Environmental Engineering- Lab

(Lab Manual)
Department of Chemical Engineering
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology

List of Experiments

Sl. No. Name of the Experiment

1 To determine the alkalinity of a given water sample
2 To determine the acidity of a given water sample
3 To determine the pH value of the given samples of Water
4 To determine the hardness of the given water samples
5 To determine the chloride content of a given water sample
6 To determine the residual chlorine of given water sample
7 To determine the total solids of a given sample of water
8 To determine the turbidity, color, odor of the given water
sample

Bacteriological Incubator
 Experiment No. 1

Aim of the experiment:To determine the alkalinity of a given water sample.

Apparatus Required:
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Beaker(100ml)
Chemicals Required:
1. Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4 (0.02N)
2. Phenolphthalein indicator
3. Methyl Orange indicator
Theory:
Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is thus
a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids. Constituents of alkalinity in natural water systems include
carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide, hyposilicate, hypoborate, hypophosphate, hydrogen sulphide. These
compounds result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere. Phosphates may also
originate from detergents in wastewater discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural land.
Hydrogen Sulphide may be products of microbial decomposition of organic material. By far the most common
constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxide. In addition to their mineral origin, these
substances can originate from CO2, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product of microbial decomposition of
organic material.
Alkalinity is measured volumetrically by titration with N/50 or 0.02N H2SO4 and is reported in terms of equivalent
CaCO3. For samples whose initial pH is above 8.3, the titration made in two steps. In the first step, the titrated is
conducted until the pH is lowered to 8.3, the point at which phenolphthalein turns from pink to colorless. The
second phase of titration is conducted until the pH is lowered to about 4.5, corresponding to methyl orange end
point. When the pH of the sample is less than 8.3, a single titration is made up to pH 4.5.
Significance:
1. The alkalinity of water has little public health significance. Highly alkaline waters are usually unpalatable
and consumers tend to seek other supplies.
2. Chemicals used for coagulation of water and wastewater react with water to form hydroxide precipitates.
The hydrogen ions released react with the alkalinity of the water. Thus, the alkalinity acts to buffer the
water in pH range where the coagulant can be effective. Alkalinity must be present in excess of that
destroyed by the acid released by the coagulant for effective and complete coagulation to occur.
3. Alkalinity is a major item that must be considered in calculating the lime and soda ash requirements in
softening of water by precipitation methods.
4. Alkalinity is an important parameter involved in corrosion control.
5. Alkalinity measurements are made as a means of evaluating the buffering capacity of waste water and
sludge. They can also be used to access the ability of natural water to resist the effects of acid rain.
6. Municipal authorities prohibit the discharge sewers. Alkalinity is an important factor in determining the
amenability of waters to biological treatment.
Procedure:
1. 20ml of sample was pipetted into a 100 ml beaker and 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added
to it.
2. The sample was titrated with standard sulphuric acid till the pink colour observed by phenolphthalein
indicator just disappears.
3. Thevolume (A) of standard H2SO4 acid solution used was recorded and used to determine the
phenolphthalein alkalinity has been determined.
 4. 2 to 3 drops of mixed indicator were added to the solution in which the phenolphthalein alkalinity has
been determined.
5. The titration was carried out with standard H2S04 to light pink colour. The volume (B) of acid used for
this is recorded.
Observation:-
Sl no Name of the Source of the Alkalinity of remark
sample sample the sample

Calculation:
Phenolphthalein alkalinity = (A×N×50000)/V as mg/L of CaCO3.
Total alkalinity = (A+B) N×50000/V as mg/L of CaCO3.
Where,
A = ml of standard H2SO4 acid used to titrate upto phenolphthalein end point.
B = ml of standard H2SO4 acid used to titrate upto mixed indicator end point.
N = normality of acid used.
V = Volume in ml of water sample taken for the test.
Given,
N = 0.02N (Normality of H2SO4)
V = 20ml of the given water sample
A and B were noted from the observation table.
Result:
The alkalinity of the given water samples were found to be ________ mg/L of CaCO3.
 Experiment No. 2

𝐀𝐢𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭: To determine the acidity of a given water sample.

𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝:
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Beaker (100 ml)
𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝:
1. Sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH(0.02N)
2. Methyl orange indicator
3. phenolphthalein indicator
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲:
Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to a designatedpH. It may be defined
as the equivalent concentration of hydrogen ion inmg/L. Acidity of neutral water is caused by carbon dioxide or
by strong mineral acids, the former being the effective agent in water having pH value greater than 4 and the
latter the effective agent in water with pH value less than 4. Natural water and most industrial wastewater that
have a pH value below4, contain mineral or methyl orange acidity. Mineral acid are essentially neutralised by the
time the pH has been raised to about3.7. Results are reported in terms of methyl orange acidity expressed
asCaCO3 . Since CaCO3 has an equivalent weight of 50, N/50 or 0.02NNaOH is used as the titrating agent so that
1mL is equivalent to 1mg of acidity. Titration of a sample to phenolphthalein end point of pH8.3 measures both
mineral acidity plus acidity due to weak acids. This total acidity is also termed as phenolphthalein acidity.

𝐒𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞:
1. Acidic waters are of concern because of their corrosive characteristics and the expense involved in removing
or controlling the corrosion-producing substance. The corrosive factor in most waters is carbon dioxide, but
in many industrial wastewaters, it is mineral acidity.
2. In the development of new public water supplies, the carbon dioxide acidity is an important factor that must
be considered in the treatment method and the facilities needed.
3. Many underground supplies require overcoming corrosive characteristics resulting from carbon dioxide. The
amount present in an important factor in determining whether removal by aeration or simple neutralization
with lime or sodium hydroxide will be chosen as treatment method.
4. The quantities of chemicals, size of chemical feeders, storage space and cost of treatment are determined
from the laboratory data base on acidity.
5. When biological processes of treatment are used, the pH must be maintained in between 6 to 8.5. This
criterion often requires adjustments of pH to favourable levels and calculation of the amount of chemical
needed is based upon acidity values in most cases.

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐞:
1. 20ml of sample is pipette into a 100ml beaker and 2 to 3 drops of methyl orange indicator is added to it.
2. The sample is titrated with standard sodium hydroxide solution till the colour changes to faint orange.
3. The volume (A) of standard sodium hydroxide solution used is recorded and used to determine the methyl
orange acidity.
4. 2 to3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added to the solution in which the methyl orange acidity as been
determined.
5. The titration is carried out with standard sodium hydroxide solution to the appearance of faint pink colour.
The volume of (B) of sodium hydroxide used for this is recorded.
Observation:-
 Sl no Name of the Source of the Acid value remark
sample sample

Calculation
For calculation of acidity of given sample
Acidity of indicator
Methyl orange (indicator acidity) = {(Ax N x 50000) ÷V} mg/l of caco3
Total acidity = {(A+B x N x 50000}/V mg/l of caco3
Where
A = ml of standard NaOH solution used to titrate methyl orange end point
B = ml of standard NaOH solution used to titrate up to phenolphthalein end point
N = Normality of sodium hydroxide used
V=volume in ml of sample taken for test
Result
Therefore the acidity of the given sample is found to be _________
Conclusion
Discuss the result obtained above of different samples and arrange the acidity in a particular order.
 Experiment – 3

𝐀𝐢𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭:To determine the pH value of the given samples of Water
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝:
1. Test tube
2. Beaker
3. Electrometric apparatus
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲:
pH is the term used universally to express the intensity the acidity and alkalinity of a solution. It is a way
expressing hydrogen ion concentration or more precisely hydrogen in activity. pH is the negative logarithm of
hydrogen ion concentration to base 10.

pH = -log10 [H +]

-Higher pH value means lower H+ ion concentration.

