questions about the existing social order.

Cartoons and caricatures

typically suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in
sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense
hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the
growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.

How do we look at these arguments? There can be no doubt that

print helps the spread of ideas. But we must remember that people
did not read just one kind of literature. If they read the ideas of
Voltaire and Rousseau, they were also exposed to monarchical and Activity
Church propaganda. They were not influenced directly by everything
Imagine that you are a cartoonist in France
they read or saw. They accepted some ideas and rejected others.
before the revolution. Design a cartoon as it
They interpreted things their own way. Print did not directly shape
would have appeared in a pamphlet.
their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking differently.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 11 – The nobility and the common people before the French Revolution, a
cartoon of the late eighteenth century.
The cartoon shows how the ordinary people – peasants, artisans and workers – had a
hard time while the nobility enjoyed life and oppressed them. Circulation of cartoons
like this one had an impact on the thinking of people before the revolution.

Discuss
Why do some historians think that print culture created the basis for the French Revolution?

164
5 The Nineteenth Century

The nineteenth century saw vast leaps in mass literacy in Europe,

bringing in large numbers of new readers among children,
women and workers.

5.1 Children, Women and Workers

As primary education became compulsory from the late
nineteenth century, children became an important category
of readers. Production of school textbooks became critical
for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to
literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
This press published new works as well as old fairy tales
and folk tales. The Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years
compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. What
they collected was edited before the stories were published
in a collection in 1812. Anything that was considered
unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites,
was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales
thus acquired a new form. In this way, print recorded old
tales but also changed them.

Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny

magazines (see Fig. 12) were especially meant for women, as
Fig. 12 – Frontispiece of Penny Magazine.
were manuals teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping. Penny Magazine was published between 1832 and 1835
When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, in England by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge. It was aimed primarily at the working class.
women were seen as important readers. Some of the best-
known novelists were women: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters,
George Eliot. Their writings became important in defining a new
type of woman: a person with will, strength of personality,
determination and the power to think.
Print Culture

Box 3
Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century
onwards. In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England Thomas Wood, a Yorkshire mechanic, narrated
how he would rent old newspapers and read
became instruments for educating white-collar workers, artisans them by firelight in the evenings as he could not
and lower-middle-class people. Sometimes, self-educated working afford candles. Autobiographies of poor people
narrated their struggles to read against grim
class people wrote for themselves. After the working day was
obstacles: the twentieth-century Russian
gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had revolutionary author Maxim Gorky’s My Childhood
some time for self-improvement and self-expression. They wrote and My University provide glimpses of such
struggles.
political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

165
 5.2 Further Innovations
By the late eighteenth century, the press came to be made out of
metal. Through the nineteenth century, there were a series of further
innovations in printing technology. By the mid-nineteenth century,
Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven
cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour.
This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers. In the
late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could
print up to six colours at a time. From the turn of the twentieth
century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations.
A series of other developments followed. Methods of feeding paper
improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels
and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
The accumulation of several individual mechanical improvements
transformed the appearance of printed texts.

Printers and publishers continuously developed new strategies

to sell their product. Nineteenth-century periodicals serialised
important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing
novels. In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in
Activity
cheap series, called the Shilling Series. The dust cover or the
book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation. With the Look at Fig. 13. What impact do such
advertisements have on the public mind?
onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a
Do you think everyone reacts to printed material
decline in book purchases. To sustain buying, they brought
in the same way?
out cheap paperback editions.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 13 – Advertisements at a railway station in England, a lithograph by Alfred Concanen, 1874.

Printed advertisements and notices were plastered on street walls, railway platforms and public buildings.

166
6 India and the World of Print

Let us see when printing began in India and how ideas and information
were written before the age of print.

6.1 Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts –
in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages.
Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They would be either Fig. 14 – Pages
from the Gita
pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure Govinda of
preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after Jayadeva,
eighteenth century.
the introduction of print, down to the late nineteenth century. This is a palm-leaf
handwritten
Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had manuscript in
to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the accordion format.

Print Culture

Fig. 15 – Pages from the Diwan of Hafiz, 1824.

Hafiz was a fourteenth-century poet whose collected works are known as Diwan. Notice the
beautiful calligraphy and the elaborate illustration and design. Manuscripts like this continued
to be produced for the rich even after the coming of the letterpress.

167
 script was written in different styles. So
manuscripts were not widely used in
everyday life. Even though pre-colonial
Bengal had developed an extensive network
of village primary schools, students very
often did not read texts. They only learnt
to write. Teachers dictated portions of
texts from memory and students wrote Fig. 16 – Pages from the Rigveda.
Handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced in India till much after
them down. Many thus became literate the coming of print. This manuscript was produced in the eighteenth
without ever actually reading any kinds century in the Malayalam script.

of texts.

6.2 Print Comes to India

The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries
in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and
printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed
in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic priests printed
the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first
Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant
missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations
of older works.
The English language press did not grow in India till quite late even
though the English East India Company began to import presses
from the late seventeenth century.

From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette,
a weekly magazine that described itself as ‘a commercial paper open
to all, but influenced by none’. So it was private English enterprise,
proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English
printing in India. Hickey published a lot of advertisements, including
India and the Contemporary World

those that related to the import and sale of slaves. But he also Source C
published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior officials in As late as 1768, a William Bolts affixed a notice
India. Enraged by this, Governor-General Warren Hastings on a public building in Calcutta:
persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially ‘To the Public: Mr. Bolts takes this method of
sanctioned newspapers that could counter the flow of information informing the public that the want of a printing
press in this city being of a great disadvantage in
that damaged the image of the colonial government. By the business ... he is going to give the best
close of the eighteenth century, a number of newspapers and encouragement to any ... persons who are
journals appeared in print. There were Indians, too, who began versed in the business of printing.’

to publish Indian newspapers. The first to appear was the weekly Bolts, however, left for England soon after and
nothing came of the promise.
Bengal Gazette, brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who
was close to Rammohun Roy. Source

168
7 Religious Reform and Public Debates

From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense
debates around religious issues. Different groups confronted the
changes happening within colonial society in different ways, and
offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different
religions. Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for
reform, while others countered the arguments of reformers. These
debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and
newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the
nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these
public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged
through these clashes of opinions.

