Review

Review of Wind-Assisted Propulsion Systems in

Maritime Transport
Marcin Kolodziejski 1, * and Mariusz Sosnowski 2

1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Maritime University of Szczecin, ul. Willowa 2, 71-650 Szczecin, Poland
2 Faculty of Mechatronics and Electrical Engineering, Maritime University of Szczecin, ul. Willowa 2,
71-650 Szczecin, Poland; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The maritime industry is going through a technology transition, aiming to

have carbon-neutral propulsion systems. A significant trend of orders for ships with
alternative propulsion has been observed. A favorable means to meet the decarbonization
requirements imposed by IMO (International Maritime Organization) is to operate vessels
with sustainable energy. Harvesting wind power and its conversion into ship propulsion are
gaining popularity due to emission reductions and expected reductions in fuel consumption.
This paper reviews recent studies on wind-assisted propulsion systems (WAPSs), the
different aspects of using sail applications in the maritime industry, and the types of
wind-assisted propulsion systems. The study also presents the latest developments in
WAPS systems offered by leading maritime market manufacturers and their applications
on existing vessels. The article is based on a literature review (peer-reviewed articles), the
information provided by wind propulsion systems manufacturers and internet research.

Keywords: wind-assisted propulsion systems; rotor sails; suction wings; rigid sails;
decarbonization; energy harvesting; energy-saving drives; energy conversion

1. Introduction
Maritime transport accounts for approximately 3 percent of global greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. If no actions are taken, this figure is predicted to grow to 15 percent
Academic Editor: Eugen Rusu
by 2050. Vessel operators have already experienced increasing demand to reduce GHG
Received: 20 December 2024
emissions. This demand has been exerted by regulatory bodies. The Initial International
Revised: 31 January 2025
Maritime Organization (IMO) Greenhouse Gas Strategy, adopted in 2018, regulated policy
Accepted: 10 February 2025
Published: 13 February 2025
development within maritime transport. In 2023, a revision of the strategy was adopted
during a meeting of the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC 80). The revised
Citation: Kolodziejski, M.;
Sosnowski, M. Review of Wind-
strategy aims to reach net-zero emissions in 2050 with a commitment to ensuring the uptake
Assisted Propulsion Systems in of alternative near-zero-emission fuels in 2030 [1]. Additionally, more stringent regulations
Maritime Transport. Energies 2025, 18, (SEEMP Part III [2], CII and EEXI [3]) came into effect on 1st January 2023. Shipowners
897. https://doi.org/10.3390/ must respond to the new regulations and are required to introduce alternative fuels and
en18040897
new technologies to reduce GHG emissions. There is a broad spectrum of alternative
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. fuels and Energy Efficiency Technologies (EETs) considered to meet the IMO requirements.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Wind-assisted propulsion systems are considered one of the technologies that could reduce
This article is an open access article
GHG emissions and fuel consumption. For many centuries, wind provided free propulsion
distributed under the terms and
for sailing ships. Nowadays, it does not have enough energy to be a stand-alone propulsion
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
system for modern vessels; however, novel WAPSs have been developed on several ships.
(https://creativecommons.org/ The number of vessels equipped with wind propulsion technologies is relatively low, but
licenses/by/4.0/). the number of planned implementations of WAPS is increasing. According to [4], there are

Energies 2025, 18, 897 https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040897

Energies 2025, 18, 897 2 of 33

101 ships on which WAPSs were installed or are to be installed. The number of orders is
accelerating rapidly, with 29 systems installed between 2018 and 2023 and 72 orders in 2024.
Out of +100 applications of WAPS known today, more than 90% were installed/developed
before 2024. The number of ships equipped with each technology shows that the market is
at an early growth stage. Suction wings and some forms of rigid sails were introduced in
2018/19 and other rigid sails and second-generation kites were first installed in 2020/21. So
far, each vessel segment has reached a good level of demonstrators (three to five ships). So
far, these demonstrator vessels have enabled the technology providers and the shipowners
to gain limited experience, validate performance data and trial these systems in various
weather and operational situations.

2. Literature Review
The maritime industry faces major challenges caused by greenhouse gas emission
limits imposed by the IMO and climate legislation. Shipowners and operators have to
develop and implement new solutions to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. Among
the different technologies and fuels being considered, WAPS is the technology that could
reduce the fuel consumption generated by shipping and, consequently, reduce GHG and
other harmful emissions. Wind energy is sustainable, inexhaustible, and abundant. WAPS
allows vessels to convert wind energy into thrust and supplement the main engines. This
will reduce the fuel consumption and emissions.
The peer-reviewed literature contains a relatively small number of articles focusing
on using WAPS as an alternative means of propulsion in maritime transport. The research
presented in the following review has been carried out in recent years. Most of the available
scientific publications present theoretical case studies only. The following review is based
on peer-reviewed scientific articles. However, to describe the latest developments in wind
propulsion, the authors used sources like the Internet and manufacturers’ publications;
there are no peer-reviewed articles available yet, as some projects presented in the paper
were introduced very recently. WAPS propulsion applications in the maritime industry
are still in the experimental stage. This is also reflected in the limited number of available
publications. Ships equipped with WAPS serve as a kind of platform for evaluating the
applicability of different technological solutions.

2.1. Flettner Rotors

Flettner rotors, first utilized on a merchant ship in 1924, are a type of rotary cylindrical
sail that can be used to harness wind energy to support a ship’s propulsion, reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and improving its fuel efficiency. They use the Magnus effect,
which is a phenomenon that occurs when a rotating cylinder generates lift perpendicular
to the flow of air. Anton Flettner initially attempted to apply the Magnus effect in aviation;
however, later on, he realized that the Magnus force could be used in shipping as a means
of ship propulsion. The first application in 1924 was successful; however, it was not
economically beneficial. The Flettner concept remained a curiosity for almost a century. It
has changed in recent years due to the drive for greener shipping. Most of the research
papers in the field of Flettner rotors have been published in the last 4–5 years, and it is
reflected in the following review.

2.1.1. Flettner Rotors—Case Studies and Numerical Models

Even though Flettner rotors have been known for more than a century now, their
applications in maritime transport are relatively new, and it is reflected in the literature;
most of the articles present theoretical case studies and numerical models of the rotors’
application in different propulsion configurations. A method to perform the preliminary
Energies 2025, 18, 897 3 of 33

sizing of vessel propulsion consisting of a diesel engine, a CPP (controllable pitch propeller),
and Flettner rotors is presented in [5]. The RoPax ferry has been used as a case study. A
mathematical model describing the behavior of the rotor in terms of propulsive thrust
and power is proposed in the article. The authors presented the integration of the rotor
model into an existing diesel propulsion model to assess the vessel’s fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions and to provide a comparison of wind-assisted propulsion solutions with
conventional systems. A 6DOF (a six-degree-of-freedom) vessel performance model set
up to evaluate the most economical way of using two Flettner rotors is presented in [6].
The paper analyzes the propulsion system performance in the context of sea and weather
conditions, evaluating the reduction in fuel consumption. A simulation of Flettner rotors
and a parafoil system in combination with the traditional propulsion of a 60,000 DWT
ship in different wind conditions is presented in [7]. The article examines the benefits
of using two alternative propulsion-assisting systems. The analysis of a 3 m diameter,
30 m height rotating structure of a rotor sail is presented in [8]. The authors derived a
4DOF (four-degree-of-freedom) model of the rotor sail to simplify its dynamics. They
calculated the natural frequencies of the rotor sail and predicted support points’ frequency
responses and carried out validation and comparison with the finite element model of the
sail. The possibility of utilizing WAPS in the maritime industry is explored in [9]. The
authors proposed a new type of Flettner rotor sail installed on the superstructure of a
sea-going vessel. This proposal is numerically simulated in the study. The study in [10]
focuses on the applicability of WAPS for ships and introduces Flettner rotor sails as a zero-
emission propulsion technology for the maritime industry. The authors presented a case
study of a bulk carrier operating between Dunkirk in France and Damietta in Egypt. The
results presented in the study showed how the interaction between wind speed/direction
and the ship course influenced the Flettner rotors’ output power. Two numerical models
of a towing kite and Flettner rotor are presented in [11]. The methodology used by the
authors combines wind data along trade routes and technology models. Authors concluded
that WAPSs have the potential to reduce shipping emissions. A new empirical method
to research WAPS cargo vessels is presented in [12]. The authors introduced a physical
model of the vessel, including the conventional propulsion system which interacts with a
numerical sail model. The method is used to assess the benefits of the application of the
WAPS for a 190 m bulk carrier equipped with four Flettner rotors.

2.1.2. Flettner Rotors—Validated Trial Data

Several demonstrator vessels equipped with rotating sails have enabled the industry
to gain experience, trial the systems and validate performance data in various conditions.
However, there is a lack of credible performance information. It is caused by the com-
plexity of the comparison with many variables, the limited number of pilot installations
(demonstrators) for each technology and the reluctance of the systems’ suppliers to share
sensitive information. It is reflected in a limited number of peer-reviewed articles present-
ing validated performance data. The article in [13] presents the results of the sea trials
of the general cargo ship Fehn Pollux following the installation of a single Flettner rotor.
The power potential of the rotor sail was in the range of 100 kW to 150 kW in addition to
the main engine power. The measured fuel savings were 10–20%. Real data derived from
a wind-assisted tanker, a Maersk Pelican equipped with Flettner rotors, was presented
in [14]. The authors developed a 6DoF (six-degree-of-freedom) PPP (Performance Predic-
tion Program) for WAPS cargo vessels. It can predict the performance of three different
wind-assisted propulsion systems: rigid wing sails, rotor sails, and DynaRigs. The au-
thors compared the theoretical results with real trial data derived from the Maersk Pelican.
Energies 2025, 18, 897 4 of 33

They also compared fuel savings for the three different wind-assisted propulsion systems;
Flettner rotors proved to be the most efficient.

2.1.3. Flettner Rotors—Design, Economic and Technical Aspects

Several peer-reviewed articles present various theoretical studies of design features,
proposals of combined propulsion systems equipped with the rotors, results of rotor wind
tunnel experiments, environmental impact of rotor applications, simulations of different
weather conditions and vessel routes concerning the rotor effectiveness. A novel concept of
a liquefied hydrogen tanker equipped with six Flettner rotors as a WAPS in combination
with a hydrogen-fueled turbine as a main propulsion system is explored in [15]. The
assessment of the environmental and technical aspects of the vessel design is included
in the study. The authors simulated the operational condition of the vessel in different
routes and weather conditions to assess the benefits of using wind energy to assist the gas
turbine. Another study [16] presents a review of the feasibility of using Flettner sails in
coastal shipping in challenging conditions of varying wind direction and intensity. The
authors carried out a structural design to reduce the rotor weight for better performance.
The study suggests utilizing the concept of magnetic bearing for the rotor sail to reduce
the frictional forces. An optimization-based workflow to establish the optimal design of a
Flettner rotor sail for a target ship was proposed in [17]. As the performance of a Flettner
sail depends on the design of the sail and its operational conditions, the authors proposed
a two-level optimization, separated for rotor design and operational conditions. The study
in [18] highlights the economic, technical, and environmental aspects of WAPS consisting
of Flettner sails. Four Flettner rotors are proposed for use on a bulk carrier as a case study.
The article considers different routes of the ship, which, along with wind characteristics, are
the main aspects that affect the economic results of the installation of Flettner rotors. The
impact of Flettner sails on the roll motion of ships is explored in [19]. It also presents the
opposite effect of the roll motion on the effectiveness of the Flettner rotors. The calculation
presented by the authors shows that Flettner sail performance decreases with the increased
heeling angle of the vessel. Large heel angles will reduce the rotor driving force to almost
zero. However, adding the rotors will have no impact on the roll motion. The research
in [20] applies an environmental and techno-economic analysis to assess the benefits and
possibilities of using wind energy in maritime transport. The authors attempted to establish
the potential of WAPS technologies (Flettner rotors) in reducing CO2 emissions. According
to the presented results, the implementation of Flettner sails could reduce CO2 emissions
by up to 20%. The paper in [21] presents several wind tunnel experiments carried out on
the Flettner rotor in which the forces and pressures acting on the cylinder were measured
to establish the influence of the Reynolds number on the performance of the Flettner sail.
The aerodynamic interaction effects between two Flettner rotors are explored in [22]. A
series of wind tunnel experiments indicated that the performance of the rotors is affected
by their location, the distance between them and their layout on the vessel’s deck.
The Flettner rotors seem to be the most mature technology within the WAPS market.
It is also reflected in the number of scientific articles exploring wind-supported propulsion
technology; most of them refer to Flettner rotors. The number of articles describing the
other technologies (suction wings, hard sails and kites) is substantially lower.

