Problems
 Freemartinism:
 Sometimes called martin heifer; the female calf that is born twin to a
male
 Freemartinism is found in cattle and sheep.
 An infertile female cattle with masculinized behavior and non-functioning
ovaries
 Phenotypically, the animal appears female, but various aspects of female
reproductive development are altered due to acquisition of anti-Müllerian
hormone from the male twin
 The male twin is largely unaffected by the fusion
 Freemartins behave and grow in a similar way to castrated male cattle
(steers).
Reproductive Problems
 Genetic: ex. Turner’s syndrome in which there is only one X chromosome and no Y
chromosome
 Turner syndrome (TS), also known as 45,X, or 45,X0, is a genetic disorder in which a
female is partially or completely missing an X chromosome (sex chromosome
monosomy).
 Nutritional: ex. nutrient deficiency, e.g., low calcium in the diet. This will stop egg
production in hens.
 Environmental: ex. heat stress, water pollution
 Toxicologic: ex. toxic materials in the feed, teratogenic drugs, exposure to heavy
metals (ex. Pb, Cd, Cu)
 Infectious disease: viral, bacterial, and protozoan diseases that can adversely
affect fertility
Reproductive Problems
 Dystocia is difficult birth.
 There is a much higher
incidence of dystocia in calf
heifers than in older cows.
 Delivery of large calves or
twins is also associated
with dystocia

Percent Incidence of
different type of
dystocias in cows and
buffaloes
Infectious Diseases that Cause Reproductive Problems
 Brucellosis is known as contagious abortion in
cattle caused by Brucella abortus.
 It causes abortion and infertility in adult cattle
and is a zoonosis which is present worldwide
 When cattle have stillbirths and are carrying this
disease, other animals nearby can get infected
if they ingest it or otherwise come into contact
with fluids containing the bacteria.
 It could also be passed by their semen and
urine.
 Ticks are another source of transmission for B.
abortus.
Infectious Diseases that Cause Reproductive Problems
 Leptospirosis, which is a disease caused by
spirochaete bacteria of the genus Leptospira,
causes a series of problems, including fever,
and liver and kidney problems in cattle, pigs,
horses, dogs, and people. It can also cause
abortion.
 Rats are a frequent source of the infectious
organism.
 Leptospira interrogans is a zoonotic agent with Late mummification in pigs can be a
worldwide distribution that is responsible for a feature of Leptospira

low proportion of infectious abortions in goats

and sheep
 Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona may
account for approximately 13% of bacterial
abortions in mares in endemic regions
Infectious Diseases that Cause Reproductive Problems
 Campylobacteriosis: infection with
Campylobacter fetus fetus, C. jejuni jejuni,
and C. lari results in abortions in late pregnancy
or stillbirths.
 The route of infection is oral.
 Ewes may develop metritis after expelling the
fetus.
 C. jejuni is zoonotic and is a common cause of
enteritis in people.
Computer-generated illustration of
C. fetus showing the characteristic
"S-shaped" morphology.
Reproductive Manipulation
 Photoperiodism is when an animal is genetically programmed to respond to either
an increase in day length (in the spring) or a decrease in day length (in the fall).

 Photoperiodism also can give an annual pattern of a physiologic function, such as

reproduction in some small rodents (hamsters) and in birds (e.g., turkeys and, to a
lesser extent, chickens).

 Estrous synchronization is used (particularly in the dairy and beef industries) to

facilitate breeding by artificial insemination.
 This is the coordination of the reproductive cycle in cattle. This coordination is

achieved through strategically-timed delivery of one (or a combination) of

several reproductive hormones, with the most common being progesterone,
prostaglandin, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
Drugs Used to Control Reproduction
 Progesterone implants or inserts (e.g., the EAZI-
BREED CIDR Insert) are used in both beef and dairy
production
 They are placed intravaginally for 7 days, releasing

progesterone continually. This mimics the luteal phase

of the cycle.
 When they are removed, progesterone levels in the

blood decrease, and estrus/ovulation is triggered

within 3 days.
 This facilitates AI, estrous detection, embryo collection,

and transfer, and can be used to overcome anestrus.