This was a time of intense controversies between social and religious

reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow
immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In
Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated,
circulating a variety of arguments. To reach a wider audience, the
ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary
people. Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika
to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were
published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year,
a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance.

In north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse
of Muslim dynasties. They feared that colonial rulers would
encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter
this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and
Urdu translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious
newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867,
published thousands upon thousands of fatwas telling Muslim
Print Culture

readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and

explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. All through the
nineteenth century, a number of Muslim sects and seminaries New words
appeared, each with a different interpretation of faith, each keen Ulama – Legal scholars of Islam and the sharia
on enlarging its following and countering the influence of its ( a body of Islamic law)
opponents. Urdu print helped them conduct these battles in public. Fatwa – A legal pronouncement on Islamic
law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to
Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts,
clarify issues on which the law is uncertain
especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of

169
 the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out
from Calcutta in 1810. By the mid-nineteenth century, cheap
lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s,
the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar
Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars.
In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the
faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large
groups of illiterate men and women.

Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people,

encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and
among different religions.

Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions

amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people
in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news from one
place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.

Source D

Why Newspapers?
‘Krishnaji Trimbuck Ranade inhabitant of Poona intends to publish a Newspaper in the Marathi Language with a view of
affording useful information on every topic of local interest. It will be open for free discussion on subjects of general utility,
scientific investigation and the speculations connected with the antiquities, statistics, curiosities, history and geography of
the country and of the Deccan especially… the patronage and support of all interested in the diffusion of knowledge and
Welfare of the People is earnestly solicited.’
Bombay Telegraph and Courier, 6 January 1849
‘The task of the native newspapers and political associations is identical to the role of the Opposition in the House of
Commons in Parliament in England. That is of critically examining government policy to suggest improvements, by removing
those parts that will not be to the benefit of the people, and also by ensuring speedy implementation.
These associations ought to carefully study the particular issues, gather diverse relevant information on the nation as well
as on what are the possible and desirable improvements, and this will surely earn it considerable influence.’
India and the Contemporary World

Native Opinion, 3 April 1870.

Source

170
8 New Forms of Publication

Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. As more and

more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives,
experiences, emotions and relationships reflected in what they read.
The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe, ideally
catered to this need. It soon acquired distinctively Indian forms and
styles. For readers, it opened up new worlds of experience, and
gave a vivid sense of the diversity of human lives.

Other new literary forms also entered the world of reading –

lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In
different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives
and intimate feelings, about the political and social rules that shaped
such things.
By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual
culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an
increasing number of printing presses, visual images
could be easily reproduced in multiple copies. Painters
like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass
circulation. Poor wood engravers who made
woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and
were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and
calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be
bought even by the poor to decorate the walls of
their homes or places of work. These prints began
shaping popular ideas about modernity and tradition,
religion and politics, and society and culture.

By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being

published in journals and newspapers, commenting
on social and political issues. Some caricatures
ridiculed the educated Indians’ fascination with
Print Culture

Western tastes and clothes, while others expressed

the fear of social change. There were imperial
caricatures lampooning nationalists, as well as
nationalist cartoons criticising imperial rule.

Fig. 17 – Raja Ritudhwaj rescuing Princess Madalsa

from the captivity of demons, print by Ravi Varma.
Raja Ravi Varma produced innumerable mythological
paintings that were printed at the Ravi Varma Press.

171
 8.1 Women and Print
Lives and feelings of women began to be written in particularly
vivid and intense ways. Women’s reading, therefore, increased
enormously in middle-class homes. Liberal husbands and fathers
began educating their womenfolk at home, and sent them to schools
when women’s schools were set up in the cities and towns after the
mid-nineteenth century. Many journals began carrying writings by
women, and explained why women should be educated. They also
carried a syllabus and attached suitable reading matter which could
be used for home-based schooling.

But not all families were liberal. Conservative Hindus believed

that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that
educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
Sometimes, rebel women defied such prohibition. We know the
story of a girl in a conservative Muslim family of north India
who secretly learnt to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted
Fig. 18 – The cover page of Indian Charivari.
her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. The Indian Charivari was one of the many
So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own. In journals of caricature and satire published in
the late nineteenth century.
East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a Notice that the imperial British figure is
young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in positioned right at the centre. He is
the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography authoritative and imperial; telling the natives
what is to be done. The natives sit on either
Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length side of him, servile and submissive. The
autobiography published in the Bengali language. Indians are being shown a copy of Punch, the
British journal of cartoons and satire. You can
almost hear the British master say – ‘This is
Since social reforms and novels had already created a great interest
the model, produce Indian versions of it.’
in women’s lives and emotions, there was also an interest in what
women would have to say about their own lives. From the 1860s,
a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books
highlighting the experiences of women – about how women were
imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic
India and the Contemporary World

labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served. In the Source E
1880s, in present-day Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita
In 1926, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein, a
Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives noted educationist and literary figure, strongly
of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a condemned men for withholding education from
Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were women in the name of religion as she addressed
the Bengal Women’s Education Conference:
so greatly confined by social regulations: ‘For various reasons, my
‘The opponents of female education say that
world is small … More than half my life’s happiness has come women will become unruly … Fie! They call
from books …’ themselves Muslims and yet go against the basic
tenet of Islam which gives Women an equal right
While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed to education. If men are not led astray once
early, Hindi printing began seriously only from the 1870s. Soon, a educated, why should women?’

large segment of it was devoted to the education of women. In

Source

172
the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes
edited by women, became extremely popular. They discussed
issues like women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage
and the national movement. Some of them offered household
and fashion lessons to women and brought entertainment through
short stories and serialised novels.