2.2. Wing Sails

Wing sails (also referred to as hard sails) are another innovative wind propulsion tech-
nology. They work like conventional soft sails but are more advanced in their performance
and design. The difference is in the materials they are fabricated from; hard sails are made
of strong and light materials like carbon fiber and have rigid geometry. The interaction
Energies 2025, 18, 897 5 of 33

between the wind and the sail creates aerodynamic lift and drag force. The wind sails can
be rotated/adjusted to the wind direction to achieve maximum force. The aerodynamics of
the hard sails is based on airplane physics principles and their geometry is similar to that
used in aviation. The geometry of the hard sails provides a higher lift-to-drag ratio and
creates more lift (in comparison to conventional soft sails). An analysis of a KVLCC2 vessel
equipped with a hard sail in different weather/wave conditions is presented in [23]. The
authors carried out a numerical simulation of a sail system’s aerodynamic performance
and compared it with experimental data. The added resistance of the hull and motion
response were numerically predicted. The results in regular waves show good accuracy in
predicting the hydro-dynamic responses of the vessel in comparison to the experimental
data. Analyses of a model of a bulk carrier equipped with five rigid sails fitted with a 180◦
rotating mechanism are provided in [24]. The authors verified the stability of the vessel
through the calculations of dynamic stability, initial stability, and static stability by using
MAXSURF software. They also carried out various flow simulations to predict the value
of the thrust created by the sails in different wind conditions. Analysis proved that hard
sail WAPS can reduce the demand for the main propulsion by 20–30 percent. The paper
in [25] explores the interference characteristics between multiple wing sails. The authors
investigated the interference characteristics by establishing a model of a two-element wing
sail considering the wind direction. This study can provide a good reference for the design
of the wind sail arrangement on vessels.

2.3. Kite Sails

Kite sails, known also as wind kites or kite propulsion systems, use large kites or
parachute-like sails to harness wind energy to assist ship propulsion. They capture the
wind energy at higher altitudes (compared to other WAPS technologies), where wind
speeds are typically stronger and more consistent. The kite development is still in the
experimental phase and it is reflected in a small number of scientific articles. The paper
in [26] presents a theoretical model to perform a numerical assessment of the wind speed
and the planform area influence on the aerodynamic performance of a kite sail. The kite sail
assists the propulsion system of a 75 m long ship. The authors concluded that a 320 m2 kite
sail will suffice to provide the propulsion of the vessel in appropriate weather conditions.

2.4. Vessel Voyage Optimization

In recent years, many WAPSs, such as wind tails, rotors, etc., have been designed
and investigated to utilize wind power. As the effectiveness of WAPS highly depends
on wind speed and direction along the shipping route, the optimization of the vessel
voyage becomes more important to achieve maximum efficiency of the propulsion system.
Both wind propulsion and weather routing provide immediate solutions to reduce fuel
consumption and emissions. Combining efficient routing with WAPS will amplify the
benefits of utilizing wind energy. An improvement in the vessel routing framework to
determine the optimal vessel voyage and highly efficient operation of WAPS is explored
in [27]. The framework proposed by the authors utilizes various data sources like the
design of the ship, weather forecasts, and historical weather information. The authors
also applied the proposed method to the test case of a VLCC ship operating between the
Middle East and China. Another study [28] presents rigid hard sail operating conditions in
the context of optimization of the vessel’s route. The objective of [29] is to present novel
research that utilizes fuel consumption calculations for more than a thousand departures
for three different routes to characterize stochastic uncertainty. The authors proved that
routes with long voyage times and ideal wind conditions are most sensitive to uncertain
weather forecast inputs. Savings from Flettner rotors and weather routing can be reduced
Energies 2025, 18, 897 6 of 33

by up to 44% when a priori weather routing strategies are used. Using an adaptive weather
routing strategy instead can be used as an accurate prediction tool. The impact of weather
routing on a post-Panamax vessel equipped with different WAPSs is explored in [30]. The
presented WAPSs were wing sails, rotor sails, and suction wings. The analyzed route
was a route between Brazil and China. A 4-DoF (four-degree-of-freedom) performance
prediction program was used by the authors to create a performance model of the vessel
with different WAPSs. Those models were used in the route optimization. The authors
carried out route optimization simulations using historical weather data from the years
2015 to 2019. The study proves that it is possible to achieve a significant reduction in fuel
consumption when applying weather routing. A model of wind-assisted propulsion on
globally distributed shipping routes is presented in [31] to show how route optimization
can reduce fuel consumption. A theoretical case study of a RoPax ferry, which explores the
potential performance of wind-assisted propulsion in realistic wind/weather conditions, is
provided in [32]. The authors discussed different system layouts and design alternatives;
they also analyzed uncertainties related to WAPS performance prediction and provided
guidelines for modeling and designing a ship with wind-assisted propulsion. A new
energy-saving evaluation method based on analysis of typical shipping routes of vessels
equipped with WAPS is proposed in [33]. The authors presented a case study of a WAPS
oil tanker sailing on the Middle East–China route. The results showed that fuel saving was
5.37%, potentially increasing to 9.54%. The limitations and the feasibility of a vessel with
propulsion derived from renewable energy and simulated ship routes are researched in [34].
The vessel concept incorporates photovoltaic cells, wind turbines, Flettner rotors, batteries,
and dual-mode propeller producing energy for the Flettner rotors, and the ship’s auxiliaries
which are used for the propulsion. The authors modeled the entire system numerically and
simulated ship routes using ShipCLEAN (ship performance model).

2.5. WAPS—Models, Numerical Simulations and Theoretical Case Studies

Out of +100 applications of WAPS known today, more than 90% have been in-
stalled/developed in the last 3 years. The number of ships equipped with each technology
shows that the market is at a very early growth stage. So far, each vessel segment has
reached a good level of demonstrators (three to five ships). These demonstrator vessels
have enabled the technology providers and the shipowners to gain limited experience,
validate performance data and trial these systems in various weather and operational
situations; however, it has not been reflected in the number of publications yet. Many
articles show different kinds of numerical simulations, models and theoretical case studies.
They also present design studies, market analysis, theoretical studies on potential energy
savings and guidelines on performance predictions. The paper in [35] presents two models
of propulsion system optimization aiming at GHG emission reduction. The first model used
a WAPS with rigid wind sails; the second model optimized the vessel deck area assigned to
wind and solar systems. The authors used bulk carrier ships as a case study. The results of
the study show that optimization of the deck area for installation of wind-assisted systems
and solar panels combined with sailing at an optimal angle can reduce GHG emissions
by 36%. A method to assess the unsteady and steady performances of WAPS vessels with
six degrees of freedom is presented in [36]. The method was inspired by system-based
modeling; it consists of independent modeling of forces acting on the vessel as a func-
tion of environmental conditions and the vessel’s six degrees of freedom. The method
is suitable for both pure wind and hybrid propulsion. A numerical simulation tool for a
WAPS container ship is presented in [37]. The tool is used to assess ship performance on
realistic shipping routes. The model presented by the authors includes the dynamics of the
CPP (controllable pitch propeller), rudder, and hull. It also includes the fuel consumption
Energies 2025, 18, 897 7 of 33

characteristics of the ship’s main propulsion system and the thrust profile generated by two
suction sails. A KVLCC2 vessel dynamics model was built and presented in [38]. The model
consists of a sailing system, hull, propeller, and rudder with consideration of the effects of
waves and wind. The authors examined the energy consumption for both systems under
different wind speed and direction. One sailing system proved to reduce fuel consumption
by up to 10%. The authors also investigated the effects of the position of the sails, their
number, and the vessel speed on fuel consumption. The effects of different market scenarios
(fuel price, subsidies) and policies on WAPS retrofitting are explored in [39]. The model
proposed by the authors incorporates two decision steps for each ship to determine the
most suitable WAPS option. The authors also modeled three WAPS options and integrated
them into the simulations of fuel savings and technology costs. The study in [40] explores
perspectives of retrofitting a no-emission wind–hydrogen-powered propulsion system to
a benchmark vessel with conventional propulsion. The authors created a model of the
ship’s hybrid propulsion and analyzed power demand for the vessel during a one-year
sailing schedule on realistic routes and in realistic weather conditions. A new approach
to capturing hydrodynamic and aerodynamic interactions on ships equipped with WAPS
is presented in [41]. The authors applied the low-aspect-ratio wing theory and modified
it so it could be used for the prediction of drag and lift forces acting on hulls sailing at
drift angles. The study in [42] presents a design procedure for developing autonomous
sailing that can be deployed on long-term cruises. The authors described the electronic
and mechanical design strategies and focused on power management and boat reliability.
The research in [43] focuses on potential energy savings through building more slender
ships in combination with WAPS. Results presented by the authors indicate that GHG
emissions and fuel consumption can be reduced by up to 30–40%. The objective of [44] was
to present the status of the wind-assisted ship propulsion systems’ technological develop-
ment. The authors also focused on the potential GHG emission limitations, fuel savings,
and operational efficiency of WAPS. The research in [45] presents solutions that could
reduce emissions in the maritime industry. It focuses on three technologies: rotors, sails,
and kites. The authors also provide guidelines on the risks and benefits associated with
each technology. They also recommend guidelines for their performance prediction. The
study in [46] investigates the design process of the propeller for a WAPS Oceanbird-type
car carrier. The authors also focus on ship automation optimization procedures. It was
decided to use CPP as suitable for the operation of the WAPS vessel. The authors explored
propeller functions such as feathering, windmilling, and harvesting. The study in [47]
analyzes the viability of WAPS technologies in maritime transport and various barriers
inhibiting the implementation of those technologies. The analysis is carried out from the
perspective of both the technology users and providers.

3. Current and Planned Applications of WAPS

WAPS are designed to convert wind energy into vessel propulsion. In energy con-
version, various physical principles are used, depending on the type of technology used.
There are four main categories of WAPS propulsion:
• Flettner rotors;
• Wing sails (hard sails);
• Suction wings;
• Soft kites.
Apart from the above designs, wind turbines have been developed to generate elec-
tricity on board ships. However, this paper focuses on WAPS systems. At the beginning
of 2024, 29 vessels were equipped with wind-assisted propulsion systems. Flettner rotors
were retrofitted on 10 ships (general cargo vessels, RO-RO ships, a tanker, and ferries).
Energies 2025, 18, 897 8 of 33

They were also installed on two new builds (VLOC and RO-RO/LO-LO). Suction wings
were retrofitted on eight ships (four general cargo vessels, one fishing vessel, one cement
carrier, and one RO-RO). Seven vessels were equipped with hard sails. Four hard sails
were installed on new builds (one pilot project on a passenger/car ferry, one bulk carrier,
and two VLCCs), two retrofits on bulk carriers and one pilot retrofit on a catamaran. Only
two kites have been installed so far: one on a RO-RO ship and one on a bulk carrier (both
retrofits) [48]. Currently, WAPSs are being installed or are planned to be installed on another
72 ships [49]. Table 1 presents the current installations and future orders for wind-assisted
propulsion systems. An ‘order’ is considered a unique instance applicable to a single range
in the tables below.

Table 1. Wind-assisted propulsion systems—current installations and future orders [49].