- Entire concentration of H + ions does not correspond to the measurement of pH due to ionic interaction among
themselves. Measurement of pH of water relates only to the active portion of the H+ ion concentration .Water is
a poor electrolyte and only a small portion of it dissociates as

H2O →H+ +OH-

- According to the law of mass action of physical chemistry ionization constant k at equilibrium
Is given by
K=[H +][OH -] /H2O

- At 25°c value of k is l.82 * 10 -16 and density of water is 0.997 gm/cm 3.

- Molar concentration of water in 1 liter = 997/18 = 55.39
Moles/Liter [H +][OH -] =k[H2O]= 1.82*10-16 *55.39
=1.0*10-14
-In pure water the concentration of H+ ion and OH- ion are equal or [H+] = [OH-]=10-7 moles/liter i.e.
Concentration of H+ or OH- per litre of pure water is 1/107 moles.
-But this figure inconvenient for use. Therefore, logarithm of its reciprocal is used for indicating the pH value
accordingly, pH of neutral water
Log10 (1/[H+])=7

- When the pH value is in between 0 to 7, water is acidic and when the pH value is in between 7to 14, water is
alkaline

Significance:-
 1. In the coagulation process, chemicals used have higher efficiencies within a certain pH value range. Hence
determination and adjustment of pH is very important for effective and economic coagulation.
2. In corrosion control, the pH of water should be maintained at appropriate level as water
of low pH is highly corrosive and damages the pipe lines and valves etc.
3. In disinfection of water by excessive line treatment.
4. In water softening process by lime soda.
5. In sewage and industrial waste treatment employing biological treatment:
6. The portability of water also depends on pH value

Determination pH by electrometric method:-

Principle:-
The basic principle of electrometric pH measurement is determination of the activity of the hydrogen ion by
potentiometric measurement using a standard hydrogen electrode and a reference electrode. It consists of
potentiometer, glass, electrode, a reference electrode and a temperature compensating device to complete pH
meter.
Procedure:-
1. Before use the electrode was rinsed blot and dried using a soft tissue paper.
2. The instrument was cal liberated with standard buffer solution (7.0 pH).
3. Then the electrode was removed from standard solution to rinsed blot and dry.
4. The electrode was dipped in the sample whose pH was to be measured.
5. The sample was stirred to ensure homogeneity and to minimize CO 2 entrainment.
6. Finally pH was noted from the reading of the pH meter.
Tabulation:-
(pH of the samples are noted at 29.10c)
[Link] Name of the sample Source Ph
01 Sample-1 Industrial Water 6.78
02 Sample-2 Drainage Water 7.13
03 Sample-3 Muddy Water 6.75
04 Sample-4 Tap Water 7.67

Result:-
The pH of laboratory waste was found out to be 6.78 for industrial water, 7.13 for drainage water, 6.75 for muddy
water and 7. 67 for tap water at temperature 29.10c

Discussion:
1) Is pH of water affected by rise in temperature?
Ans) Temperature plays a significant role on pH measurement. As the temperature rises molecular vibration
increases, which result in the ability of water to ionize and form hydrogen ions in the ability of water to ionize
and form hydrogen ion . Yes, it does change the pH as a result it drops down.
2) Define pH.
Ans) pH is a scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water-based solution .As it is the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH = log10 [H+]
3) What do you mean by pOH?
Ans) The ‘p’ means potential and ‘OH’ means hydroxide OH - in the hydrogen ion. pOH is the inverse log of the
concentration hydroxide in a solution.
P[OH] = -log10 [OH- ] .
 Experiment No. 4

Aim of the experiment: To determine the hardness of the given water samples.

Apparatus Required:
1. Burette,
2. Bottle with stopper and
3. pipette

Chemicals required-
1. Soap Solution (Wanklyn solution)

Theory
Hardness are generally considered to be those water which are required considerable amount of soap to produce
a foam as lather. Hardness is caused due to the multivalent metallic cations in the solution. The multivalent
metallic ions are most abundant in natural waters are calcium and magnesium. Other may include in the form of
fe2+, Sr2+, Mn2+ and Al3+. The latter are found in much smaller quantities than calcium and magnesium and for all
practical purposes, hardness may be represented as the sum of the calcium and magnesium ions.