In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from

the early twentieth century. Ram Chaddha published the fast-selling
Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar
message. Many of these were in the form of dialogues about the
qualities of a good woman.

In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was

devoted to the printing of popular books. Here you could buy
cheap editions of religious tracts and scriptures, as well as literature
that was considered obscene and scandalous. By the late nineteenth Fig. 19 – Ghor Kali (The End of the
World), coloured woodcut, late
century, a lot of these books were being profusely illustrated with nineteenth century.
woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala The artist’s vision of the destruction
of proper family relations. Here the
publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their husband is totally dominated by his
leisure time. wife who is perched on his shoulder.
He is cruel towards his mother,
dragging her like an animal, by the
noose.

Fig. 20 – An Indian
couple, black and white
woodcut.
The image shows the
artist’s fear that the
Print Culture

cultural impact of the

West has turned the
family upside down.
Notice that the man is
playing the veena while
the woman is smoking a
hookah. The move
towards women’s
education in the late
nineteenth century
created anxiety about the
breakdown of traditional
family roles.

173
 Fig. 21 – A European couple sitting on chairs,
nineteenth-century woodcut.
The picture suggests traditional family roles. The
Sahib holds a liquor bottle in his hand while the
Memsahib plays the violin.

8.2 Print and the Poor People

Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century
Madras towns and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people travelling
to markets to buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early
twentieth century, expanding the access to books. These libraries were
located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
For rich local patrons, setting up a library was a way of acquiring prestige.
From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to
be written about in many printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule, the Activity
Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the
Look at Figs. 19, 20 and 21 carefully.
injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth
¾ What comment are the artists making on the
century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker
social changes taking place in society?
in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and
¾ What changes in society were taking place to
their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest
provoke this reaction?
movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts ¾ Do you agree with the artist’s view?
criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future.
India and the Contemporary World

Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to

write much about their experiences. But Kashibaba, a Kanpur
millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to
show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of
another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan
Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published
in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan. By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton
millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example
of Bombay workers. These were sponsored by social reformers who
tried to restrict excessive drinking among them, to bring literacy and,
sometimes, to propagate the message of nationalism.

174
 9 Print and Censorship

Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was Box 4
not too concerned with censorship. Strangely, its early measures to
control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India Sometimes, the government found it hard to
who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of find candidates for editorship of loyalist papers.
When Sanders, editor of the Statesman that had
particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such
been founded in 1877, was approached, he
criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade asked rudely how much he would be paid
monopoly in India. for suffering the loss of freedom. The Friend
of India refused a government subsidy, fearing
By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations that this would force it to be obedient to
government commands.
to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging
publication of newspapers that would celebrate Britsh rule. In 1835,
faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular
Box 5
newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws.
Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules
The power of the printed word is most often
that restored the earlier freedoms. seen in the way governments seek to regulate
and suppress print. The colonial government kept
After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press
continuous track of all books and newspapers
changed. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the published in India and passed numerous laws to
‘native’ press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively control the press.
nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of During the First World War, under the Defence
of India Rules, 22 newspapers had to furnish
stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed,
securities. Of these, 18 shut down rather than
modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government comply with government orders. The Sedition
with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular Committee Report under Rowlatt in 1919 further
strengthened controls that led to imposition of
press. From now on the government kept regular track of the
penalties on various newspapers. At the outbreak
vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a of the Second World War, the Defence of India
report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if Act was passed, allowing censoring of reports of
war-related topics. All reports about the Quit India
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the
movement came under its purview. In August
printing machinery confiscated. 1942, about 90 newspapers were suppressed.

Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers

in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and
Print Culture

encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist Source F

criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed Gandhi said in 1922:
cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were ‘Liberty of speech ... liberty of the press ...
freedom of association. The Government of India
deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy
is now seeking to crush the three powerful
about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, vehicles of expressing and cultivating public
provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. opinion. The fight for Swaraj, for Khilafat ...
means a fight for this threatened freedom
before all else ...’
Source

175
 Write in brief

1. Give reasons for the following:

a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from
the mid-sixteenth century.
d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the
press, and freedom of association.

Write in brief
2. Write short notes to show what you know about:
a) The Gutenberg Press
b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
c) The Vernacular Press Act
3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
a) Women
b) The poor
c) Reformers

Discuss

Discuss
1. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring
enlightenment and end despotism?
2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example
from Europe and one from India.
3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?
India and the Contemporary World

4. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

Project

Find out more about the changes in print technology in the last 100 years. Write about the
changes, explaining why they have taken place, what their consequences have been.
Project

176
 Chapter VIII
Novels, Society and History

Novels, Society and History

In the previous chapter you read about the rise of print culture and
how new forms of communication reshaped the way people thought
about themselves or related to each other. You also saw how print
culture created the possibility of new forms of literature. In this
chapter we will study the history of one such form – the novel – a
history that is closely connected to the making of modern ways of
thinking. We will first look at the history of the novel in the West,
and then see how this form developed in some of the regions of
India. As you will see, despite their differences, there were many
commonalites of focus between novels written in different parts
of the world.
 1 The Rise
R oof the Novel
N v l

