UNIVERSITY OF FINANCE – MARKETING
FACULTY OF COMMERCE AND TOURISM
−🙠🕮🙢−
FINAL ASSIGNMENT
COURSE: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS LAW
Student Name: Nguyễn Thị Xuân Phương
Student Code : 2221002847
Class Code: IP_22DKQ02
Lecturer: Ph.d. Bùi Lê Thục Linh – M.A Nguyễn Minh Ngọc
Ho Chi Minh City – 2025
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF FIGURES........................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................4
1. LEGAL BASIS AND ECONOMIC RATIONALE.....................................................5
1.1. Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Principle: Article I of GATT 1994...........................5
1.2. National Treatment (NT) Principle: Article III of GATT 1994.................................8
1.3. Economic Rationale for MFN and NT Principles.....................................................8
1.4. Practical Significance and Continuing Relevance.....................................................9
2. MAJOR EXCEPTIONS..............................................................................................10
2.1. Exceptions for Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) – Article XXIV of GATT 1994
........................................................................................................................................10
2.2. Exceptions for Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) for Developing Countries
........................................................................................................................................12
2.3. Exceptions for National Security – Article XXI of GATT 1994.............................13
2.4. General Exceptions – Article XX of GATT 1994....................................................13
3. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN ENFORCING MFN AND NT
PRINCIPLES....................................................................................................................14
3.1. Rising Protectionism and Trade Wars......................................................................14
3.2. Environmental and Climate-Related Measures.......................................................15
3.3. Fragmentation Through Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs).................................15
3.4. Digital Trade and New Technologies.......................................................................16
3.5. WTO Dispute Settlement Crisis..............................................................................16
4. INSIGHTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS...............................................................17
4.1. Evaluating the Current Effectiveness of the MFN and NT Principles.....................17
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4.2. Urgent Reforms Needed..........................................................................................17
4.3. Future Prospects.......................................................................................................18
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................19
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................20
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1:World Merchandise Trade Volume and GDP Growth, 2015–2024........................3
Figure 2:Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Principle...............................................................5
Figure 3:The Spaghetti Bowl of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs).................................6
Figure 4: Advantages and disadvantages of Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN).......................6
Figure 5 : Growth of WTO-Notified Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) from 1948 to
2020....................................................................................................................................10
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INTRODUCTION
In today’s context of globalized economies, international trade has become a key
driver of economic growth, job creation, and improved living standards worldwide.
According to the World Trade Report 2023 by the World Trade Organization (WTO),
international trade accounts for approximately 60% of global GDP, highlighting the
growing importance of maintaining a stable and fair trading system (WTO, 2023).
Figure 1:World Merchandise Trade Volume and GDP Growth, 2015–2024
Source: WTO (2023)
Two foundational principles that uphold this stability within the WTO system are
the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) principle and the National Treatment (NT) principle.
The MFN principle, enshrined in Article I of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) 1994, requires that any trade advantage granted to one WTO member must be
extended immediately and unconditionally to all other members. In contrast, the NT
principle, articulated in Article III of the GATT, ensures that imported goods are treated
no less favorably than domestically produced goods once they have cleared customs
procedures.
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In practice, these principles have contributed to creating a fair and predictable trade
environment, preventing discriminatory practices and disguised protectionism. However,
new challenges have emerged. For instance, the 2018 U.S.–China trade war saw the
world's two largest economies impose extensive trade barriers against each other,
undermining the spirit of MFN. Furthermore, the rise of climate-related trade measures,
such as the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), is raising
new questions about the future application of the NT principle.
Against this backdrop, this essay will analyze the legal basis and economic
rationale underlying the MFN and NT principles, examine the main exceptions permitted
under the WTO framework, assess the emerging practical challenges to their enforcement,
and finally evaluate the current effectiveness of these principles along with the necessity
for reform to sustain their central role in modern international trade.
1. LEGAL BASIS AND ECONOMIC RATIONALE
1.1. Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Principle: Article I of GATT 1994
The Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) principle, enshrined in Article I of the GATT
1994, is a cornerstone of the multilateral trading system. It requires that any advantage,
favor, privilege, or immunity granted by one WTO member to the products of another
country must be immediately and unconditionally extended to like products of all other
WTO members. In essence, the MFN principle prohibits discrimination between trading
partners and promotes uniformity in market access conditions.