Hardness are classified as carbonate and non-carbonate hardness, depending upon the anions with which it
associates. The hardness which is equivalent to alkalinity as termed as carbonate hardness, with any remaining
hardness being called as non-carbonate hardness. The temporary hardness or the water containing carbonates and
bicarbonates can be simply removed by just adding lime to it or by boiling it. Such hardness is called temporary
hardness or carbonate hardness. The Sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium by simple
boiling and it requires special treatment for softening such hardness is known as permanent hardness or non-
carbonate hardness.

Hardness is measured in mg/l of caco3 and depending upon that value, water is classified as follows:-
Classification of water hardness
Soft 0-75
Moderately hard 75-150
Hard 150-300
Very hard >300
Significance-
1. Soap consumption by hard water represents an economic loss to the water uses.
2. The precipitate by hardness and soap adheres to the surface of the tubs, skins and dishwashs may stain
dishes clothing and other items.

3. Residue of hardness of soap may remain in the pores of the clothes so the skin may feel rough and
uncomfortable.
4. Boiler scale, the result of carbonate hardness precipitate may cause considerable economic loss through
hardness of water heaters and hot water pipes.
5. Food cooked in hard water become tasteless.

SOAP SOLUTION METHOD:

1. 50ml of sample water was taken in a bottle.
2. Wanklyn solution was taken in the burette. It was added to the water sample by 0.5ml at a time.
3. The combination was shaken vigorously and kept for 5 minutes horizontally on the table. When sufficient
lather was formed so that the water level is not visible from the top was the end point. The difference
between the soap solution consumed and lather factor gives the value of the hardness.

Calculation:
Lather factor=x
Initial burette reading=a
final burette reading=b
so, amount of soap consumed=b-a=c
subtracting lather factor=c-x=d
1ml of soap solution =1mg of calcium carbonate
d ml of soap solution =d ml of calcium carbonate
50 ml of water contains d mg of calcium carbonate
1000ml of water contains =d*1000/50=e mg of calcium carbonate
 Experiment No. 5

Aim of the experiment: To determine the chloride content of a given water sample.
Apparatus Required:
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
Chemicals Required:
1. Standard silver nitrate solution, AgNO3
2. 5% Potassium chromate solution
Theory:-
Chlorides are generally present in water mainly in the form of sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium
chloride and potassium chloride. The chloride content normally increases as the mineral content increases. The
presence of chlorides in surface water is due to leaching of marine sedimentary deposits, pollution from sea water
and contamination with industrial and domestic wastes. Usual methods for determination of chloride in water are
(1)Mohr’s method (2) Villard’s method
Mohr’s method:-
In Mohr’s method, the acidity of the water sample is removed by adding calcium carbonate. Potassium chromate
acts as an indicator for titration. Preferential precipitation of white silver chloride over red silver chromate is the
principle of this method. The change of colour from white to red indicates the end point. The reactions are:-
NaCl+AgNO3 =AgCl +NaNO3
(White)
2AgN03+K2CrO4=Ag2CrO4+2KNO3
(Red)

Significance:-
1. Chloride in reasonable concentrations is not harmful to public health. At concentrations above 250 mg/L,
it gives a noticeable salty taste in drinking water, which is objectionable.
2. The presence of high quantity of chloride in river or stream waters may indicate pollution of water due to
sewage and/or industrial wastes.
3. Increase in chloride level in water increases its corrosiveness.
4. T he chloride content of water used for irrigation is generally controlled along with the total salinity of
[Link] tends to increase the chloride and salinity at the root zone of irrigated plants,
making it difficult for plants to make up water due to osmotic pressure differences between the water
outside the plants and within the plant cells.