2018–2023 2024 and on Order Total Number of Vessels

Rotor sails 13 25 38
Rigid sails 7 9 16
Suction Wings 7 37 44
Kite sails 2 1 3
Total 29 72 101

According to the data presented in Clarksons World Fleet Register [4], 101 ships have
wind-assisted propulsion systems installed or will have them installed.
The number of orders is accelerating rapidly, with 29 systems installed between 2018
and 2023 and 72 orders in 2024. For the range of 2018–2023, the distribution of the WAPS
installation is not uniform. According to [48], four systems were installed in 2018, one
in 2019, two in 2020, eight in 2021, five in 2022 and nine in 2023. There is an increasing
trend; however, the COVID-19 outbreak impacted the number of completed installations.
A distinctive increase in installations and orders is visible in the 2024 figure. As per the
data presented in Table 1, rotor sails are the technology with the largest share of the current
WAPS market. However, with 37 orders for suction wings over the coming years, this
proportion may change. Kite sails, with only two existing applications and one order, will
remain a niche market [49].
Table 2 presents the current installations and future orders for WAPS divided by the
ship’s type and number of current applications/future orders. With 10 existing vessels
and 18 orders, the largest share in the WAPS market comprises bulk carriers. RO-RO
vessels, tankers and passenger ships have a similar number of orders compared with
already-existing WAPS applications. There is a significant number of orders for the first
WAPS installations on container ships, gas carriers, and car carriers. It is a reflection of the
increasing uptake of WAPS into the shipping industry [49].

Table 2. Wind-assisted propulsion systems—vessel type/number [49].

2018–2023 2024 and on Order Total Number of Vessels

Passenger ship 4 3 7
RO-RO 4 5 9
Bulk carrier 10 18 28
Gas carrier 0 5 5
Container ship 0 6 6
Tanker 3 5 8
Car carrier 0 1 1
Other 8 29 37
Total 29 72 101
Energies 2025, 18, 897 9 of 33

As per the data presented in Table 3, the majority of WAPSs were applied as retrofits
to existing ships. So far, only five newly built vessels (17 percent of the total number) have
had wind propulsion systems installed since the design stage. But this trend seems to be
changing. A total of 72 percent of orders are for new vessels. However, it is also expected
that the number of orders from the existing fleet will increase to meet the decarbonization
requirements imposed by regulators [49].

Table 3. Wind-assisted propulsion systems—number of vessels, orders/installations: newbuild vs.

retrofit [49].

2018–2023 2024 and on Order Total Number of Vessels

Retrofit 24 20 44
Newbuild 5 52 57
Total 29 72 101

Worldwide Statutory Framework of WAPS

WAPS can impact several environmental regulations, e.g., the IMO regulations specific
to international shipping, EU Fit for 55 legislation, especially FuelEU Maritime and EU
ETS, which regulate ships calling at EEA anchorages and ports. WAPS will also impact
several national GHG regulations (not presented in this article) and contribute to emissions
reduction from ships, as stipulated by regional regulators and the IMO.
The IMO EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) and EEXI (Energy Efficiency Existing
Ship Index) are the regulations established to reduce the shipping industry’s carbon foot-
print. Both regulations take into account the energy-saving potential of WAPS technologies
since the adoption of Guidance on Treatment of Innovative Energy Efficiency Technologies
for Calculation and Verification of the attained EEDI and EEXI in 2021.
The IMO Revised GHG Strategy is part of the IMO effort to deal with climate change
by reducing GHG emissions caused by the maritime industry. The GHG Strategy was
initially adopted in 2018 and revised in 2023. It defines the statutory framework for how the
shipping industry can reduce its carbon footprint and contribute to global efforts to meet
climate goals, particularly those outlined in the Paris Agreement. Following the adoption
of the revised strategy, The IMO MEPC (Marine Environment Protection Committee) and
the ISWG-GHG (Intersessional Working Group on Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Ships) were given a task to develop economic and technical measures to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, aligned with reaching net-zero emissions in 2050. WAPS can
contribute to complying with the IMO Revised Strategy by reducing emissions, especially
with its intention of “uptake of zero or near-zero GHG emission technologies, fuels and/or
energy sources to represent at least 5%, striving for 10%, of the energy used by international
shipping by 2030”. However, it is not clear how WAPS applications will meet the initiative’s
long-term targets, such as indicative checkpoints for the years 2030 and 2040. To meet those
requirements, 20–30% GHG emission reduction for 2030 and 70–80% for 2040 (compared to
2008 emissions), and other no-emission or energy efficiency propulsion solutions would
be needed.
WAPS will also impact the pricing mechanism on GHG emissions and a global-based
fuel standard; however, both of those measures are still under development. WAPS was
also included in the IMO LCA Guidelines (Lifecycle Analysis Guidance of Marine Fuels),
which will be used in new measures as a zero-emission benchmark.
Maritime transport was included in the EU ETS (Emissions Trading System) on the
1st of January 2024. TtW (tank-to-wake) carbon dioxide emissions from vessels of 5000 GT
and higher, reported under the procedure of monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV)
in 2024, have been subject to the ETS since 1 January 2025. For general cargo and offshore
Energies 2025, 18, 897 10 of 33

vessels of 400–5000 GT and offshore ships of above 5000 GT, MRV reporting has been
applicable since 1 January 2025. The inclusion of those ships into the ETS regime is
expected from 2027. Shipowners will be required to purchase and surrender EUA (EU
Allowances) to cover 50% of their CO2 , NOx and CH4 emissions for voyages to and from
EEA ports, and to cover 100% of their emissions for voyages between EEA ports and in
ports. Initially, in 2024, the vessel operators were required to surrender EUAs to cover
40% of emissions. However, it is rising to 100% from 2026. Rewards for the vessels using
WAPS were not considered by the EU; however, there are incentives in the EU FuelEU
Maritime regulation.
The FuelEU regulation has been applicable since the 1st of January 2025. To reduce
the GHG intensity in maritime transport, FuelEU set targets based on the 2020 emissions to
incentivize low-emission propulsion systems on ships over 5000 GT. The GHG emission
quotas within the FuelEU are similar to those covered by the EU ETS: half of the emissions
on voyages to and from EEA ports, and all emissions for trips between the EEA ports and
alongside berths in EEA harbors. The reduction in GHG intensity of fuels is measured
on reported fuel consumption and the factors of emissions used on a WtW (well-to-wake)
basis. The reduction will gradually increase. It will start with a 2% GHG reduction in 2025
to an 80% GHG intensity reduction in 2050. GHG emissions above the reference levels will
be penalized [49].
According to the FuelEU Maritime Regulations, vessels with WAPS will be granted
up to a 5% reduction in the GHG intensity calculation of energy used by the ships, on the
condition that the wind harvesting accounts for at least 15% of the propulsion energy. For
ships with a minimum of 5% wind energy used for the propulsion, there is a reward factor
available that offers a 1% discount on the GHG intensity calculation. Those rewards are
subject to the availability of a verifiable method for monitoring and accounting for wind
propulsion energy. Vessels equipped with WAPS can reduce the penalties imposed by
FuelEU Maritime and also extend the period until their emissions reach the penalty levels.
If a ship achieves an additional (surplus) emissions intensity before 2030, this banked
energy intensity can be used in the following year or used for other ships sailing in the
same pool. According to [49], WAPS will continue to pay dividends even after 2030. It will
allow shipowners to save penalties of up to EUR 100 per ton of fuel until 2025.

4. Applications of Wind-Assisted Propulsion Systems

4.1. Rotor Sails
For many centuries, wind provided free propulsion for sailing ships. Nowadays, it
does not have enough energy to be a stand-alone propulsion system for modern vessels;
however, a novel method of wind support auxiliary propulsion has been developed on
several ships. This method uses the physical force of wind first utilized on a merchant ship
in 1924. In the 1850s, German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus researched a force created
by spinning cylinders and spheres. Since then, the force known as the Magnus Force can be
seen in sports, e.g., when a tennis ball spins it will cause curving of its trajectory. Seventy
years later, German engineer Anton Flettner attempted to apply this force in aviation;
however, later on, he realized that the Magnus force could be used in shipping as a means
of propulsion for the vessels. Flettner discovered that when fluid flows around a rotating
cylinder, it is deflected on one side and slowed on the other. Consequently, the airflow
will exert a force toward the lower-pressure side of the rotating cylinder. In 1922, Anton
Flettner patented the spinning cylinder rotor sail. In 1924, his design was developed and
implemented on the ship Buckau (Figure 1); traditional sails were replaced with spinning
rotors. The two cylinders were powered by 37 kW electric motors. Flettner’s experiment
was successful; however, due to low fuel prices at the time, it was not economically
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 34
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economically
beneficial beneficial
[50]. For
economically almost[50].
beneficial For
For almost
a century,
[50]. aa rotors
Flettner
almost century, Flettner
Flettnera rotors
remained
century, rotors remained
curiosity, aa curiosity,
but it changed
remained curiosity,
but
but it
with the
it changed
drive forwith
changed the
the drive
greener
with for
for greener
shipping
drive and focus
greener shipping
on energy
shipping and focus
focus on
on energy
efficiency.
and energy efficiency.
efficiency.

Figure
Figure1.1.
Figure Buckau’s
1.Buckau’s
Buckau’s Flettner
Flettner rotors
rotors
Flettner [51].
[51].
rotors [51].

InIn 2010,
In2010, Enercon,
2010,Enercon,
Enercon,the the German
theGerman
Germanwindwind turbine
windturbine manufacturer,
turbinemanufacturer, launched
manufacturer,launched
launched RoLo
RoLo
RoLo (roll
(roll onon
(roll on lift
lift
off)
lift E-Ship
off) E-Ship1 (Figure
1 (Figure 2). The
2). vessel
The was
vessel was equipped
equipped with
with four
four2525m mhigh,
high,
off) E-Ship 1 (Figure 2). The vessel was equipped with four 25 m high, 4 m diameter Flett-44mm diameter
diameter Flett-
Flettner
ner rotor sails. The cylinders are rotated by steam turbines; steamproduced
is produced by
ner rotor
rotor sails.
sails. The
The cylinders
cylinders are
are rotated
rotated byby steam
steam turbines;
turbines; steam
steam isis produced by by the
the ex-
ex-
the exhaust
haust gas gas boilers.
boilers. The The 12,800
12,800 DWTDWT vessel
vessel has
has been
been used
used to
to transport
transport wind turbine
turbine ele-
haust gas boilers. The 12,800 DWT vessel has been used to transport wind turbine ele-
elements.
ments. The vesselisis 130
130 m long, 22.5 mmwide, and itsits
maximum speed is 17.5 17.5
knots. Its Its
ments. TheThe vessel
vessel is 130 m m long,
long, 22.5
22.5 m wide,
wide, and
and its maximum
maximum speed speed isis 17.5 knots.
knots. Its
main
main propulsion is diesel engines, with a total output of 3.5 MW.
main propulsion
propulsion is is diesel
diesel engines,
engines, with
with aa total
total output
output ofof 3.5
3.5 MW.
MW.

Figure2.2.EEShip
Figure Ship1 1[52].
[52].
Figure 2. E Ship 1 [52].