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Figure 2:Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Principle
Source: FasterCapital.
For example, if Country A reduces its tariffs on steel imports from Country B to
5%, it must also apply the same 5% tariff to steel imports from all other WTO members.
This rule aims to prevent preferential treatment and ensure that no country is placed at a
disadvantage in the global market (WTO, 2023).
The MFN principle plays a critical role in fostering predictability and trust among
nations. By securing equal opportunities for all members, it creates a stable environment
where businesses can make long-term investment and trade decisions without fear of
sudden discriminatory changes.
However, despite its foundational status, the MFN principle has faced practical
challenges. The proliferation of bilateral and regional trade agreements, many of which
offer preferential terms to select partners, has diluted the universality of MFN obligations.
As Baldwin (2016) argues, the "spaghetti bowl" effect of overlapping trade agreements
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complicates the application of MFN and undermines the consistency of the multilateral
system.
Figure 3:The Spaghetti Bowl of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs).
Source: World Trade Organization (WTO)
Figure 4: Advantages and disadvantages of Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN)
Source: WorldAtlas.
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1.2. National Treatment (NT) Principle: Article III of GATT 1994
The National Treatment (NT) principle, articulated in Article III of GATT 1994,
complements the MFN principle by addressing the treatment of imported goods within
domestic markets. It mandates that once a product has entered a country's market, it must
be treated no less favorably than similar domestically produced goods in terms of internal
taxation and regulation.
This principle aims to eliminate "hidden protectionism," where countries might
circumvent tariff reductions by imposing internal measures that disadvantage foreign
products. For instance, if Country C imposes a 10% tax on domestically produced
automobiles, it cannot impose a 15% tax on imported automobiles without violating the
NT obligation.
The importance of the NT principle is evident in various WTO dispute cases. In
Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II (1996), the WTO Appellate Body found that Japan's tax
system discriminated against imported spirits compared to domestically produced shochu,
thus violating Article III (WTO, 1996). This case exemplifies the critical role of NT in
preventing disguised restrictions on international trade.
1.3. Economic Rationale for MFN and NT Principles
The economic rationale for both the MFN and NT principles lies in promoting
efficiency, competition, and global welfare. By prohibiting discrimination, these rules
encourage countries to allocate resources based on comparative advantage, thereby
maximizing overall economic output.
First, the MFN principle reduces transaction costs by creating a unified framework
where exporters and importers face consistent conditions across multiple markets
(Bagwell & Staiger, 2002). Firms do not need to navigate a patchwork of different
regulations and tariffs, thus enhancing predictability and efficiency.
Second, the NT principle ensures that foreign products can compete fairly against
domestic goods. This stimulates innovation and efficiency by exposing domestic
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industries to international competition. As noted by Hoekman and Kostecki (2009), open
competition benefits consumers through lower prices, higher quality, and greater product
variety.
Third, these principles contribute to a reduction in trade distortions. Without MFN
and NT, powerful economies could engage in discriminatory practices, forcing smaller
countries into unfavorable trade dependencies. Non-discrimination levels the playing field
and supports smaller economies’ participation in global trade, reinforcing broader
development objectives.
Moreover, the adherence to MFN and NT builds political trust between nations. In
the absence of such rules, the risk of trade wars and retaliatory measures would increase,
as seen during the U.S.–China tariff dispute where deviations from MFN norms escalated
tensions (Bown, 2020).
1.4. Practical Significance and Continuing Relevance
Despite criticisms that MFN and NT may be less suited to a world of complex
global value chains and digital trade, these principles remain highly relevant. For
example, the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism consistently underscores the
importance of upholding non-discrimination to maintain confidence in the system (WTO,
2022).
However, new forms of regulation—especially in digital services and
environmental standards—pose challenges to the traditional understanding of these
principles. The extent to which climate-related trade measures, such as carbon tariffs,
align with MFN and NT obligations is currently under debate and may require
reinterpretation or refinement of WTO rules.
In sum, the legal bases of the MFN and NT principles, supported by strong
economic reasoning, have been instrumental in shaping the global trading order. As the
nature of trade evolves, ensuring that these principles adapt while maintaining their core
objectives will be critical for the future stability of international trade.