Procedure:-
1. 50 ml of the given water sample is pipette in a conical flask.
2. Two drops of potassium chromate is added to the sample.
3. The whole solution is titrated against standard silver nitrate solution from the burette with constant stirring.
The red colour appearing at this stage doesn’t persist and disappears on shaking.
4. The titration is carried out till faint red colour persists.
5. The procedure is repeated till three concordant readings are obtained.
Calculation:-
Initial burette reading=X ml, Final Burette reading=Y ml
Total volume of AgNO3=X-Y=V ml, Strength of AgNO3 solution=y (N/50)
1000ml of 1N AgNO3 solution=35.5 g of chloride
Vml of y (N/50) AgNO3 solution= (35.5*V*y*1000)/50*1000)=0.71Vy mg of chloride
50ml of supplied water sample contains0.71 Vy mg of chloride
1000ml of supplied water sample contains (0.71 Vy*1000)/50mg of chloride=14.2 Vy mg of chloride
Concentration of chloride in given water sample=14.2Vy mg/L
Result:-
The chloride concentration of the given water sample is found to be______.

Experiment No. 6
Aim of the experiment: To determine the residual chlorine of given water sample.
Apparatus Required:
1. Comparator box or chloroscope
Chemicals Required:
1. Orthotolidine Solution
Theory: The prime purpose of disinfecting public water supplies and waste effluents is to prevent the spread of
waterborne diseases. The applications of chlorine for disinfection of drinking water go far back as the nineteenth
century. Chlorine is used in the form of free chlorine or hypochlorite .In either form, it acts as a protein oxidizing
agent and often dissipates itself in side reactions so rapidly that little disinfection is accomplished until amounts
in excess of the chlorine demand have been added.
Residual chlorine is the chlorine left in the water after the required contact period. Residual chlorine ensures
complete killing of bacteria and oxidation organic matters. When filtered water is chlorinated, it is consumed
initially for killing microorganisms and then for oxidizing organic matter. When oxidation is complete and break
point is reached, whatever chlorine is added appears as residual chlorine .For satisfactory care of future
contamination of water usually free chlorine residual of 0.2 to 0.3mg/L is sufficient for a contact period of 10-20
minutes.
Procedure:
Residual chlorine can be tested by three methods:
1. Orthotolidene Test
2. Starch iodide Test
3. DPD Test
1. Orthotolidine test:-

• First take 10 ml of water sample in a test tube.

• Then 0.01 gm of bleaching powder is added to the sample.
• Kept the mixture for 15 min without any disturbing.
• After that to this chlorinated water we have to add 2-3 drops of orthotolidine solution.
• The yellow colour indicates that the residual chlorine is present in the sample.
• Then note down the residual chlorine present in diff. types of samples.
Observation:-

SL NO. NAME OF THE SOURCE OF RESIDUAL REMARK

SAMPLE THE SAMPLE CHLORINE

Result:
From the above experiment we have calculate the residual chlorine of the diff samples like__________ and the
value is______.
Experiment No. 7