During
During the
the first
first three
three years
years of
of operation,
operation, the
the vessel
vessel covered
covered more
more than
than 170,000
170,000 Nm.
Nm.
According to Enercon [53], four Flettner rotors accounted for 15% of fuel savings
According to Enercon [53], four Flettner rotors accounted for 15% of fuel savings duringduring
this
this period.
period.
Energies 2025,
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18,x897
FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 3
12 of 33

During
Finishthe first three
company years of operation,
Norsepower, the vessel
established covered
in 2012, more than
also revived 170,000 Nm.
Flettner’s concept and
According to Enercon [53], four Flettner rotors accounted for 15% of fuel savings during
added automatic control systems to it. They produced rotor sails up to a height of 35 m
this period.
and a diameter of 5 m. The rotors are made of composites, which makes them lighter than
Finish company Norsepower, established in 2012, also revived Flettner’s concept and
aluminum
added automaticand control
more fatigue-resistant.
systems to it. TheySeveral
produced cargo
rotorvessels
sails up have been of
to a height equipped
35 m with
Norsepower rotors, including RO-RO ships, tankers, bulkers,
and a diameter of 5 m. The rotors are made of composites, which makes them lighter tankers, and ferries. So far
16 Norsepower
than aluminum andRotormore Sails™ have already
fatigue-resistant. Severalbeen
cargoinstalled on eight
vessels have ships. The
been equipped withRotor Sa
systems arerotors,
Norsepower provided with RO-RO
including an automation system
ships, tankers, that gives
bulkers, theand
tankers, crew control
ferries. of the sail
So far,
16 Norsepower
through Rotor Sails™
the operating panel have already
located onbeen installedThe
the bridge. on eight ships. The
automation Rotormonitors
system Sail th
systems are provided with an automation system that gives the crew control
wind direction and speed and adjusts the rotors’ correct rotational direction and optima of the sails
through the operating
vessel speed panel emissions
to minimize located on theandbridge.
maximizeThe automation
fuel savings. system monitors
The first the
Norsepower Ro
wind direction and speed and adjusts the rotors’ correct rotational direction and optimal
tor Sail was installed on the M/V Estraden (Figure 3) in November 2014. ESTRADEN is
vessel speed to minimize emissions and maximize fuel savings. The first Norsepower Rotor
RO-RO built in 1999.
Sail was installed on the M/V Estraden (Figure 3) in November 2014. ESTRADEN is a
Its gross tonnage is 18,205 tons, deadweight 9741 tons, length 162 m and breadth 2
RO-RO built in 1999.
m. The installation
Its gross tonnageof is the rotor
18,205 took
tons, only seven
deadweight hours
9741 tons,during
length a routine
162 m andport call. After
breadth
substantial
25 reduction
m. The installation in fuel
of the rotorconsumption,
took only seven the vessel
hours operator
during decided
a routine to install
port call. After aa second
unit one year
substantial later.inThe
reduction fuelrotor sails proved
consumption, to beoperator
the vessel an effective solution
decided due
to install to the route o
a second
the one
unit shipyear
(North
later.Sea), which
The rotor is proved
sails affected
to by crosswinds
be an most ofdue
effective solution thetotime. According
the route of the to ver
ship (North Sea), which is affected by crosswinds most of the time. According
ified measurements, the installation of two rotor sails reduced fuel consumption by 6.1% to verified
measurements,
[54,55]. the installation of two rotor sails reduced fuel consumption by 6.1% [54,55].

Figure3.3.M/V
Figure M/VEstraden
Estraden[56].
[56].

Another RO-RO ship, M/V SC Connector (Figure 4), operating in the North Sea,
Another RO-RO ship, M/V SC Connector (Figure 4), operating in the North Sea, wa
was retrofitted with two 35 m × 5 m Norsepower sails in 2021. Additionally, a 339 kW
retrofitted with two 35 m × 5 m Norsepower sails in 2021. Additionally, a 339 kW Corvu
Corvus Orca Energy battery was installed, which allows emission-free sailing in ports. SC
Orca Energy battery was installed, which allows emission-free sailing in ports. SC Con
Connector is a RO-RO built in 2020. Its gross tonnage is 12,251 tons, deadweight 8843 tons,
nector154.5
length is a m
RO-RO built in
and breadth 2020.
22.74 Its gross
m. The tonnage
ship sails is 12,251
between Denmark,tons, deadweight
Norway, Sweden,8843 tons
length 154.5
Poland, and them Netherlands.
and breadth As 22.74 m. The
it passes shipmultiple
under sails between Denmark,
powerlines Norway,
and bridges, the Sweden
Poland,
rotors canand the Netherlands.
be tilted As it passes
to almost horizontal under
if required. multiple
Roto powerlinespredicted
sails’ manufacturer and bridges, th
rotors can
emission be tilted
reduction toabout
to be almost horizontal
25%, if required.
and, according Roto
to [54,57], thissails’ manufacturer
has been achieved. predicted
emission reduction to be about 25%, and, according to [54,57], this has been achieved.
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 34
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2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 34
13 of 33

Figure 4. SC Connector [58].

Figure4.4.SC
Figure SCConnector
Connector[58].
[58].
Flettner Rotors have also been installed on passenger vessels. Ferry company
Flettner
Flettner
Scandlines Rotors
Rotors
operates have
the also
have beenlargest
also
world’s installed
been on passenger
installed
fleet vessels. which
on passenger
of hybrid ferries, Ferry company
vessels. FerryScand-
combine company
diesel and
lines operates
Scandlines
battery power.the world’s
operates largest
the world’s
Initially, fleet of hybrid
largest two
they upgraded ferries,
fleet ferries,
of hybrid which
“MS combine
ferries,
Berlin” which diesel and
combine
and “MS battery
diesel and
Copenhagen”,
power. Initially, they upgraded two ferries, “MS Berlin” and “MS Copenhagen”, to hybrid
battery
to hybrid power. Initially,
propulsion andthey upgraded
carried twoadaptation
out berth ferries, “MS forBerlin”
batteryand “MS Copenhagen”,
charging and terminal
propulsion and carried out berth adaptation for battery charging and terminal improve-
to hybrid propulsion
improvements andports,
of the two carried out berth
Rostock andadaptation
Gedser. MV forCopenhagen
battery charging
(Figure and5) terminal
and Ber-
ments of the two ports, Rostock and Gedser. MV Copenhagen (Figure 5) and Berlin are
improvements
lin are RO-PAXofferriesthe two ports,
with a carRostock andofGedser.
capacity 230 and MV Copenhagen
passenger (Figure
capacity 5) andTheir
of 1300. Ber-
RO-PAX ferries with a car capacity of 230 and passenger capacity of 1300. Their gross
lin aretonnage
gross RO-PAX is ferries
22,319 with
tons, adeadweight
car capacity4814 of 230 and
tons, passenger
length 169.5 capacity of 1300.25.4
m and breadth Their
m
tonnage is 22,319 tons, deadweight 4814 tons, length 169.5 m and breadth 25.4 m each. Both
gross Both
each. tonnage is 22,319
vessels tons, in
have been deadweight 4814 tons,
hybrid propulsion length 169.5
operation since m andwhich
2016, breadth 25.4 m
allowed a
vessels have been in hybrid propulsion operation since 2016, which allowed a reduction
each. Both
reduction invessels
GHG have been
emissions in hybrid
[59]. propulsion
Installation of operation
the Flettner
in GHG emissions [59]. Installation of the Flettner rotor in 2020 reduced M/V Copen-since
rotor 2016,
in which
2020 allowed
reduced M/V a
reduction
Copenhagen
hagen in GHG
emissions evenemissions
emissions evenThe
further. [59].
further.
windInstallation
The windofconditions
conditions onthe Flettner
the 47 km rotor
onshipping
the 47in km
2020
route reduced
shipping M/V
betweenroute
Copenhagen
between
Rostock and emissions
Rostock
Gedser and even further.
Gedser
are favorable are The wind
for favorable
WAPS conditions
for
systems, WAPS
and fuel onconsumption/emission
the 47and
systems, km fuel
shipping route
consump-
between
reduction Rostock
tion/emission
was as and
reduction Gedser
predictedwas are
as predicted
by the favorable
manufacturer by the for WAPS
manufacturer
of the systems, and
of thetorotors;
rotors; according fuel consump-
[60], it according
was 7%. to
tion/emission
[60], it was 7%. reduction
Following was
a as predicted
successful by the
implementationmanufacturer
of rotor
Following a successful implementation of rotor sails onboard M/V Copenhagen, in 2022 of the
sails rotors;
onboard according
M/V Copen- to
[60], it was
hagen,
Scanlines 7%.Scanlines
indecided
2022 Following a successful
decided
to replicate the same implementation
to replicate the same
installation of rotor sails
installation
on a sister ship onboard
on a sister
sailing on theM/V
ship Copen-
samesailing
hagen, in 2022
on the sameBerlin.
route—M/V Scanlines
route—M/V Berlin. decided to replicate the same installation on a sister ship sailing
on the same route—M/V Berlin.

Figure5.5.M/V
Figure M/VCopenhagen
Copenhagen[61].
[61].
Figure 5. M/V Copenhagen [61].
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 34
Energies 2025, 18, 897 14 of 33

M/S Viking Grace (Figure 6), when built in 2013, was one of the most environmentally
M/S Viking Grace (Figure 6), when built in 2013, was one of the most environmentally
friendly cruise ships in the world. It was the first passenger vessel to operate on LNG
friendly cruise ships in the world. It was the first passenger vessel to operate on LNG
(liquified natural gas) [62]. It allowed a reduction in GHG emissions of 15% and a reduc-
(liquified natural gas) [62]. It allowed a reduction in GHG emissions of 15% and a reduction
tion in particulate emissions of 85%. Viking Grace has a gross tonnage of 57,565 GT and a
in particulate emissions of 85%. Viking Grace has a gross tonnage of 57,565 GT and a
deadweight tonnage of 6107 DWT. Its length is 218 m, draft 6.8 m, and beam 31.8 m. The
deadweight tonnage of 6107 DWT. Its length is 218 m, draft 6.8 m, and beam 31.8 m.
passenger
The passengercapacity is 2800.
capacity The vessel
is 2800. has 1275
The vessel lane meters
has 1275 for RO-RO
lane meters cargocargo
for RO-RO and 1000
and lane
meters
1000 lanefor cars [55].
meters In 2018,
for cars [55].the vesselthe
In 2018, owner decided
vessel owner to installto
decided a 24 m × 4a m
install 24 Flettner
m × 4 mrotor.
The shiprotor.
Flettner was Thethe first
shippassenger vessel
was the first to use vessel
passenger WAPStotechnology
use WAPSto reduce itsto
technology environmen-
reduce
its environmental impact. Installation of the rotor sail allowed a further reduction infuel
tal impact. Installation of the rotor sail allowed a further reduction in the ship’s the con-
sumption
ship’s fuel and emissions;and
consumption COemissions;
2 emission CO was2 reduced
emission bywasapproximately 900 tons per year,
reduced by approximately
which
900 tonsisper
equivalent
year, whichto 300 tons of LNG
is equivalent to 300 [54].
tonsDuring
of LNGthe test
[54]. periodthe
During intest
2018–2021,
period inthree
independent
2018–2021, threethird parties (Chalmers
independent University,
third parties (Chalmers ABB and NAPA)
University, ABB and carried
NAPA)out a testing
carried
out a testingtocampaign
campaign check thetolong-term
check theemissions
long-term reduction
emissions reduction and fuelThe
and fuel savings. savings. The con-
research
research confirmed that the rotor sail installation reduced annual fuel
firmed that the rotor sail installation reduced annual fuel consumption by 231–315 consumption by tons
231–315 tons (with
(with power power consumption
consumption reduction of reduction
207–315ofkW)207–315
[63]. kW) [63].

Figure6.6.M/V
Figure M/VViking
VikingGrace
Grace[64].
[64].

Rotor
Rotorsails,
sails,due
due to
to the available deck
the available deck space
space and
and their
their explosion-proof
explosion-proof design,
design, are
are suit-
suitable
able forfor tankers.
tankers. In In August
August 2018,two
2018, 30mm××55mmrotor
two30 rotor sails
sails were
were installed
installed onboard
onboard the
the Maersk Pelican (Figure 7) (current name: M/V Epanastasea). MV Epanastasea is an oil
Maersk Pelican (Figure 7) (current name: M/V Epanastasea). MV Epanastasea is an oil
tanker built in 2006. Its cargo tank capacity is 117,922 m3 , gross 3tonnage 51,724 tons, dead-
tanker built in 2006. Its cargo tank capacity is 117,922 m , gross tonnage 51,724 tons,
weight 109,647 tons, length 244.6 m, and breadth 42.03 m. Following the rotor installation,
deadweight 109,647 tons, length 244.6 m, and breadth 42.03 m. Following the rotor instal-
the ship underwent testing and data analysis, which was carried out until the end of 2019.
lation, the ship underwent testing and data analysis, which was carried out until the end
Tests carried out by LRS (Lloyd’s Register of Shipping) confirmed fuel savings of 8.2% from
of 2019. Tests carried out by LRS (Lloyd’s Register of Shipping) confirmed fuel savings of
1 September 2018 to 1 September 2019 (equivalent to an emission reduction of 1400 tons of
8.2%[54,65]).
CO from 1 ItSeptember
is expected2018
that to
two1 September
30 m × 5 m 2019
rotor (equivalent
sails installedtoon
anan
emission reduction of
LR2 (long-range
2
1400 tons of CO 2 [54,65]). It is expected that two 30 m × 5 m rotor sails installed on an LR2
2) tanker can reduce fuel usage on typical shipping routes by up to 10%.
(long-range
Another 2)MR2tanker can reducetanker)
(middle-range fuel usage on typical
retrofitted withshipping routes
rotor sails by upAlcyone.
was M/V to 10%.
MV Alcyone (Figure 8) is a chemical/oil product tanker built in 2022. Its gross tonnage
is 29,507 tons, deadweight 49,990 tons, length 183 m, and breadth 32 m. It sails on the
route between French Polynesia and South Korea. In 2024, the ship was retrofitted with
two 35 m × 5 rotor sails. The rotor manufacturer estimates that the fuel consumption
reduction will be at least 8%. However, if voyage optimization is implemented, there is a
Energies 2025, 18, 897 15 of 33

Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW

potential for further savings, reaching the equivalent of an annual reduction of 2000 tons 15
of of 34
CO2 emissions [66,67].