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2. MAJOR EXCEPTIONS
In the international trade system, exceptions are special cases that allow countries
and member regions to take trade actions that do not fully comply with the general
principles of WTO (World Trade Organization) or GATT 1994 (General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade). These exceptions are put in place to serve political, social,
environmental, or national security goals and are clearly defined in the provisions of
GATT 1994. Below are the main exceptions that WTO member countries can apply,
explained in more detail.
2.1. Exceptions for Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) – Article XXIV of GATT 1994
One of the most notable exceptions to the Most Favored Nation (MFN) principle in
the WTO system is the allowance for member countries to establish Regional Trade
Agreements (RTAs). This is stipulated in Article XXIV of GATT 1994, which allows
countries to create trade unions and apply preferential tariffs to partners within the same
trade bloc without having to extend those preferences to other WTO members outside the
bloc.
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Figure 5 : Growth of WTO-Notified Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) from 1948 to 2020
Source: World Trade Organization (WTO)
Example: The European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA, now the USMCA) are prime examples of RTAs. Member countries
of these blocs provide internal trade preferences such as tariff exemptions or reductions,
but these preferences are not extended to countries outside the bloc.
However, Article XXIV requires that RTAs should not increase trade barriers
against non-member countries. This means that while countries can lower tariffs for
partners within the bloc, they cannot raise tariffs for non-member countries without
justifiable reasons. This ensures that RTAs contribute to global trade liberalization rather
than fragmenting the global market (Steger, 2017).
Additionally, RTAs must meet the requirement of "substantial trade liberalization"
within the regional bloc, meaning that protective measures within the bloc should not
exceed what is necessary to achieve the goal of liberalizing trade in the region.
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2.2. Exceptions for Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) for Developing
Countries
One of the fundamental principles of the WTO is fair treatment among member
countries. However, due to significant disparities in economic development levels
between countries, the WTO has introduced the Special and Differential Treatment (SDT)
mechanism for developing and least-developed countries. This mechanism is recognized
in various WTO documents, particularly GATT 1994 and the WTO Agreement on
Agriculture.
Developing countries benefit from special provisions such as:
1. Longer timeframes to implement WTO obligations: These countries are allowed
more time to fulfill their commitments regarding trade liberalization and other
obligations compared to developed countries.
2. Lower commitment levels on trade liberalization: Developing countries can
commit to lower levels of liberalization in certain sectors, particularly in
agriculture, where many countries still maintain protective measures.
3. Technical assistance and institutional capacity-building: The WTO also
provides technical support to help developing countries build institutional capacity
and improve their trade systems.
For example, under the WTO Agreement on Agriculture, countries such as India and
many African nations are allowed to continue subsidizing small-scale farmers to ensure
domestic food security, even though such subsidies might be considered violations of
WTO principles in the case of developed countries.
SDT is designed to help these countries overcome the economic imbalances with
developed nations, thus fostering fairer global economic integration. However, SDT is
also criticized for potential abuse, with some developed countries arguing that developing
nations need to take on greater responsibilities for their WTO obligations.
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2.3. Exceptions for National Security – Article XXI of GATT 1994
Article XXI of GATT 1994 allows WTO member countries to implement trade
measures that contravene WTO obligations for national security reasons. Specifically, a
member can apply measures:
To protect essential security interests in times of war or international conflict.
Related to the supply of arms, ammunition, and military equipment.
To protect information and infrastructure critical to national security.
Example: A prominent case is "Russia – Traffic in Transit" (2019), where Russia
invoked Article XXI to justify restricting the transit of goods from Ukraine. Although the
WTO recognized the right of nations to assess national security threats, the Appellate
Body also emphasized that this right is not absolute and must comply with certain
objective conditions. Article XXI reflects the increasing concern of nations about national
security, especially in the context of rising geopolitical conflicts and escalating trade
tensions globally.
2.4. General Exceptions – Article XX of GATT 1994
Article XX of GATT 1994 provides general exceptions allowing countries to
implement trade measures that contravene WTO obligations to pursue legitimate public
policy objectives, including:
Protecting human, animal, and plant health.
Protecting the environment.
Enforcing international moral standards (e.g., prohibiting forced labor).
Such measures must be applied reasonably and should not be used as a disguise for
trade restrictions. Article XX stipulates two key requirements for these measures:
1. The policy objective must align with the listed goals in Article XX, such as
health protection or environmental conservation.