Aim of the experiment: To determine the total solids of a given sample of water.
Apparatus Required:
1. Beaker
2. Measuring cylinder
3. Weighing machine
4. Heater
Theory:-
The total solids in water comprises of both suspended solids and dissolved solids. Solids suspended in water may
consist of inorganic and organic particles or of immiscible liquids. Dissolved substances may be organic or
inorganic in nature.
The total solids present in water can be determined by evaporating the water sample at 105 ‫ﹾ‬c and weighing the
dry residue left. The suspended solids can be found by filtering the water sample and weighing the residue left on
the filter paper. The difference between the total solids and the suspended solids will represent the dissolved
solids.
Size classification of solids in water
(i)Dissolved solids: 10-5 -10-3μm
(ii)Colloidal solids: 10-3-1μm
(iii)Suspended solids: 1-100μm
Significance:-
1. The total permissible limit of solids in water is 500mg/L, although higher amounts up to 1000mg/L are
sometimes permitted, but are likely to produce certain psychological effects on human.
2. Suspended materials are aesthetically displeasing and provide adsorption sites for chemical and biological
agents.
3. Suspended organic solids may be degraded biologically, resulting in objectionable by products.
4. Biologically active suspended solids may include disease causing organisms as well as organisms such as
toxin producing strains of algae.
5. Quite often, two or more dissolved substances, especially organic substances and members of halogen
group will combine to form a compound whose characteristics are more objectionable than those of either
of the organic materials.
Procedure:-
i) The beaker is properly cleaned and dried and its weight is taken.
ii) 100ml of water is taken in the beaker and dried in the oven such that all the water evaporated.
iii) After cooling, the weight of the beaker is recorded.
iv) Total solids are determined by subtracting the initial weight from final weight of the beaker.

Calculation:-
Weight of the empty beaker=X mg
Weight of the beaker dry total solids=Y mg
Weight of total solids present in 100 ml of water=Y-X mg
Concentration of total solids=(Y-X)*1000/100 mg/l
Result:-
The total solids concentration of the given water sample is found to be …………

Discussion:-
Discuss the result obtained for the above experiment.

Experiment No. 8

Aim of the experiment: To determine the turbidity of a given water sample

Apparatus Required:
1. Standard turbidity tubes of various units
Theory:
The turbidity of the sample is the reduction of transparency due to the presence of particular matter such as day
or silk, finely divided organic matter, plankton or other microscopic organism. These particular manner cause
light to be scattered and absorbed rather than being transmitted in straight lines thought sample
Prescribes neohelometric method for the measurement of turbidity of water. this is applicable to all types of water
.it is based on the comparison f the intensity of light scattered by the sample under defined condition with the
intensity of light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the same condition.
Principle:
The standard method for the determination of turbidity is based on Jackson candle turbid meter and the lowest
turbidity value that can be measured in this can be measured in this instrument is 25 units .as turbidity of treated
water is usually in the range of 0-5 units, turbiment based on nephelometric principle is used to determine the
turbidity in NTU(nephelometric turbidity unit ) scale.
In Jackson candle turbid meter , measurement of turbidity is based on the interference of light path through the
suspension which just cases the image of the flames of the standard candle to dis-appear I e to become
indistinguishing against the general background illumination, when the flame is viewed through the suspension.
The greater Is the light path, the lower is the turbidity.
Significance:
1. Turbid water is not essential acceptable to the consumer. So it is required to know the turbidity.
2. Turbidity indicates the pollution, which may be responsible for water borne diseases.
3. It determine the type of water treatment to be adopted.
4. Turbidity interferes with the process of disinfection, especially chlorination ad application of ozone.
Turbidity adheres to the pathogenic organisms without proper contact with disinfectant.
5. Turbidity interferes with the water purification process, particularly ion filtration by frequently clogging
the filters and consequently the filters and consequently reducing the filter run.
Procedure:
By comparison with standard bottles:
1. The standard samples are kept in bottles of diameter and same type with enough empty space at the
top of each bottles to allow adequate shaking before each reading.
2. The samples are takes in similar bottles and turbidity is determined by comparing them with the
standard bottles. The comparison is done by viewing though the sample and standard bottles
simultaneously.
3. The turbidity of the sample is matched as that of the standard bottles, which produces the visual effect
most closely as that of that of the sample.

Result:
By comparison with standard bottles, the turbidity of given water sample is found to be …………NTU.
 Discussion:
Discuss about the portability of water and mention if any treatment required based on the result
obtained.

Experiment No. 9

Aim of the experiment: To determine the colour of the given water sample.

Apparatus Required:
Nussle’s tubes containing standard colours.