Figure 7. Maersk Pelican [54].

Another MR2 (middle-range tanker) retrofitted with rotor sails was M/V Alcyone.
MV Alcyone (Figure 8) is a chemical/oil product tanker built in 2022. Its gross tonnage is
29,507 tons, deadweight 49,990 tons, length 183 m, and breadth 32 m. It sails on the route
between French Polynesia and South Korea. In 2024, the ship was retrofitted with two 35
m × 5 rotor sails. The rotor manufacturer estimates that the fuel consumption reduction
will be at least 8%. However, if voyage optimization is implemented, there is a potential
for further savings, reaching the equivalent of an annual reduction of 2000 tons of CO2
Figure
Figure7.7.Maersk
emissions Maersk Pelican
Pelican
[66,67]. [54].
[54].

Another MR2 (middle-range tanker) retrofitted with rotor sails was M/V Alcyone.
MV Alcyone (Figure 8) is a chemical/oil product tanker built in 2022. Its gross tonnage is
29,507 tons, deadweight 49,990 tons, length 183 m, and breadth 32 m. It sails on the route
between French Polynesia and South Korea. In 2024, the ship was retrofitted with two 35
m × 5 rotor sails. The rotor manufacturer estimates that the fuel consumption reduction
will be at least 8%. However, if voyage optimization is implemented, there is a potential
for further savings, reaching the equivalent of an annual reduction of 2000 tons of CO2
emissions [66,67].

Figure8.8.M/V
Figure M/VAlcyone
Alcyone[68].
[68].

Bulk carriers, due to available deck space, are another type of ship well suited for
Flettner rotors. The rotors can be provided with a tilting function, which enables efficient
cargo operations. The first bulk carrier fitted with rotor sails was M/V Sea Zhoushan
(Figure 9). M/V Sea Zhoushan is a VLOC (very large ore carrier) built in 2021. Its gross
tonnage is 173,666 tons, deadweight 325,000 tons, length 340 m, and beam 62 m. The

Figure 8. M/V Alcyone [68].

 Bulk carriers, due to available deck space, are another type of ship well suited for
Flettner rotors. The rotors can be provided with a tilting function, which enables efficient
Energies 2025, 18, 897 cargo operations. The first bulk carrier fitted with rotor sails was M/V Sea Zhoushan (Fig-
16 of 33
ure 9). M/V Sea Zhoushan is a VLOC (very large ore carrier) built in 2021. Its gross tonnage
is 173,666 tons, deadweight 325,000 tons, length 340 m, and beam 62 m. The vessel was
equipped
vessel with five with
was equipped 24 mfive
× 4 24
mm × 4sails.
rotor At sails.
m rotor the time of time
At the the installation, the vessel
of the installation, the was
vessel was the largest ship ever outfitted with a WAPS system. The rotor sail manufacturer
the largest ship ever outfitted with a WAPS system. The rotor sail manufacturer estimated
estimated that installed
that the sails the sails installed
on boardon board
the VLOC thewould
VLOC allow
wouldan allow an 8% reduction
8% reduction in fuelinconsump-
fuel
consumption, which is an equivalent of 3400 tons of
tion, which is an equivalent of 3400 tons of CO2 emission CO 2 emission every year
every year [69,70].[69,70].

Figure9.9.M/V
Figure M/VSea
SeaZhoushan
Zhoushan[54].
[54].

InInJune
June2024,
2024,one
one 3535
mm × 5× m
5mtilting rotor
tilting sailsail
rotor waswas
installed onboard
installed M/V M/V
onboard Koryu. M/V M/V
Koryu.
Koryu
Koryu(Figure
(Figure10) is is
10) a bulk/oil carrier
a bulk/oil carrierbuilt in 2013,
built sailing
in 2013, on the
sailing on route Chile/Japan/Chile.
the route Chile/Japan/Chile.
Its length overall (LOA) is 189.95 m, width 32.26 m, gross tonnage 30,476 tons, deadweight
Its length overall (LOA) is 189.95 m, width 32.26 m, gross tonnage 30,476 tons, deadweight
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW
53,762. According to the simulation provided by the rotor sail’s manufacturer, the use 17 of of 34
53,762. According to the simulation provided by the rotor sail’s manufacturer, the use of
the WAPS system is estimated to provide up to 6% fuel savings [71,72].
the WAPS system is estimated to provide up to 6% fuel savings [71,72].

Figure 10.M/V
Figure10. M/VKoryu
Koryu[73].
[73].

In May 2024, four tiltable 35 × 5 m Flettner Rotors were retrofitted onboard bulk car-
rier Berge Neblina. Installation time was only 4 days. The sails can be folded during cargo
operations. Mv Berge Neblina (Figure 11) is an ore carrier built in 2013. Its gross tonnage
 Energies 2025, 18, 897 17 of 33
Figure 10. M/V Koryu [73].

InMay
In May2024,
2024,four
fourtiltable
tiltable35
35×× 55 m
m Flettner
Flettner Rotors
Rotors were
were retrofitted onboard bulk
retrofitted onboard bulk car-
rier Berge
carrier Berge Neblina.
Neblina.Installation
Installationtime
timewas
wasonly
only4 days.
4 days.The
Thesails can
sails canbebefolded
foldedduring
duringcargo
operations.
cargo Mv Berge
operations. Neblina
Mv Berge (Figure
Neblina 11) is11)
(Figure anisore
ancarrier builtbuilt
ore carrier in 2013. Its gross
in 2013. tonnage
Its gross
is 195,199
tonnage tons, deadweight
is 195,199 392,099
tons, deadweight tons,tons,
392,099 length 361 361
length m, and beam
m, and beam65 65
m.m. According
Accordingto the
sail
to themanufacturer, thethe
sail manufacturer, expected
expectedreduction
reduction in emissionsand
in emissions andfuel
fuel consumption
consumption will will
be be
around 8% [74].
around 8% [74].

Figure 11.M/V
Figure11. M/VBerge
BergeNeblina
Neblina[75].
[75].

In
InJune
June2023,
2023,three rotor
three sails
rotor sails m×
(24(24 m 5×m) were
5 m) installed
were on TR
installed on Lady. EachEach
TR Lady. rotorrotor
has has
a transverse rail deployment system which enables the rotors to be moved to starboard
a transverse rail deployment system which enables the rotors to be moved to starboard or
or port during cargo operations. TR Lady (Figure 12) is a bulker built in 2017. Its length
port during cargo operations. TR Lady (Figure 12) is a bulker built in 2017. Its length over-
overall (LOA) is 229 m, beam 32 m, gross tonnage 44,642 tons, and deadweight 81,587 tons.
all (LOA) is 229 m, beam 32 m, gross tonnage 44,642 tons, and deadweight 81,587 tons.
The rotor manufacturer estimated the reduction in emissions and fuel consumption to
The rotor manufacturer estimated the reduction in emissions and fuel consumption to be
be around 10%. A manufacturer representative sailed with the vessel during its first trip
around 10%. A manufacturer representative sailed with the vessel during its first trip
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18with
of 34
with rotors from China to Australia. Initial testing suggested that the vessel exceeded the
rotors from China to Australia.
original estimation [76,77]. Initial testing suggested that the vessel exceeded the orig-
inal estimation [76,77].

Figure 12.M/V
Figure12. M/VTR
TRLady
Lady[77].
[77].

In June 2018, an 18 m × 3 m Flettner rotor was installed on the general cargo ship Fehn
In June 2018, an 18 m × 3 m Flettner rotor was installed on the general cargo ship
Pollux—Figure 13 (now Goldy Seven). Goldy Seven was built in 1997, its gross tonnage is
Fehn Pollux—Figure 13 (now Goldy Seven). Goldy Seven was built in 1997, its gross ton-
nage is 2844 tons, its length is 89.77 m and its width is 13.7 m. Monitoring and control
systems for the Flettner sail were developed by Leer University of Applied Sciences. Sci-
entists from the university evaluated the efficiency of the WAPS in operational conditions
during the first year of the operation. According to the gathered and processed data,
 Figure 12. M/V TR Lady [77].

Energies 2025, 18, 897 In June 2018, an 18 m × 3 m Flettner rotor was installed on the general cargo ship
18 of 33
Fehn Pollux—Figure 13 (now Goldy Seven). Goldy Seven was built in 1997, its gross ton-
nage is 2844 tons, its length is 89.77 m and its width is 13.7 m. Monitoring and control
2844 tons,for
systems its the
length is 89.77
Flettner sailmwere
and developed
its width isby13.7
Leerm. University
Monitoringof and controlSciences.
Applied systems Sci-for
the Flettner sail were developed by Leer University of Applied Sciences. Scientists
entists from the university evaluated the efficiency of the WAPS in operational conditions from the
university
during theevaluated
first yearthe of efficiency of the According
the operation. WAPS in operational conditions
to the gathered during the data,
and processed first
year of the operation. According to the gathered and processed data,
model calculations predicting a 10% reduction in fuel consumption were correct. The model calculations
predicting a 10% of
power potential reduction
the rotorinsail
fuelwas
consumption were
in the range correct.
of 100 kW toThe150power
kW inpotential
additionof tothethe
rotor sail was in the range of 100 kW to 150 kW in addition to the
main engine power. Measured fuel savings were 10–20%, depending on the power of the main engine power.
Measured
main enginefuelandsavings were 10–20%,
the vessel speed. depending
Higher fuelon the power
savings wereofrecorded
the main with
engine and the
a reduced
vessel speed.
ship’s speed. Higher fuel savings were recorded with a reduced ship’s speed.

Figure13.
Figure 13.M/V
M/V Fehn Pollux [78].

In
InApril
April2021,
2021,an
an1818mm×× 33 m
m Flettner
Flettner rotor
rotor along
along with
with its
its weather
weather station
station and
and auto-
auto-
mated
matedoperating
operatingsystem
systemwas installed
was onon
installed thethe
general
generalcargo shipship
cargo Annika Braren
Annika (Figure
Braren 14).
(Figure
Anika Braren was built in 2020, its gross tonnage is 2996 tons, its length is 86.93 m
14). Anika Braren was built in 2020, its gross tonnage is 2996 tons, its length is 86.93 m andand its
width is 15ism.
its width 15Trials carried
m. Trials out following
carried the installation
out following reported
the installation 15% fuel
reported 15%savings with
fuel savings
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW
favorable wind angles; however, the average reduction was determined to be in the19 of 34
range
with favorable wind angles; however, the average reduction was determined to be in the
of 2–4.5%
range [48]. [48].
of 2–4.5%

Figure 14.M/V
Figure14. M/V Annika Braren [79].

M/V Afros (Figure 15), built in 2018, is the first Flettner Rotor Ultramax bulk carrier.
Its gross tonnage is 36,452 tons, deadweight 63,223 tons, length 199.9 m and breadth 32.3
m. The ship was equipped with four rotor sails (16 m × 2 m). The rotors were installed on
Energies 2025, 18, 897 19 of 33
Figure 14. M/V Annika Braren [79].