The novel is a modern form of literature. It is born from print, a

mechanical invention.
We cannot think of the novel without the printed book. In ancient
times, as you have seen (Chapter 7), manuscripts were handwritten.
These circulated among very few people. In contrast, because of
being printed, novels were widely read and became popular very
quickly. At this time big cities like London were growing rapidly
and becoming connected to small towns and rural areas through
print and improved communications. Novels produced a number
of common interests among their scattered and varied readers. As
readers were drawn into the story and identified with the lives of
fictitious characters, they could think about issues such as the
relationship between love and marriage, the proper conduct for
men and women, and so on.
The novel first took firm root in England and France. Novels began
to be written from the seventeenth century, but they really flowered
from the eighteenth century. New groups of lower-middle-class
people such as shopkeepers and clerks, along with the traditional
aristocratic and gentlemanly classes in England and France now
formed the new readership for novels.
As readership grew and the market for books expanded, the earnings
of authors increased. This freed them from financial dependence
on the patronage of aristocrats, and gave them independence to
experiment with different literary styles. Henry Fielding, a novelist
of the early eighteenth century, claimed he was ‘the founder of a
new province of writing’ where he could make his own laws. The
novel allowed flexibility in the form of writing. Walter Scott
India and the Contemporary World

remembered and collected popular Scottish ballads which he used

in his historical novels about the wars between Scottish clans. The
epistolary novel, on the other hand, used the private and personal
form of letters to tell its story. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, written
in the eighteenth century, told much of its story through an exchange New words
of letters between two lovers. These letters tell the reader of the
Gentlemanly classes – People who claimed
hidden conflicts in the heroine’s mind.
noble birth and high social position. They were
supposed to set the standard for proper
1.1 The Publishing Market behaviour
For a long time the publishing market excluded the poor. Initially, Epistolary – Written in the form of a series of
novels did not come cheap. Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones (1749) was letters

178
issued in six volumes priced at three shillings each – which was
more than what a labourer earned in a week.

But soon, people had easier access to books with the introduction
of circulating libraries in 1740. Technological improvements in
printing brought down the price of books and innovations in
marketing led to expanded sales. In France, publishers found that
they could make super profits by hiring out novels by the hour. The
novel was one of the first mass-produced items to be sold. There
were several reasons for its popularity. The worlds created by novels
were absorbing and believable, and seemingly real. While reading
novels, the reader was transported to another person’s world, and
began looking at life as it was experienced by the characters of the
novel. Besides, novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in
private, as well as the joy of publicly reading or discussing stories
Fig. 1 – Cover page of Sketches by ‘Boz’.
with friends or relatives. In rural areas people would collect to hear Charles Dickens’s first publication was a collection of
one of them reading a novel aloud, often becoming deeply involved journalistic essays entitled Sketches by ‘Boz’ (1836).

in the lives of the characters. Apparently, a group at Slough in England

were very pleased to hear that Pamela, the heroine of Richardson’s
New words
popular novel, had got married in their village. They rushed out to
the parish church and began to ring the church bells! Serialised – A format in which the story is
published in instalments, each part in a new
In 1836 a notable event took place when Charles Dickens’s Pickwick
issue of a journal
Papers was serialised in a magazine. Magazines were attractive since
they were illustrated and cheap. Serialisation allowed readers to relish
the suspense, discuss the characters of a novel and live for weeks
with their stories – like viewers of television soaps today!

Novels, Society and History

Fig. 3 – Cover page of All The Year Round.

The most important feature of the magazine
All the Year Round, edited by Charles
Fig. 2 – Library notice. Dickens, was his serialised novels. This
Libraries were well publicised. particular issue begins with one.

179
 Fig. 4 – Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910).
Tolstoy was a famous Russian novelist who wrote extensively on
rural life and community.

1.2 The World of the Novel

Discuss
More than other forms of writing which came before, novels are
Explain what is meant by the following types of
about ordinary people. They do not focus on the lives of great
novels:
people or actions that change the destinies of states and empires.
¾ Epistolary novel
Instead, they are about the everyday life of common people.
¾ Serialised novel
In the nineteenth century, Europe entered the industrial age. For each type, name one writer who wrote in
Factories came up, business profits increased and the economy grew. that style.
But at the same time, workers faced problems. Cities expanded
in an unregulated way and were filled with overworked and
underpaid workers. The unemployed poor roamed the streets for
jobs, and the homeless were forced to seek shelter in workhouses.
India and the Contemporary World

The growth of industry was accompanied by an economic

philosophy which celebrated the pursuit of profit and undervalued
the lives of workers. Deeply critical of these developments, novelists
such as Charles Dickens wrote about the terrible effects of
industrialisation on people’s lives and characters. His novel Hard Times
(1854) describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim
place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple
and buildings that all looked the same. Here workers are known
as ‘hands’, as if they had no identity other than as operators
of machines. Dickens criticised not just the greed for profits but
also the ideas that reduced human beings into simple instruments Fig. 5 – Charles Dickens
of production. (1812-1870).

180
In other novels too, Dickens focused on the terrible conditions of
urban life under industrial capitalism. His Oliver Twist (1838) is the
tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and
beggars. Brought up in a cruel workhouse (see Fig. 6), Oliver was
finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after.
But not all novels about the lives of the poor gave readers the comfort
of a happy ending. Emile Zola’s Germinal (1885) on
the life of a young miner in France explores in harsh detail the
grim conditions of miners’ lives. It ends on a note of despair: the
strike the hero leads fails, his co-workers turn against him, and
hopes are shattered.

Fig. 6 – A hungry Oliver asks for more

food while other children at the workhouse
look on with fear, illustration in Oliver
Twist.

Novels, Society and History

Fig. 7 – Emile Zola, painting by Edward Manet,
1868.
Manet’s portrait of the French author Zola,
showing the novelist at his worktable in an
intimate and thoughtful relationship with books.

1.3 Community and Society

The vast majority of readers of the novel lived in the city. The novel
created in them a feeling of connection with the fate of rural
communities. The nineteenth-century British novelist Thomas Hardy,
for instance, wrote about traditional rural communities of England

181
 that were fast vanishing. This was actually a time when large farmers
fenced off land, bought machines and employed labourers to
produce for the market. The old rural culture with its independent
farmers was dying out. We get a sense of this change in Hardy’s
Mayor of Casterbridge (1886). It is about Michael Henchard, a successful
grain merchant, who becomes the mayor of the farming town of
Casterbridge. He is an independent-minded man who follows his
own style in conducting business. He can also be both unpredictably
generous and cruel with his employees. Consequently, he is no
match for his manager and rival Donald Farfrae who runs his
business on efficient managerial lines and is well regarded for he
is smooth and even-tempered with everyone. We can see that
Hardy mourns the loss of the more personalised world that is
disappearing, even as he is aware of its problems and the advantages Fig. 8 – Thomas Hardy (1840-1928).

of the new order.