 The effectiveness of this system is enhanced when

prostaglandin F2 (Lutalyse or dinoprost

tromethamine) is used to cause the breakdown of a CL
if there is one.
Disclaimer: Product is not advertised.
Drugs Used to Control Reproduction
 Melengestrol Acetate (MGA)
 A progesterone-like chemical that is orally active

 A synthetic progestin, is labeled as a feed

additive for estrous suppression in cattle.

 Cattle receiving melengestrol acetate show

increased growth rates.

Disclaimer: Product is not advertised.

Drugs Used to Control Reproduction
 Prostaglandin F2α (Lutalyse)
 Their use is based on their luteolytic effect (i.e., causing the CL
to break down), and because they stimulate contractions of the
uterus. Prostaglandins also have the following uses:
 To synchronize estrus in cattle, pigs, and horses.

 To induce parturition in pigs. Prostaglandin F2α induces

parturition with 90%of the gilts and sows farrow in a 24-hour

period. This reduces labor costs and facilitates cross fostering
of the newborn pigs. Prostaglandin F2α must be used or
ordered by a licensed veterinarian.
 To induce abortion in dogs and horses.

 To terminate pseudopregnancy in mares.

Disclaimer: Product is not advertised.
 To control the time of estrus in mares and with diffi cult-to-

breed mares.
 To remedy both retained placenta and chronic endometritis.

 PGF2α is readily absorbed across the skin. Moreover, they cause

abortion in pregnant animals and miscarriage in women.
Drugs Used to Control Reproduction
 GnRH ( ex. Cystorelin®) can be used along with PGF2
or estrous synchronization.
 This involves four injections:
 GnRH to induce ovulation and CL formation, if there

is a follicle at the right stage

 PGF2α after 7 days to induce luteolysis.

 GnRH to induce ovulation after another 2 days (day

9) to induce ovulation
 Insemination on day 10

Disclaimer: Product is not advertised.

Drugs Used to Control Reproduction
 Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), or Follitropin
 Daily injections of this are used to cause large numbers

of follicles to develop for superovulation in donor cattle

for embryo transfer.

 Oxytocin
 Oxytocin is used in cattle to assist with difficult births

and to cause milk letdown.

 Dopamine Agonists (Cabergoline or Bromocriptine)

 The CL in the dog is maintained by prolactin.

 If prolactin levels can be caused to decline, then there

will be luteolysis and the end of pregnancy

Disclaimer: Product is not advertised.

Pregnancy Detection Diagnostic Kit
 In dogs, diagnostic kit detects the presence of the
pregnancy hormone relaxin. Relaxin is detectable in
the serum or plasma 22–27 days after mating, when
there is implantation.

 The presence of a placental protein named

pregnancy-specific protein B can be used to
determine whether or not a cow is pregnant. An
alternative approach is to measure the hormone
progesterone in milk.

Disclaimer: Products are not advertised.

References:
• Scanes C. 2011. Fundamentals of Animal Science. Delmar Cengage Learning. (e-book)
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276917937_Reproductive_Physiology_Male_Reproducti
ve_Anatomy/figures?lo=1
• https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/reproductive-system-introduction/the-
reproductive-system-in-animals
• https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/growth-and-reproduction/animal-reproduction-ii-
reproductive-structure-and-function/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatogenesis
• https://poultry.extension.org/articles/poultry-anatomy/avian-reproductive-system-male/
• https://equine-reproduction.com/articles/mares/estrous-cycle
• https://www.groupe-esa.com/ladmec/bricks_modules/brick03/co/ZBO_Brick03_4.html
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265402497_Abnormal_position_of_lymph_nodes_in_a_
freemartin_sheep/figures?lo=1
• Disclaimer: Some images are copyrighted. Their use in this PowerPoint presentation is for
instructional purposes only. Please do not share it with students other than the ones enrolled in
Zoot 111 in CBSUA.