M/V Afros
M/V Afros(Figure
(Figure15),15),built
builtinin2018,
2018,isisthe
thefirst
firstFlettner
Flettner Rotor
Rotor Ultramax
Ultramax bulk
bulk carrier.
carrier.
Itsgross
Its grosstonnage
tonnageis is 36,452
36,452 tons,
tons, deadweight
deadweight 63,223
63,223 tons,tons,
lengthlength
199.9199.9
m andmbreadth
and breadth 32.3
32.3 m.
The ship was equipped with four rotor sails (16 m × 2 m). The rotors were installed on on
m. The ship was equipped with four rotor sails (16 m × 2 m). The rotors were installed
thestarboard
the starboardside
sideofofthethevessel;
vessel;however,
however,they they sitsit
onon a carriage
a carriage structure
structure which
which cancanbe be
repositionedtotoallow
repositioned allow cargo
cargo operations.
operations. TheThe efficiency
efficiency teststests
werewere carried
carried out from
out from Novem-
November
ber 2019
2019 to January
to January 2020 when
2020 when the vessel
the vessel sailed sailed on a regular
on a regular route between
route between VancouverVancouver
and
and Nantong.
Nantong. The calculated
The calculated fuel savings
fuel savings were were
12.5%,12.5%,
whichwhich
is the is the equivalent
equivalent of 73 tonnes
of 73 tonnes of
of fuel/235
fuel/235 tonnes
tonnes of COof CO
2 emissions
emissions
2 [80].[80].

Figure 15.M/V
Figure15. M/VAfros
Afros[80].
[80].
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW M/V 20 of 34
M/V Delphine
Delphine(Figure
(Figure16),
16),having
havinga acargo capacity
cargo of of
capacity 8000 m,m,
8000 is the largest
is the operating
largest operating
short-haul
short-haulRO-RO
RO-ROvessel
vesselininthe
theworld.
world.InInFebruary
February2023,
2023,the
thevessel
vesselwas
wasequipped
equippedwithwith a
a WAPS system consisting of two foldable 35 m × 5 m rotor sails. M/V Delphine was
WAPS system consisting of two foldable 35 m × 5 m rotor sails. M/V Delphine was built
in 2018.
built Its length
in 2018. overall
Its length (LOA)
overall (LOA)is is234
234m,
m,width
width 35 m,
m, gross
grosstonnage
tonnage74,273
74,273 tons,
tons, andand
deadweight27,687
deadweight 27,687tons.
tons.The
Theshipshipnavigates
navigatesbetween
between Ireland,
Ireland, Europe,
Europe, andand England.
England. Since
Since
the installation of the rotors, fuel consumption and GHG emissions have been
the installation of the rotors, fuel consumption and GHG emissions have been reduced by reduced by
10%
10%[81].
[81].

16.M/V
Figure16.
Figure M/V Delphine
Delphine[82].
[82].

4.2. Hard Sails

Wing sails (also referred to as hard sails) work like conventional soft sails. The inter-
action between the sail and the wind creates drag force and aerodynamic lift. The differ-
 Energies 2025, 18, 897 20 of 33

4.2. Hard Sails

Wing sails (also referred to as hard sails) work like conventional soft sails. The
interaction between the sail and the wind creates drag force and aerodynamic lift. The
difference is in the materials they are fabricated from; hard sails are made of strong and
light materials like carbon fiber and have rigid geometry. It is possible to rotate the wing
sails to adjust them to the direction of the wind to achieve maximum propulsion; this
function is usually fully automatic. The aerodynamics of the hard sails is based on airplane
physics principles and their geometry is similar to that used in aviation. The geometry of
the hard sails provides a higher lift-to-drag ratio and creates more lift (in comparison to
conventional soft sails). Wing sails vary in size; the largest ones can be 50 m high and have
up to 1000 m2 surface.
M/V Pyxis Ocean is the first vessel retrofitted with two hard sails. Pyxis Ocean
(Figure 17) is a bulk carrier built in 2017. Its length overall (LOA) is 229 m, beam 32.26 m,
gross tonnage 43,398 tons, and deadweight 80,962 tons. Two wing sails 37.5 m in height
were installed in August 2023. The operation of the sails is automatic; they self-adjust to
an optimal configuration. During 6 months of testing, the ship sailed the Pacific Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Atlantic, passing the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. After the trial
period, it was concluded that wing sails achieved performance equivalent to a reduction in
fuel consumption of 3 tons per day—14% of average daily consumption. This equates to
11 tonnes of CO2 emissions. The results were verified by DNV, who were hired to review
the fuel consumption calculations. In optimal wind conditions, the ship was able to achieve
savings of 11 tonnes of fuel daily. Further savings are possible with the installation of an
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW
additional wing sail onboard the vessel. A vessel of this size can easily be equipped with 21 of 3
three wind sails. This could further improve the fuel savings and emissions [83].

Figure 17.M/V
Figure17. M/VPyxis
PyxisOcean [83].
Ocean [83].

In October 2023, M/V Berge Olympus (Figure 18) became the second vessel fitted
In October 2023, M/V Berge Olympus (Figure 18) became the second vessel fitted
with wing sails. They are expected to achieve a double-digit percentage reduction in CO2
with wing sails. They are expected to achieve a double-digit percentage reduction in CO
emissions and fuel consumption. Mv Berge Olympus is a bulk carrier built in 2018. Its
emissions
length and
overall fuel isconsumption.
(LOA) 300 m, beam 49 Mvm,Berge Olympus
gross tonnage is a bulk
109,716 tons, carrier built in 2018. It
and deadweight
length tons.
211,153 overall
The(LOA) is 300
vessel sails m, beam
between China49 and
m, gross
Brazil; tonnage
this route109,716
is known tons, and deadweigh
for favorable
211,153
wind tons. The
conditions. vessel
With four sails
20 m between
wide, 37.5China
m tall and
wingBrazil; thisthe
sails, and route
totalissurface
known foroffavorabl
area
wind
the fourconditions. With
wings at 3000 2
m ,four
Berge20Olympus
m wide,will
37.5 m tallfuel
reduce wing sails, andby
consumption thesixtotal surface
tonnes per area o
day
the on anwings
four averageatroute.
3000 CO emissions
m2,2Berge will bewill
Olympus reduced
reduceby 19.5
fueltonnes per day. by six tonnes pe
consumption
day on an average route. CO2 emissions will be reduced by 19.5 tonnes per day.
 211,153 tons. The vessel sails between China and Brazil; this route is known for favorable
wind conditions. With four 20 m wide, 37.5 m tall wing sails, and the total surface area of
Energies 2025, 18, 897 the four wings at 3000 m2, Berge Olympus will reduce fuel consumption by six tonnes
21 of 33 per
day on an average route. CO2 emissions will be reduced by 19.5 tonnes per day.

Figure 18.M/V
Figure18. M/VBerge
BergeOlympus
Olympus[84].
[84].

In September 2022, DSIC (China’s Dalian Shipbuilding Industry Co.) delivered the
In September 2022, DSIC (China’s Dalian Shipbuilding Industry Co.) delivered the
WAPS wing sail-powered supertanker M/V New Aden. Back in 2018, DSIC also fitted two
WAPS wing sail-powered supertanker M/V New Aden. Back in 2018, DSIC also fitted two
wing sails to the VLCC mv New Vitality; however, the results of sea trials of this WAPS
wing sailsare
application to the VLCCM/V
unknown. mv NewNew Vitality;
Aden (Figurehowever,
19) is athe
VLCCresults
(veryoflarge
sea crude
trials carrier).
of this WAPS
application are unknown. M/V New Aden (Figure 19) is a VLCC (very
Its gross tonnage is 162,925 tons, deadweight 306,474 tons, length 332 m and breadth 60 m. large crude carrier).
Its gross
The vesseltonnage is 162,925
was designed to sailtons, deadweight
between 306,474
the Far East tons,
and the lengthEast;
Middle 332 this
m and breadth
route is 60
m. Thefor
known vessel was designed
favorable to sail between
wind conditions. The vesselthewasFar East and
equipped thefour
with Middle
rigidEast;
wing this
sails.route is
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 22 of 34
known
The raisedforsail
favorable wind of
has a surface conditions.
1200 m each Theandvessel was equipped
a height of 40 m. Thewith four rigid
blades wing sails.
are made
of carbon
The raisedfiber.
sail As
hasaaresult,
surface they
of have
1200 m good corrosion
2 each resistance,
and a height of 40low
m. weight,
The bladesand are
highmade of
strength. The efficiency
carbon fiber. of thethey
As a result, sails have
is maximized with a fully
good corrosion automaticlow
resistance, system used and
weight, to high
raise
raise and turn the sails. DSIC estimated that the vessel would achieve
strength. The efficiency of the sails is maximized with a fully automatic systeminused to
and turn the sails. DSIC estimated that the vessel would achieve a 9.8% a 9.8% reduction
reduction in
fuelconsumption,
fuel consumption, which
which is equivalent
is equivalent to 2900
to 2900 tons tons
of COof CO2 emissions
2 emissions [85,86].[85,86].

Figure 19.M/V
Figure19. M/VNew
NewAden
Aden[86].
[86].

M/V SHOFU MARU is the first cargo ship equipped with Wind Challenger WAPS.
M/V SHOFU MARU is the first cargo ship equipped with Wind Challenger WAPS.
The system, developed in Japan, uses telescoping wing sails to harness the power of wind.
The system, developed in Japan, uses telescoping wing sails to harness the power of wind.
SHOFU MARU (Figure 20) was delivered in October 2022. Its gross tonnage is 58,209 tons,
SHOFU MARU (Figure 20) was delivered in October 2022. Its gross tonnage is 58,209 tons,
deadweight 100,422 tons, length 235 m and breadth 43 m. The vessel transports coal to
deadweight
Japan 100,422
from North tons,Australia,
America, length 235andm and breadth
Indonesia. 43 m. Theofvessel
The installation transports
the wing sails was coal to
Japan from North America, Australia, and Indonesia. The installation of the wing sails
was expected to reduce fuel consumption by about 8% on the North America–Japan route
and by 5% on the Australia–Japan route [87].
 M/V SHOFU MARU is the first cargo ship equipped with Wind Challenger WAPS.
The system, developed in Japan, uses telescoping wing sails to harness the power of wind.
Energies 2025, 18, 897 SHOFU MARU (Figure 20) was delivered in October 2022. Its gross tonnage is 58,209 22 tons,
of 33
deadweight 100,422 tons, length 235 m and breadth 43 m. The vessel transports coal to
Japan from North America, Australia, and Indonesia. The installation of the wing sails
expected to reduce
was expected fuel consumption
to reduce by about
fuel consumption 8% on
by about the
8% onNorth America–Japan
the North routeroute
America–Japan and
by 5% on the Australia–Japan route [87].
and by 5% on the Australia–Japan route [87].

Figure 20.M/V
Figure20. M/V Shofu Maru [88].