The novel uses the vernacular, the language that is spoken by

common people. By coming closer to the different spoken languages
of the people, the novel produces the sense of a shared world
between diverse people in a nation. Novels also draw from different
styles of language. A novel may take a classical language and combine
it with the language of the streets and make them all a part of the
vernacular that it uses. Like the nation, the novel brings together
many cultures.

1.4 The New Woman

The most exciting element of the novel was the involvement of
women. The eighteenth century saw the middle classes become
more prosperous. Women got more leisure to read as well as write
novels. And novels began exploring the world of women – their
India and the Contemporary World

emotions and identities, their experiences and problems.

Many novels were about domestic life – a theme about which

women were allowed to speak with authority. They drew
upon their experience, wrote about family life and earned
public recognition.

New words

Vernacular – The normal, spoken form of a language rather

than the formal, literary form

182
Fig. 9 – A girl reading, a painting by Jean Renoir (1841-1919).
By the nineteenth century, images of women reading silently, in
the privacy of the room, became common in European paintings.

Novels, Society and History

Fig. 10 – The home of a woman author, by George Cruikshank.

When women began writing novels many people feared that they would now
neglect their traditional role as wives and mothers and homes would be in disorder.

183
 The novels of Jane Austen give us a glimpse of the world of women
in genteel rural society in early-nineteenth-century Britain. They
make us think about a society which encouraged women to look
for ‘good’ marriages and find wealthy or propertied husbands. The
first sentence of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice states: ‘It is a truth
universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good
fortune, must be in want of a wife.’ This observation allows us to
see the behaviour of the main characters, who are preoccupied with
marriage and money, as typifying Austen’s society.

But women novelists did not simply popularise the domestic role
of women. Often their novels dealt with women who broke Fig. 11 – Jane Austen
(1775-1817).
established norms of society before adjusting to them. Such stories
allowed women readers to sympathise with rebellious actions. In
Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre, published in 1874, young Jane is shown
as independent and assertive. While girls of her time were expected
to be quiet and well behaved, Jane at the age of ten protests against
the hypocrisy of her elders with startling bluntness. She tells her
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 12 – The marriage contract, William Hogarth (1697-1764).

As you can see, the two men in the foreground are busy with the signing of the marriage
contract while the woman stays in the background.

184
Aunt who is always unkind to her: ‘People think you a good woman,
but you are bad ... You are deceitful! I will never call you aunt as
long as I live.’

Box 1

Women novelists
George Eliot (1819-1880) was the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans.
A very popular novelist, she believed that novels gave women a
special opportunity to express themselves freely. Every woman
could see herself as capable of writing fiction:
Fig. 13 – Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855).
‘Fiction is a department of literature in which women can, after
their kind, fully equal men … No educational restrictions can shut
women from the materials of fiction, and there is no species of art
that is so free from rigid requirements.’
George Eliot, ‘Silly novels by lady novelists’, 1856.

1.5 Novels for the Young

Novels for young boys idealised a new type of man: someone
who was powerful, assertive, independent and daring. Most of these
novels were full of adventure set in places remote from Europe.
The colonisers appear heroic and honourable – confronting ‘native’
peoples and strange surroundings, adapting to native life as well as
changing it, colonising territories and then developing nations there.
Books like R.L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1883) or Rudyard Kipling’s
Box 2
Jungle Book (1894) became great hits.

G.A. Henty’s historical adventure novels for boys were also wildly
popular during the height of the British empire. They aroused the G.A. Henty (1832-1902): Novels, Society and History
In Under Drake’s Flag (1883) two young
excitement and adventure of conquering strange lands. They were
Elizabethan adventurers face their apparently
set in Mexico, Alexandria, Siberia and many other countries. They approaching death, but still remember to assert
were always about young boys who witness grand historical events, their Englishness:
get involved in some military action and show what they called ‘Well, Ned, we have had more good fortune than
we could have expected. We might have been
‘English’ courage.
killed on the day when we landed, and we have
spent six jolly months in wandering together as
Love stories written for adolescent girls also first became popular
hunters on the plain. If we must die, let us
in this period, especially in the US, notably Ramona (1884) by Helen behave like Englishmen and Christians.’
Hunt Jackson and a series entitled What Katy Did (1872) by Sarah
Chauncey Woolsey, who wrote under the pen-name Susan Coolidge.

185
 1.6 Colonialism and After
The novel originated in Europe at a time when it was colonising the
rest of the world. The early novel contributed to colonialism by
making the readers feel they were part of a superior community of
fellow colonialists. The hero of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719)
is an adventurer and slave trader. Shipwrecked on an island, Crusoe
treats coloured people not as human beings equal to him, but as
inferior creatures. He rescues a ‘native’ and makes him his slave. He
does not ask for his name but arrogantly gives him the name Friday.
But at the time, Crusoe’s behaviour was not seen as unacceptable or
odd, for most writers of the time saw colonialism as natural.
Colonised people were seen as primitive and barbaric, less than
human; and colonial rule was considered necessary to civilise them,
to make them fully human. It was only later, in the twentieth century,
that writers like Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) wrote novels that
showed the darker side of colonial occupation.

The colonised, however, believed that the novel allowed them to

explore their own identities and problems, their own national
concerns. Let us see how the novel became popular in India and
what significance it had for society.
India and the Contemporary World

186
2 The Novel Comes to India

Stories in prose were not new to India. Banabhatta’s Kadambari,

written in Sanskrit in the seventh century, is an early example. The
Panchatantra is another. There was also a long tradition of prose
tales of adventure and heroism in Persian and Urdu, known as dastan.

However, these works were not novels as we know them today.