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2. The measures applied must not result in arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination, and should not be a disguised restriction on trade.
Example: The "Brazil – Retreaded Tyres" case (2007) is a typical example. Brazil
banned the import of retreaded tires from the EU for public health and environmental
protection reasons. Although this violated the MFN principle, the WTO accepted the
measure as it complied with Article XX(b) related to health protection and environmental
concerns.
Article XX allows countries to implement public protection measures but also places
strict conditions to prevent abuse of these rights. These conditions ensure that such
measures do not become protectionist tools under the guise of public policy objectives.
3. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN ENFORCING MFN AND NT
PRINCIPLES
Although the principles of Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) and National Treatment
(NT) have traditionally been essential in promoting fairness and stability in international
trade, their application today faces several significant challenges. Rising protectionism,
complex global value chains, technological changes, and geopolitical tensions
increasingly test the boundaries and relevance of these principles.
3.1. Rising Protectionism and Trade Wars
One of the most visible challenges to the enforcement of MFN and NT principles
is the resurgence of protectionism. A notable example is the U.S.–China trade war that
began in 2018. The United States imposed tariffs on billions of dollars’ worth of Chinese
goods under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974, citing unfair trade practices, and China
retaliated with similar tariffs on U.S. products. These actions directly undermined the
MFN principle by selectively imposing barriers against a single country, rather than
maintaining uniform tariff conditions for all WTO members.
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Furthermore, the U.S. administration justified some tariffs under national security
grounds (Section 232 on steel and aluminum), invoking Article XXI of GATT 1994. This
raised complex legal debates within the WTO about the scope of national security
exceptions and illustrated how geopolitical tensions can erode the effectiveness of the
MFN framework.
3.2. Environmental and Climate-Related Measures
The increasing adoption of climate-related trade policies also challenges the
application of MFN and NT obligations. A prime example is the European Union’s
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), introduced to prevent "carbon leakage"
by imposing a carbon price on imports of certain products such as steel, cement, and
aluminum.
While CBAM aims to support environmental objectives, it raises concerns
regarding its consistency with the NT principle. Exporters from countries with less
stringent climate policies might argue that CBAM effectively discriminates against
foreign products compared to EU domestic products, which are already subject to the EU
Emissions Trading System (ETS). Whether such measures can be justified under the
general exceptions of Article XX (particularly for environmental protection) remains a
contentious issue and is likely to be tested in future WTO disputes.
3.3. Fragmentation Through Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs)
The proliferation of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) also poses practical
challenges to the MFN principle. According to the WTO, as of 2023, there are over 350
RTAs in force. These agreements, while permissible under Article XXIV of GATT,
effectively create preferential treatment among a subset of members, fragmenting the
global trading system.
For example, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific
Partnership (CPTPP) grants its members enhanced market access compared to non-
members. Although technically legal under WTO rules, the growing number of RTAs
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dilutes the spirit of non-discrimination and complicates the operation of global supply
chains.
Moreover, the negotiation of "mega-regional" agreements like the Regional
Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) and the African Continental Free Trade
Area (AfCFTA) indicates a trend toward regionalism, which could further marginalize
multilateral trade norms centered on MFN.
3.4. Digital Trade and New Technologies
Another emerging challenge relates to digital trade and the regulation of cross-
border data flows. The WTO’s existing framework, developed primarily for goods and
traditional services, struggles to accommodate new issues such as digital taxation, data
localization requirements, and cybersecurity standards.
For instance, countries imposing restrictions on data flows or requiring local
storage of personal data may violate NT obligations if foreign firms are disproportionately
affected compared to domestic companies. The lack of clear WTO rules specifically
addressing digital trade creates legal uncertainty and raises questions about how
traditional MFN and NT principles should be interpreted in this rapidly evolving sector.
3.5. WTO Dispute Settlement Crisis
Finally, the weakening of the WTO dispute settlement mechanism undermines the
enforcement of MFN and NT rules. Since 2019, the Appellate Body—the WTO’s highest
authority for trade disputes—has been paralyzed due to the United States blocking
appointments of new judges. As a result, even when violations of MFN or NT principles
occur, effective adjudication and enforcement through the WTO system have become
more difficult, further eroding the credibility and effectiveness of these core principles.