4.3. Suction Wings

4.3. Suction Wings
Suction wings are vertical sails that have a wing shape. They are mounted to the
Suction wings are vertical sails that have a wing shape. They are mounted to the ves-
vessel structure (main deck). The opposite of Flettner rotors, their outer cylinders do not
sel structure (main deck). The opposite of Flettner rotors, their outer cylinders do not ro-
rotate. The sails, however, can be adjusted automatically to the direction of wind. The wing
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 34
tate. The sails, however, can be adjusted automatically to the direction of wind. The wing
sails have internal built-in fans and vents that use boundary layer suction to create force in
sails have internal built-in fans and vents that use boundary layer suction to create force
addition to the thrust conventionally generated by the sails. Similar to rotor sails, suction
in addition to the thrust conventionally generated by the sails. Similar to rotor sails, suc-
wings generate optimal force under a side wind. Under tail and head winds, their thrust is
tion
thrust wings generate
is zero. optimal
Suction wings’force under can
sail height a side
be wind. Under
up to 36 tail andtwo
m. Usually, head orwinds, their are
four wings
zero. Suction wings’ sail height can be up to 36 m. Usually, two or four wings are installed
installed per ship; however, there are vessels with only one suction wing. Small units
per ship; however, there are vessels with only one suction wing. Small units (height less
(height less than 10 m) can be provided as containerized systems. It makes it easy to move
than 10 m) can be provided as containerized systems. It makes it easy to move them from
them
one fromtoone
vessel vessel to another.
another.
In 2020, two retractable suction
In 2020, two retractable suction wings
wings were
were installed
installed onboard
onboard MV MV Ankie.
Ankie.Ankie
Ankie(Fig-
ure 21)21)
(Figure is ais general
a generalcargo
cargoship
shipbuilt in 2007.
built in 2007.Its
Itsgross
grosstonnage
tonnage is is 2528
2528 tonnes,
tonnes, deadweight
deadweight
3636tonnes,
3636 tonnes,length
lengthoverall
overall(LOA)
(LOA) 89.99
89.99 mm and
and beam
beam 12.5
12.5 m. m.
TheThe initial
initial height
height of sails
of the the sails
was 10 m; however, later on, they were extended to 13 m. The built-in
was 10 m; however, later on, they were extended to 13 m. The built-in fans are propelled byfans are propelled
2by× 215×kW15 electric
kW electric motors.
motors. Thecan
The sails sails can be lowered
be lowered during
during port port operations
operations or when
or when sailing
sailing aagainst
against headwind. a headwind. The estimated
The estimated fuel savingsfuel savingsfrom
resulting resulting from the of
the installation installation
the sails of
the sails4.5%.
reached reached 4.5%.

Figure 21.M/V
Figure21. M/VAnkie
Ankie[89].
[89].

Econowind VentoFoil suction wings have been installed on five vessels in total,
mainly small general cargo vessels and a chemical tanker. According to the manufacturer,
the expected reduction in fuel consumption/emissions was up to 10% [89,90].
 Energies 2025, 18, 897 23 of 33

Econowind VentoFoil suction wings have been installed on five vessels in total, mainly
small general cargo vessels and a chemical tanker. According to the manufacturer, the
expected reduction in fuel consumption/emissions was up to 10% [89,90].

4.4. Kites
Kites are fixed to the bow of a vessel to generate drag and lift. They have automatic
systems to launch/retract depending on the weather conditions. As they are deployed
at altitudes higher than rotor sails and hard sails, they can utilize higher wind speeds;
however, there is a detrimental effect of higher elevation angle. The kites can be passive,
following the direction of the wind, or dynamic, moving to increase the generated lift.
Their size can be up to 1000 m2 . Kite development is still in the experimental phase. The
first kite-supported propulsion system was installed onboard the ship Ville de Bordeaux.
Ville de Bordeaux (Figure 22) is a RO-RO cargo vessel built in 2004. Its gross tonnage is
21,528 tonnes, deadweight is 5291 tonnes, overall length (LOA) is 154 m, and beam is 24 m.
Two 250 m2 and 500 m2 prototypes were used for testing the kites. Tests included elements
such as kite take-off, landing, ascent and descent. In May 2023, it was reported that the kite
Energies 2025, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24
generated thrust for the first time. The wing manufacturer predicts a 16% reduction in fuel
consumption; however, this assumption needs to be verified during sea trials [91,92].

Figure M/V
Figure22.22. Ville
M/V de Bordeaux
Ville [91]. [91].
de Bordeaux

5. Emission Reduction Potential of WAPS

5. Emission Reduction Potential of WAPS
The fuel consumption and emission reduction potential of wind-assisted propulsion
systemsThe
canfuel consumption
be determined eitherand emissionsimulation
by numerical reductionorpotential of wind-assisted
by measuring fuel consump- propu
systems
tion during can be determined
trials. eithercalculate
Simulation models by numerical simulation
the reduction of fuelorconsumption
by measuring fuel consu
based
on several factors, such as thrust generated by sails, ship route, wind direction
tion during trials. Simulation models calculate the reduction of fuel consumption b and speed,
vessel characteristics, etc. Measurements are carried out during the trials, which provide
on several factors, such as thrust generated by sails, ship route, wind direction and sp
data on the difference in speed, propulsion power, fuel consumption, and emissions for the
vessel characteristics, etc. Measurements are carried out during the trials, which pro
ship’s operation with and without the WAPS.
dataWAPSs
on thealsodifference in speed,
consume energy, propulsion
and it power, fuel
should be considered in theconsumption, and emission
fuel saving calculation.
thethrust
The ship’sproduced
operation withdepends
by sails and without the WAPS.
on the wind speed and direction. Higher wind speed
WAPSswind
and favorable also direction
consumeare energy,
expectedand it should
to increase thebeamount
considered in produced
of thrust the fuel saving
by cal
tion. The thrust produced by sails depends on the wind speed and direction. Higher w
speed and favorable wind direction are expected to increase the amount of thrust
duced by WAPS. However, this condition will also deteriorate the hull performance
to wave impact. Maneuverability and stability of the ship will dictate the maximum w
Energies 2025, 18, 897 24 of 33

WAPS. However, this condition will also deteriorate the hull performance due to wave
impact. Maneuverability and stability of the ship will dictate the maximum wind speed
limits for the operation of WAPS. In harsh conditions, WAPS will have to be switched off
due to safety considerations.
Implementation of WAPS may, in some cases, decrease the main propulsion efficiency
and increase the SFOC (Specific Fuel Oil Consumption). Main engines are optimized in
such a way that SFOC is lowest at the engine load that corresponds to the designed speed.
With sails in operation, with the same speed, a vessel will sail at a lower engine load.
The overall fuel consumption will decrease; however, the engine will operate with the
sub-optimal load. This will affect SFOC and total fuel savings unless it is possible to adjust
the tuning of the engine.
The reduction in fuel consumption and related emissions will also depend on the type
of WAPS.

5.1. Rotor Sails Fuel Saving Potential

A single rotor sail, according to the information provided by the manufacturers, can
produce thrust up to 385 kN, depending on the height and diameter of the rotor. Many
measurements and simulations have been carried out to determine sails’ potential to reduce
fuel consumption/emission. It seems that, so far, most studies have been carried out on the
saving potential of Flettner rotors. As per the information provided in Chapter 3 of this
article, the measurements revealed the following fuel consumption reduction:
• M/V E-Ship 1 (RO-LO ship)—Four Flettner rotors accounted for 15% of fuel savings
during the first three years of operation.
• M/V Estraden (RO-RO ship)—According to verified measurements, the installation of
two rotor sails reduced fuel consumption by 6.1%.
• M/V SC Connector (RO-RO ship)—It was predicted that the retrofit of two rotor sails
would reduce fuel consumption by 25%; according to the sail manufacturer, it has
been achieved.
• M/S Copenhagen (ferry)—It was reported that the installation of the Flettner rotor
reduced fuel consumption by 7%.
• M/S Viking Grace (cruise ship)—Installation of a 24 m × 4 m rotor sail allowed
reduction in the ship’s annual fuel consumption by 231–315 tons.
• M/V Maersk Pelican (tanker)—Installation of two 30 m × 5 m rotor sails allowed fuel
savings of 8.2% during 1 year of verified testing.
• M/V TR Lady (bulk carrier)—Three rotor sails (24 m × 5 m) were retrofitted in 2023.
The rotor manufacturer estimated the reduction in emissions and fuel consumption to
be around 10%. However, the initial testing suggested that the vessel exceeded the
original estimation.
• M/V Afros (Ultramax bulk carrier)—The ship was equipped with four rotor sails
(16 m × 2 m). The efficiency tests were carried out from November 2019 to January
2020 when the vessel sailed on a regular route between Vancouver and Nantong. The
calculated fuel savings were 12.5%.
• M/V Delphine (RO-RO ship)—Since the installation of two foldable 35 m × 5 m rotor
sails in 2023, fuel consumption and GHG emissions have been reduced by 10%.

5.2. Hard Sail Fuel Saving Potential

The number of hard sail installations has increased in recent years, but the data on the
fuel reduction potential of this wind technology remain limited. Available information is
mainly derived from simulations, which are not as accurate as trial measurements:
Energies 2025, 18, 897 25 of 33

• M/V Pyxis Ocean (bulk carrier)—Retrofit of two wing sails of 37.5 m in height in
August 2023 allowed fuel consumption reduction of 14% of daily consumption. These
results were measured during trials and verified by an independent body.
• M/V Berge Olympus (bulk carrier)—According to the simulation data, the installation
(retrofit) of four 20 m wide, 37.5 m tall wing sails will reduce fuel consumption by six
tonnes per day on an average route.
• M/V New Aden (supertanker)—In 2022, the vessel was equipped with four rigid
wing sails. The raised sail has a surface of 1200 m2 each and a height of 40 m. The trial
results of this WAPS application are unknown. According to the simulation data, it is
estimated that the vessel would achieve a 9.8% reduction in fuel consumption.
• M/V Shofu Maru (cargo ship)—As per the simulation data, the installation of Wind
Challenger rigid wing sails is expected to reduce fuel consumption by 5–8%, depending
on the route of the vessel.

5.3. Suction Wings Fuel Saving Potential

According to the manufacturers, a single suction wing of a height up to 16 m can
reduce the main propulsion load by approximately 200 kW. Other suppliers advertise their
products to be able to reduce fuel consumption by up to 40%. However, speed trials carried
out on dry cargo vessel M/V Frisian Sea, equipped with two 3 × 10 m suction wings,
proved savings of only 2–4% [48]. In 2020, two retractable suction wings were installed
onboard general cargo vessel MV Ankie. The initial height of the sails was 10 m; however,
later on, they were extended to 13. The estimated fuel saving resulting from the installation
of the sails was 4.5%. Ecowind suction wings have been installed on five vessels in total,
mainly small general cargo vessels and a chemical tanker. According to the manufacturer,
the expected reduction in fuel consumption/emissions was up to 10% [93]; however, trial
measurement data are not publicly available.

5.4. Kites Fuel Saving Potential

The development of kites is still in the experimental phase, and less modelling and
research have been carried out on their performance compared to other WAPS technologies.
It is difficult to estimate their fuel consumption saving potential due to a lack of available
data. There are numerical simulations available in the literature; however, so far, they have
not been verified during ship trials. A kite-supported propulsion system was installed
onboard the RO-RO ship M/V Ville de Bordeaux. In May 2023, it was reported that the
system generated thrust for the first time. The kite manufacturer predicts a 16% reduction
in fuel consumption; however, this assumption has not been verified during sea trials.
Fuel savings and effectiveness of WAPS may be determined by the level of automation
of the sail systems; the orientation of sails to the wind direction will affect the thrust
generated by the sails. To increase fuel savings, vessels may change their routes to benefit
from better wind conditions. The unoptimized (conventional) sailing route of the vessel
is the shortest one, so after voyage optimization is applied, a trade-off between increased
route length and the efficiency of sails must be calculated. Fuel savings generated by the
higher effectiveness of WAPS must exceed increased fuel consumption caused by a longer
sailing route. However, if the voyage optimization results in the elongation of the vessel’s
trip, it will have a negative impact on the revenue generated by the ship over time, as
transportation of the same cargo will take longer.
Energies 2025, 18, 897 26 of 33