The modern novel form developed in India in the nineteenth century,
as Indians became familiar with the Western novel. The development
of the vernaculars, print and a reading public helped in this process.
Some of the earliest Indian novels were written in Bengali and
Marathi. The earliest novel in Marathi was Baba Padmanji’s Yamuna
Paryatan (1857), which used a simple style of storytelling to speak Box 3
about the plight of widows. This was followed by Lakshman
Not all Marathi novels were realistic. Naro Sadashiv
Moreshwar Halbe’s Muktamala (1861). This was not a realistic novel; Risbud used a highly ornamental style in his Marathi
it presented an imaginary ‘romance’ narrative with a moral purpose. novel Manjughosha (1868). This novel was filled
with amazing events. Risbud had a reason behind
Leading novelists of the nineteenth century wrote for a cause. his choice of style. He said:
Colonial rulers regarded the contemporary culture of India as inferior. ‘Because of our attitude to marriage and for
On the other hand, Indian novelists wrote to develop a modern several other reasons one finds in the lives of the
Hindus neither interesting views nor virtues … If
literature of the country that could produce a sense of national
we write about things that we experience
belonging and cultural equality with their colonial masters. daily there would be nothing enthralling about
them, so that if we set out to write an
Translations of novels into different regional languages helped to entertaining book we are forced to take up with
spread the popularity of the novel and stimulated the growth of the marvellous.’
the novel in new areas.

2.1 The Novel in South India

Novels began appearing in south Indian languages during the period
of colonial rule. Quite a few early novels came out of attempts to
translate English novels into Indian languages. For example, Novels, Society and History
O. Chandu Menon, a subjudge from Malabar, tried to translate an
English novel called Henrietta Temple written by Benjamin Disraeli
into Malayalam. But he quickly realised that his readers in Kerala
were not familiar with the way in which the characters in English
novels lived: their clothes, ways of speaking, and manners were
unknown to them. They would find a direct translation of an English
novel dreadfully boring. So, he gave up this idea and wrote instead
a story in Malayalam in the ‘manner of English novel books’. This
delightful novel called Indulekha, published in 1889, was the first Fig. 14 – Chandu Menon
modern novel in Malayalam. (1847-1899).

187
 The case of Andhra Pradesh was strikingly similar. Kandukuri
Viresalingam (1848-1919) began translating Oliver Goldsmith’s Vicar
of Wakefield into Telugu. He abandoned this plan for similar reasons
and instead wrote an original Telugu novel called Rajasekhara Caritamu
in 1878.

Fig. 15 – Image from Pickwick Abroad.

A drawing from the book Pickwick Abroad written by
G.W.M. Reynolds.
Minor nineteenth-century English novelists like Reynolds,
F. Marion Crawford and Marie Corelli were hugely popular in
colonial India. Their novels – which were historical romances,
adventure stories and sensation novels – were easily available
and were translated and ‘adapted’ into several Indian languages.
Reynolds’s Pickwick Abroad (1839) was more popular in India
than Dickens’s original Pickwick Papers (1837).

2.2 The Novel in Hindi

In the north, Bharatendu Harishchandra, the pioneer of modern
Hindi literature, encouraged many members of his circle of poets
and writers to recreate and translate novels from other languages.
India and the Contemporary World

Many novels were actually translated and adapted from English and
Bengali under his influence, but the first proper modern novel was
written by Srinivas Das of Delhi.

Srinivas Das’s novel, published in 1882, was titled Pariksha-Guru (The

Master Examiner). It cautioned young men of well-to-do families
against the dangerous influences of bad company and consequent
loose morals.

Pariksha-Guru reflects the inner and outer world of the newly emerging
middle classes. The characters in the novel are caught in the difficulty
of adapting to colonised society and at the same time preserving

188
their own cultural identity. The world of colonial modernity seems
to be both frightening and irresistible to the characters. The novel
tries to teach the reader the ‘right way’ to live and expects all ‘sensible
men’ to be worldly-wise and practical, to remain rooted in the
values of their own tradition and culture, and to live with dignity
and honour.
In the novel we see the characters attempting to bridge two different
worlds through their actions: they take to new agricultural technology,
modernise trading practices, change the use of Indian languages,
making them capable of transmitting both Western sciences and
Indian wisdom. The young are urged to cultivate the ‘healthy habit’
of reading the newspapers. But the novel emphasises that all
this must be achieved without sacrificing the traditional values of
the middle-class household. With all its good intentions, Pariksha-
Guru could not win many readers, as it was perhaps too moralising
in its style.
The writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri created a novel-reading
public in Hindi. His best-seller, Chandrakanta – a romance with
dazzling elements of fantasy – is believed to have contributed
immensely in popularising the Hindi language and the Nagari
script among the educated classes of those times. Although it was Discuss
apparently written purely for the ‘pleasure of reading’, this novel
Write about two important characteristics of the
also gives some interesting insights into the fears and desires of its
early Hindi novel.
reading public.
It was with the writing of Premchand that the Hindi novel achieved
excellence. He began writing in Urdu and then shifted to Hindi,
remaining an immensely influential writer in both languages. He drew Box 4
on the traditional art of kissa-goi (storytelling). Many critics think
The novel in Assam
that his novel Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916,
The first novels in Assam were written by
lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralising and missionaries. Two of them were translations of
simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary Bengali including Phulmoni and Karuna. In 1888, Novels, Society and History
people and social issues. Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor Assamese students in Kolkata formed the Asamya
Bhasar Unnatisadhan that brought out a journal
condition of women in society. Issues like child marriage and dowry
called Jonaki . This journal opened up the
are woven into the story of the novel. It also tells us about the ways opportunities for new authors to develop the
in which the Indian upper classes used whatever little opportunities novel. Rajanikanta Bardoloi wrote the first major
historical novel in Assam called Manomati (1900).
they got from colonial authorities to govern themselves.
It is set in the Burmese invasion, stories of which
the author had probably heard from old soldiers
who had fought in the 1819 campaign. It is a
2.3 Novels in Bengal tale of two lovers belonging to two hostile families
who are separated by the war and finally
In the nineteenth century, the early Bengali novels lived in two worlds.
reunited.
Many of these novels were located in the past, their characters, events

189
 and love stories based on historical events. Another group of novels
depicted the inner world of domestic life in contemporary settings.
Domestic novels frequently dealt with the social problems and
romantic relationships between men and women.