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4. INSIGHTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
4.1. Evaluating the Current Effectiveness of the MFN and NT Principles
Although the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) and National Treatment (NT)
principles continue to serve as the legal bedrock of the multilateral trading system, their
practical effectiveness is increasingly under serious challenge.
On one hand, these principles still provide a solid legal foundation for regulating
international trade, preventing protectionism, and maintaining trust among WTO
members. The frequent invocation of MFN and NT obligations in major trade dispute
cases, such as Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II and Brazil – Retreaded Tyres,
demonstrates their ongoing practical relevance in governing trade behaviors.
On the other hand, the emergence of new issues—such as climate change, digital
trade, national security concerns, and the fragmentation of the system through Regional
Trade Agreements (RTAs)—has weakened the seamless application of these principles. In
particular, the paralysis of the WTO’s dispute settlement mechanism has severely
undermined the ability to enforce MFN and NT obligations, thereby reducing the
deterrent effect against violations.
Thus, while MFN and NT remain normatively vital, their practical effectiveness
has relatively declined and necessitates timely reforms to adapt to the realities of the
modern global economy.
4.2. Urgent Reforms Needed
To maintain the centrality and effectiveness of the MFN and NT principles, several
strategic reforms must be undertaken:
a) Modernizing the Principles for New Trade Areas
The MFN and NT principles must be reinterpreted and updated to encompass
emerging issues such as electronic commerce, cross-border data flows, and environmental
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standards. For instance, the WTO could develop a specific framework for digital trade to
ensure that technical barriers do not become new forms of trade discrimination.
b) Strengthening the WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism
An effective dispute settlement system is essential for the enforcement of MFN
and NT. Reforming the Appellate Body—including changes to the appointment process or
establishing interim solutions (such as the Multi-Party Interim Appeal Arbitration
Arrangement, MPIA, proposed by the EU and others)—is necessary to restore the legal
credibility of the WTO system.
c) Clarifying the Scope of Exceptions
Exceptions under Articles XX (General Exceptions) and XXI (National Security)
must be narrowly and clearly defined to prevent abuse disguised as legitimate public
policy measures. The WTO should establish objective criteria and transparent evaluation
procedures to assess the legitimacy of measures claimed under these exceptions.
d) Promoting Complementarity between RTAs and the WTO System
Rather than viewing RTAs as threats, the WTO should seek to integrate high-
standard provisions from RTAs into the multilateral framework. For example, requiring
regular reporting and ensuring RTAs’ compliance with core MFN values could mitigate
fragmentation and enhance overall coherence in global trade governance.
4.3. Future Prospects
The future of the MFN and NT principles hinges on the WTO’s ability to adapt to
global economic transformations:
Optimistic Scenario: If the WTO undertakes robust reforms, strengthens its
dispute settlement mechanism, and updates regulatory frameworks to address
emerging areas such as the digital economy and climate change, the MFN and NT
principles will likely continue to anchor a fair and stable international trade system.
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Pessimistic Scenario: If the current paralysis persists and major economies
increasingly rely on bilateral or regional arrangements to resolve disputes, the
MFN and NT principles will gradually erode, risking a deeply fragmented global
trading environment.
In an era of mounting challenges, reaffirming the commitment to non-discrimination
—the very core of MFN and NT—will be crucial to securing the sustainability of
international trade into the twenty-first century.
CONCLUSION
The principles of Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) and National Treatment (NT)
have historically served as the foundation for a stable, fair, and predictable international
trading system. They embody the core values of non-discrimination and market fairness
that underpin multilateral cooperation under the WTO framework. However,
contemporary challenges such as rising protectionism, the proliferation of regional trade
agreements, digital trade complexities, and climate-related measures are testing the
resilience and relevance of these principles. The current paralysis of the WTO dispute
settlement mechanism further exacerbates these pressures, undermining the enforceability
of MFN and NT obligations.
Looking ahead, meaningful reforms are imperative to preserve and revitalize these
principles. Updating WTO rules to address new economic realities, strengthening
enforcement mechanisms, clarifying exceptions, and fostering complementarity between
RTAs and the multilateral system will be key strategies. Without decisive action, there is a
tangible risk that the erosion of MFN and NT could accelerate the fragmentation of the
global trading order. Reaffirming the commitment to non-discrimination remains essential
—not only for the future of the WTO but also for ensuring that international trade
continues to be a driver of inclusive and sustainable global economic growth.
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