6. Market Forecast/Future Trends and Barriers in Wind-Assisted

Propulsion System Development
Only a few studies attempted to size the future WAPS market and describe possible
future trends. A study sponsored by the UK government (Clean Maritime Plan) assessed
the global market of alternative maritime fuels, technologies and, among others, wind-
assisted propulsion systems. According to the study, the market is expected to grow to GBP
2 billion a year by the 2050s, compared to the current GBP 300 million in the 2020s. In the
study, wind technologies, which include wind propulsion as a primary system and wind-
assisted propulsion systems, are considered as one of the most important Energy Efficiency
Technologies (EETs) capable of meeting the IMO requirements. According to [94], in the
2050s, wind technologies will cover approximately 15% of the maritime propulsion market.
Another study carried out by CE Delft for the European Commission [95] predicted
an increase in the uptake of WAPS technologies (mainly suction wings), with some of them
reaching commercial maturity. The study concluded that WAPS technologies would be
widely available for the maritime industry in the 2020s. According to the research, the
peak market for the container ship, tankers and bulkers is estimated to be approximately
3700–10,700 systems installed by 2030 (both newbuilds and retrofits). The variation in the
estimated figure is caused by the uncertainty of future bunker costs. Some wind-assisted
propulsion technologies reached maturity even before 2020. The timing of the initial
implementation of WAPS into the maritime market did not match the CE Delft forecast.
The report predicted hundreds of WAPS installations at the beginning of the 2020s. The
reality was 29 installations by the end of 2023. Lower-than-expected fuel prices could have
caused this discrepancy. However, recent dynamics in the WAPS implementations may
prove that the CE Delft research was correct. By 2024, more than 100 WAPS were installed
or ordered; the installation peak projected by the research model may be just about to
happen. If this is the case, the majority of the installation will occur in the coming years
(both newbuild vessels and retrofit projects), and then, the demand will be reduced and
limited to the newbuild vessels only. To be able to meet the existing orders, the technology
suppliers would need to annually deliver 2.5 times the number of units delivered in the
past 5 years. To achieve a predicted uptake of WAPS technology by 15% of the global fleet,
the global production capacity of the WAPS would have to increase by 75 times. Another
challenge is with the installation capacity. In the years 2018–2023, there were only five
newbuild vessels equipped with WASP. In anticipation of fast and strong growth, shipyards
will be required to build up their capacities and competencies to meet demand.
The CE Delft research also predicts that installation of WAPS on existing vessels will
continue for some years and represent up to 50 percent of all installations. The number
of newbuild projects observed recently contradicts this prediction. However, according
to the International Windship Association (IWSA), shorter lead times for retrofit projects
may result in a significant increase in announced retrofit projects. There is another forecast
based on public announcements and 2022/23 figures provided by IWSA members (vessel
operators and technology providers) [95]. This forecast lags behind the current status of
WAPS implementations; however, it is in line with the earlier CE Delft study. According
to the IWSA report, the retrofit market can expand very fast, as the WAPS delivery time
for existing vessels is relatively short, depending on foundation and deck reinforcement
required. It can be completed in a few days or even in a matter of hours.
The report in [49], based on the studies carried out by Lloyds Register, predicts
that the uptake of wind-assisted propulsion technologies is reaching a tipping point; the
number of installations will increase dramatically in the next few years, and the number
of 10,700 container ships, tankers and bulkers equipped with WAPS estimated in [96] is
realistic. The analysis presented in the CE Delft research overestimated the timing and pace
Energies 2025, 18, 897 27 of 33

of the WAPS implementation but, according to [49], the fundamental dynamic of the WAPS
market was accurate.
A possible trend in WAPS technology implementation is the development of wind-
ready vessels. With vessel operators assessing WAPS for new ships and acknowledging
that wind-assisted propulsion technology may be beneficial for them in the future, the
option exists to prepare the vessels for the implementation of a specified WAPS or in
general to adopt the vessel to be ready for WAPS installations in the future. It entails
building a new ship with some minor changes/improvements at the design and build
stages that can reduce the cost of later WAPS retrofit. Such changes are reinforcement of
the deck and superstructure, adjustment of navigation equipment and other vital systems,
electrical system mods, etc. It may also entail making adjustments and retrofitting structures
of existing ships to make them capable of WAPS implementation at a later date. As
of August 2023, only eight ships have been built as wind-ready; however, recently, six
wind-ready 50,000 DWT MR tankers have been delivered to Greek shipowner Capital
Ship Management with ABS Class Notation Wind-Ready. Another possible and already
observed trend in the WAPS development is WAPS modularization. There are ships with
modular versions of wind-assisted propulsion systems, including both suction wings and
wing sails. They are deployed on Flatrack systems or in containers. A lot of existing, retrofit
installations can be considered modular too, since their installation takes only a few hours
once the structural/foundation work has been completed at an earlier stage (e.g., during
the scheduled yard stay of the vessel). Modularization could allow different business
approaches to the installation of WAPS, where wind-assisted propulsion systems can be
relocated to the vessels that operate in windier geographical regions.
Another trend that can be observed in the information provided in Section 4 of
this article is the increase in the number of units installed on each ship. It has been
increasing since 2022, as wind-assisted propulsion systems were just about to move past
the demonstration and testing stage, e.g., in 2018, two out of four vessels. Flettner rotor
installations deployed just one unit per vessel. In 2023, all four vessels with Flettner sails
installed were fitted with more than one unit. This trend illustrates a lower risk level
associated with the installation of WAPS perceived by the vessel operators and increasing
acceptance of the systems by the maritime industry.
There are many potential barriers to the diffusion of wind-assisted propulsion sys-
tems in maritime transport. As there are no standardized criteria for assessing the
saving claims, the first barrier is uncertainty related to actual fuel savings following
WAPS implementation.
Another barrier is the possible hidden costs related to the WAPS implementation,
including operational costs and the entire scope of engineering work. Savings resulting
from WAPS installation should be evaluated in comparison to other Energy Efficiency Tech-
nologies. WAPS can offer a fuel cost reduction of up to 10% but at an estimated investment
cost of up to USD 2.5 million. The installation costs for retrofit are higher compared to
newbuild; they are around 25% of the unit cost compared to 18% for newbuild [48,49]. This
is due to the additional cost of adding new structures that have not been included in the
original design. Apart from the CAPEX cost of the installation, the shipowners also have to
consider the OPEX cost of the energy consumption, maintenance, surveys and training of
the crew.
If the WAPS demand grows according to the prognosis presented in [94–96], the supply
chain may be a bottleneck for meeting this demand. To meet the orders, the suppliers
would have to deliver now 2.5 times the number of systems they have delivered in the
past five years. The most optimistic prognosis predicts a 15% uptake by the global fleet.
To achieve such an uptake, it would be required to have a 75-fold increase in the WAPS
Energies 2025, 18, 897 28 of 33

production capacity [49]. To meet the top range of the prognosis for 2030 presented in [95],
a 100-fold increase in the supply chain would be required over the next six years. Until now,
only around 16 shipyards carried out WAPS installation. Additionally, the International
Wind Ship Association identified 20 companies in the development and research stage and
10 in the premarket stage. It is a clear indication that the production/installation capacity
needs to increase if future demand is to be met. One of the possible options is to introduce
a two-stage retrofit of the WAPS. Cabling and foundations can be prepared during the
scheduled vessel refit or the newbuild (Wind-Ready Class Notation). The wind-assisted
propulsion system could be installed during the following yard stay or even during a
scheduled port call.
Operator and crew experience can be another potential impediment to the diffusion of
WAPS. Wind-assisted propulsion systems are installed on less than 0.03% of the worldwide
fleet. It is stretched across four technology types and different suppliers. This means that
there is very limited industry experience with any of the wind technologies.
Credible WAPS performance information is another collective bottleneck. System
providers have third-party performance information. However, this information is only
available for future, prospective clients. Individual suppliers are reluctant to share the data.
Aggregation and collation of the data are challenging too. There have been projects aiming
to improve the information sharing between the stakeholders. One of them was the EU
Interreg WASP Project [97], which presents the study of WAPS installations on five vessels.
The lack of credible and comparative data is caused by the complexity of the comparison
with many variables, the limited number of pilot installations (demonstrators) for each
technology, and the reluctance of the system suppliers to share sensitive information.

7. Conclusions
Maritime transport and ship owners have already been subjected to increasing pressure
to eliminate or at least reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In response to the new regulations,
vessel owners will have to apply alternative fuels or new technologies, including wind-
assisted propulsion systems, to reduce emissions.
The analysis presented in this article suggests that the number of wind-assisted propul-
sion system applications will increase substantially as ship operators introduce solutions
that reduce fuel consumption and decarbonization costs. However, there are several issues
that still to be resolved before widespread development of the WAPS technology. The
main one is the uncertainty regarding the fuel consumption reductions following the im-
plementation of WAPS. Cost–benefit analysis of WAPS installation is not straightforward.
Reduction in fuel consumption achieved by each WAPS solutions will depend on ship type,
position and number of WAPSs, wind condition (speed and direction), vessel speed and
route. There are no standards or criteria for the validation of fuel savings. It is difficult to
compare fuel savings for different types of ships, and different WAPS models. From the
data presented in chapters 3 and 5 of this paper, it can be concluded that there is a large
variation in the fuel consumption reduction advertised by WAPS manufacturers and the
actual savings achieved during sea trials carried out by independent bodies.
Regardless of the WAPS model, savings are expected to increase over time (due to
the required implementation of more expensive alternative fuels). Fuel savings will also
depend on the specific route of the ship. To improve the WAPS efficiency, it may be required
to optimize ships’ routes to balance the route length and availability of favorable wind—to
apply voyage optimization. However, it is not possible for all WAPS applications, e.g., this
option is not available for ships like ferries and container ships, which have fixed routes.
With the current number of orders and installations, it is expected that the number
of ships with WAPS will pass 100 within the next few years. It is apparent that the WAPS
Energies 2025, 18, 897 29 of 33

market is increasing. New systems are ordered for a wider segment of vessels. When
pilot systems initially consist of only one unit, new orders involve more units per ship. To
date, most of the current WAPS applications have been retrofitted to existing ships (83%),
and only five newbuilds had WAPSs included from the design stage. However, there is a
growing number of orders for newbuild ships. A total of 72% of orders are for new vessels.
However, this proportion may change, as the ship operators may consider WAPSs to reduce
emissions, and subsequently to meet the IMO decarbonization requirements.
Looking at the number of WAPSs in operation, presented in chapter 3 of this article,
it is apparent that the majority of the systems are based on the Flettner rotor principle.
However, a review of the orders shows that this trend may change; suction wings may
dominate the market of WAPSs. Kite sails are still in an experimental stage and remain a
niche market.
However, even with uncertainty related to the actual cost–benefit balance of WAPS
installation and fuel savings, retrofitting WAPS may expand the lifetime of existing vessels.
IMO implemented the Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) to monitor/reduce carbon emissions
by ships. Ship efficiency is grouped into five bands on a scale of A, B, C, D and E. Stepped
improvements of the ship’s ratings are required. An initial reduction of 5% was introduced
in 2023; however, subsequent annual reductions of 2% will be needed until 2026. CII will
have a major impact on the implementation of Energy Efficiency Technologies (EETs) in the
maritime industry, particularly for existing ships, which will be required to extend their
compliance by prolonging their lifetime in a better CII group. All ships will be required to
achieve at least a C rating. According to [49], the percentage of ships achieving band A, B,
or C will drop from 58% to 35% before 2026, which is equivalent to 3000 ships that will be
required to implement some sort of EET. As the implementation of WAPS will enable ships
to decrease their fuel consumption (compared with conventional propulsion systems), it
will also improve their CII rating [96]. The implementation of WAPS may allow shipowners
to increase the lifetime of fully compliant vessels by a few years.
However, the IMO decisions on further CII reductions beyond 2026 can have a major
impact on the implementation of EETs. The vessel operators may decide to use alterna-
tive fuels, as they would offer greater emission reductions, especially in a longer-term
perspective. The higher cost of alternative fuels, though, may make investments in WAPS
more attractive, with reduced spending on fuel and improved CII. It is expected that the
installation cost of WAPS will decrease over time, and it will improve the trade-off between
the investment and fuel savings required to recover the investment.
Wind-assisted propulsion systems are mature technologies, with various vessels
equipped with WAPS; rotor sails, hard sails, and suction wings have been proven to
be technologically ready.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.K. and M.S.; methodology, M.K. and M.S.; validation,
M.K. and M.S.; formal analysis, M.K. and M.S.; investigation, M.K. and M.S.; data curation, M.K. and
M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K. and M.S.; writing—review and editing M.K. and M.S.;
visualization, M.K. and M.S.; supervision, M.K. and M.S.; Funding Acquisition, M.S. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: The analysis presented in the above article was financed by the Maritime University
of Szczecin.

Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable. No new data were created or analyzed in
this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Energies 2025, 18, 897 30 of 33

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