The old merchant elite of Calcutta patronised public forms of

entertainment such as kabirlarai (poetry contests), musical soirees
and dance performances. In contrast, the new bhadralok found
himself at home in the more private world of reading novels.
Novels were read individually. They could also be read in select
groups. Sometimes the household of the great Bangla novelist
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay would host a jatra in the courtyard
where members of the family would be gathered. In Bankim’s room,
however, a group of literary friends would collect to read, discuss
and judge literary works. Bankim read out Durgeshnandini (1865),
his first novel, to such a gathering of people who were stunned to Fig. 16 – Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
(1838-1894).
realise that the Bengali novel had achieved excellence so quickly.
Bankim’s hands on the book indicates how
writing was the basis of his social position
Besides the ingenious twists and turns of the plot and the suspense, and authority.
the novel was also relished for its language. The prose style became
Box 5
a new object of enjoyment. Initially the Bengali novel used a colloquial
style associated with urban life. It also used meyeli, the language The Oriya novel
associated with women’s speech. This style was quickly replaced In 1877-78, Ramashankar Ray, a dramatist, began
serialising the first Oriya novel, Saudamani. But
by Bankim’s prose which was Sanskritised but also contained a
he could not complete it. Within thirty years,
more vernacular style. however, Orissa produced a major novelist in Fakir
Mohon Senapati (1843-1918). The title of his
The novel rapidly acquired popularity in Bengal. By the twentieth novel Chaa Mana Atha Guntha (1902) translates
century, the power of telling stories in simple language made Sarat as six acres and thirty-two decimals of land. It
announces a new kind of novel that will deal with
Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876-1938) the most popular novelist in
the question of land and its possession. It is the
Bengal and probably in the rest of India. story of Ramchandra Mangaraj, a landlord’s
manager who cheats his idle and drunken master
and then eyes the plot of fertile land owned by
India and the Contemporary World

Bhagia and Shariya, a childless weaver couple.

Mangaraj fools this couple and puts them into his
debt so that he can take over their land. This
pathbreaking work showed that the novel could
make rural issues an important part of urban
preoccupations. In writing this novel, Fakir Mohon
anticipated a host of writers in Bengal and
elsewhere.

Fig. 17 – The temple and the drawing room.

On the right is the temple where the family and others would gather
and on the left is the drawing room where Bankim would entertain
select friends to discuss new literary works. Note that the two
spaces – the traditional and the modern – are next to each other,
indicating the split lifestyle of most intellectuals in colonial India.

190
3 Novels in the Colonial World

If we follow the history of the novel in different parts of India we

can see many regional peculiarities. But there were also recurring
patterns and common concerns. What inspired the authors to write
novels? Who read the novels? How did the culture of reading
develop? How did the novels grapple with the problems of societal
change within a colonial society? What kind of a world did novels
open up for the readers? Let us explore some of these questions
by focusing primarily on the writings of three authors from different
regions: Chandu Menon, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
and Premchand.

3.1 Uses of the Novel

Colonial administrators found ‘vernacular’ novels a valuable source
of information on native life and customs. Such information was
useful for them in governing Indian society, with its large variety of
communities and castes. As outsiders, the British knew little about
life inside Indian households. The new novels in Indian languages
Fig. 18 – Cover page of the novel
often had descriptions of domestic life. They showed how people Indirabai.
dressed, their forms of religious worship, their beliefs and practices, Written at the end of the nineteenth
century, Indirabai continues to be
and so on. Some of these books were translated into English, often popular and is regularly reprinted. This
by British administrators or Christian missionaries. is the cover of a recent reprint.

Indians used the novel as a powerful medium to criticise what they

considered defects in their society and to suggest remedies. Writers
like Viresalingam used the novel mainly to propagate their ideas
Box 6
about society among a wider readership.
The message of reform
Novels also helped in establishing a relationship with the past. Many
Many early novels carried a clear message of
of them told thrilling stories of adventures and intrigues set in the social reform. For example, in Indirabai , a Novels, Society and History
past. Through glorified accounts of the past, these novels helped in Kannada novel written by Gulavadi Venkata Rao
creating a sense of national pride among their readers. in 1899, the heroine is given away in marriage
at a very young age to an elderly man. Her
At the same time, people from all walks of life could read novels so husband dies soon after, and she is forced to
lead the life of a widow. In spite of opposition
long as they shared a common language. This helped in creating a
from her family and society, Indirabai succeeds
sense of collective belonging on the basis of one’s language. in continuing her education. Eventually she
marries again, this time a progressive, English-
You would have noticed that people living in different regions speak educated man. Women’s education, the plight
the same language in different ways – sometimes they use different of widows, and problems created by the early
marriage of girls – all these were important issues
words for the same thing; sometimes the same word is pronounced
for social reformers in Karnataka at that time.
differently. With the coming of novels, such variations entered the

191
 Box 7

The most popular historical novelist in Tamil was

R. Krishnamurthy who wrote under the pen-
name ‘Kalki’. He was an active participant in the
freedom movement and the editor of the widely
read Tamil magazines Anandavikatan and Kalki.
Written in simple language and full of heroism,
adventure and suspense, Kalki’s novels captivated
the Tamil-reading public of an entire generation.

Fig. 19 – A page from the

novel Ponniyin Selvan, written
by Kalki and serialised in the
magazine Kalki, 1951.

world of print for the first time. The way characters spoke in a
novel began to indicate their region, class or caste. Thus novels made
their readers familiar with the ways in which people in other parts
of their land spoke their language.