Theory: -
Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances. The coloring materials
many of which are humic substances, reduces from contact of waters with organic debris. Such as leaves,
 needles of conifers and wood all in various stages of decomposition. Iron is sometimes present in ferric
humets and produce color of high potency. Surface water may be colored due to presence of high colored
waste water, colored suspended matter.
Colour caused by suspended matter is referred as apparent color and is differentiated colour due to
vegetable and organic extracts that are called as true colors.
Water containing natural color is yellow, brownish in appearance. Solutions of potassium chloroplatinate
titrated with small amount of cobalt chloride yields colors those are very much like the neutral colors.
The shading of the colors can be varied to match neutral very closely by increasing or decreasing the
amount of cobalt chloride. The chloride produced by 1mg/liter of platinum is taken as the standard unit
colour. The usual procedure is to prepare stock solutions of k2phtCl6 that contains 500 mg/litre of
Platinum cobalt chloride is added to provide the proper
Tint. The stock solution has a colour of 500 units and a series of working standards may be prepared from
it by dilution. A matched set of color comparison tubes, commonly called Nessler tubes are usually used
to contain the standard. The maximum permissible color at domestic supplies is color units.
Significance:-
1. Water containing coloring matter derived from natural substances undergoing delay in swamps and forests
are not generally considered to process harmful or toxic properties and are not objectionable from health
point of view, but colored waters are objectionable from aesthetic and psychological point of view, since
people may not like to drink colored water.
2. Colored water may spoil the color of the clothes if washed in such waters.
3. Disinfections by chlorination of waters containing natural organic substances results in the formations of
chloroform, and other methane’s and a range of other chlorinated organics, leading to problem of much
current concern.

Procedure :-
• 10ml of Nessler tube is filled up to the mark with the water to be tested. If the turbidity is high, it should
be removed by centrifuging.
• The color is compared with that of standard colored Nessler tube (containing known tube value of standard
color intensity of platinum cobalt) by looking vertically down through two tubes at a white surface in good
light.
• If the color of the sample is greater than chosen standards the sample water should be diluted with
Distilled water until the required matching is obtained
• The color intensity of the standard color matching
With the sample may be noted down to represent the color of given water sample.
Observation table: -
[Link]. Sample no. Colour(platinum Remark
cobalt nitrate)
1 Sample -1
2 Sample -2

Result: -
By comparison with standard bottles, the turbidity of given water sample is found to be ……..NTU.
Discussion: -
Discuss about the portability of water and mention if any treatment required based on the result obtained.
 Experiment No. 10

Aim of the experiment: To determine the odour of a given water sample.

Apparatus Required:
1. Osmoscope
The instrument used for measuring odour is known as osmoscope. It consists of two open ended glass
tubes, each of 10mm diameter and 300mm long. The loose plain ends of the tubes are held slightly above
the water surface and the upper leveled ends are inserted in the nostrils of our nose to smell the odour.
Theory-
Odour in water is caused by the presence of algae, leaves, decaying vegetables or contamination from sewage and
industrial waste. The odour of a given sample of water is determined at a temperature of 24°C to 25°C.

Significance-
• Consumers find odour aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons because water is thought as tasteless
and odourless. “IOthat might actually pose more of a health threat.
• Odours produced by organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetic, since some of
those substances may be carcinogenic.
Procedure-
1. The given water was mixed with odour free water in different proportion such as 1 in 2 , 1 in 4, 1 in 6, 1
in 8and 1 in 10 etc. to prepare different mixture samples(each of 200ml)to be tested for odour.
2. The mixture of greatest dilution(such as 1 in10)was first tested and then the samples were tested one by
one in the odourlf decreasing dilution . An assembled panel of five to ten noses was used to determine the
mixture in which the odour is just barely detectable to the sense of smell.
3. The threshold odourno.(TON) of the sample was then calculated using the formula TON =(A+B)/A, where
A is the volume of given water sample (in ml) and B is the volume of odour free water required to produce
a 200ml mixture.
Conclusion-
From the above study experiment, we got to know about the odour of various given samples.