3.2 The Problem of Being Modern

Although they were about imaginary stories, novels often spoke to
their readers about the real world. But novels did not always show
things exactly as they were in reality. Sometimes, they presented a
vision of how things ought to be. Social novelists often created
India and the Contemporary World

heroes and heroines with ideal qualities, who their readers could
admire and imitate. How were these ideal qualities defined? In many
novels written during the colonial period, the ideal person successfully
deals with one of the central dilemmas faced by colonial subjects:
how to be modern without rejecting tradition, how to accept ideas
coming from the West without losing one’s identity.

Chandu Menon portrayed Indulekha as a woman of breathtaking

beauty, high intellectual abilities, artistic talent, and with an education
in English and Sanskrit. Madhavan, the hero of the novel, was
also presented in ideal colours. He was a member of the newly
English-educated class of Nayars from the University of Madras.

192
He was also a ‘first-rate Sanskrit scholar’. He dressed in Western
clothes. But, at the same time, he kept a long tuft of hair, according
to the Nayar custom.

The heroes and heroines in most of the novels were people who
lived in the modern world. Thus they were different from the ideal
or mythological characters of the earlier poetic literature of India.
Under colonial rule, many of the English-educated class found new
Western ways of living and thinking attractive. But they also feared
that a wholesale adoption of Western values would destroy their
traditional ways of living. Characters like Indulekha and Madhavan
showed readers how Indian and foreign lifestyles could be brought
together in an ideal combination.

3.3 Pleasures of Reading

As elsewhere in the world, in India too, the novel became a popular
medium of entertainment among the middle class. The
circulation of printed books allowed people to amuse themselves
in new ways. Picture books, translations from other languages,
popular songs sometimes composed on contemporary events, stories
in newspapers and magazines – all these offered new forms
of entertainment. Within this new culture of print, novels soon
became immensely popular.

In Tamil, for example, there was a flood of popular novels in the

early decades of the twentieth century. Detective and mystery novels
often had to be printed again and again to meet the demand of
readers: some of them were reprinted as many as twenty-two times!

The novel also assisted in the spread of silent reading. We are so

used to reading in silence that it is difficult for us to think that this
practice was not very common in the past. As late as the nineteenth
Novels, Society and History
century and perhaps even in the early twentieth century, written texts
were often read aloud for several people to hear. Sometimes novels
were also read in this way, but in general novels encouraged reading Fig. 20 – Cover page of Kathanjali, a Kannada
alone and in silence. Individuals sitting at home or travelling in trains magazine.
Kathanjali started publication in 1929 and
enjoyed them. Even in a crowded room, the novel offered a special published short stories regularly. The picture
world of imagination into which the reader could slip, and be all shows a mother reading out stories from a book
to her children.
alone. In this, reading a novel was like daydreaming.

193
 4 Women and the Novel

Many people got worried about the effects of the novel on readers
who were taken away from their real surroundings into an imaginary
world where anything could happen. Some of them wrote in
newspapers and magazines, advising people to stay away from the
immoral influence of novels. Women and children were often singled
out for such advice: they were seen as easily corruptible.

Some parents kept novels in the lofts in their houses, out of their
children’s reach. Young people often read them in secret. This passion
was not limited only to the youth. Older women – some of whom
could not read – listened with fascinated attention to popular
Tamil novels read out to them by their grandchildren – a nice
reversal of the familiar grandma’s tales!

But women did not remain mere readers of stories written by men;
soon they also began to write novels. In some languages, the early
creations of women were poems, essays or autobiographical
pieces. In the early decades of the twentieth century, women in
Fig. 21 – A woman reading,
south India also began writing novels and short stories. A reason woodcut by Satyendranath Bishi.
for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed The woodcut shows how women
were discovering the pleasure of
for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love – which reading. By the end of the
was a staple theme of many novels – showed women who could nineteenth century, images of
women reading became common in
choose or refuse their partners and relationships. It showed popular magazines in India.
women who could to some extent control their lives. Some women
authors also wrote about women who changed the world of both
men and women. Source A

Rokeya Hossein (1880-1932) was a reformer who, after she was Why women should not read novels
widowed, started a girl’s school in Calcutta. She wrote a satiric From a Tamil essay published in 1927:
India and the Contemporary World

fantasy in English called Sultana’s Dream (1905) which shows a topsy- ‘Dear children, don’t read these novels, don’t
turvy world in which women take the place of men. Her n o v e l even touch them. Your life will be ruined. You
will suffer disease and ailments. Why did the good
Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition
Lord make you – to wither away at a tender
by their own actions. age? To suffer in disease? To be despised by
your brothers, relatives and those around you?
No. No. You must become mothers; you must
lead happy lives; this is the divine purpose. You
New words who were born to fulfil this sublime goal, should
you ruin your life by going crazy after despicable
Satire – A form of representation through writing, drawing, novels?’
painting, etc. that provides a criticism of society in a manner that Essay by Thiru. Vi. Ka, Translated by A.R.
Venkatachalapathy
is witty and clever Source

194
It is not surprising that many men were suspicious of women writing Box 8
novels or reading them. This suspicion cut across communities.
Women with books
Hannah Mullens, a Christian missionary and the author of Karuna o
‘These days we can see women in black bordered
Phulmonir Bibaran (1852), reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her sarees with massive books in their hands, walking
readers that she wrote in secret. In the twentieth century, Sailabala inside their houses. Often seeing them with these
Ghosh Jaya, a popular novelist, could only write because her husband books in hand, their brothers or husbands are
seized with fear – in case they are asked for
protected her. As we have seen in the case of the south, women and meanings.’
girls were often discouraged from reading novels. Sadharani, 1880.

4.1 Caste Practices, ‘Lower-Castes’ and Minorities

As you have seen, Indulekha was a love story. But it was also about
an issue that was hotly debated at the time when the novel was
written. This concerned the marriage practices of upper-caste Hindus
in Kerala, especially the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars.
Nambuthiris were also major landlords in Kerala at that time; and a
large section of the Nayars were their tenants. In late-nineteenth-
century Kerala, a younger generation of English-educated Nayar
men who had acquired property and wealth on their own, began
arguing strongly against Nambuthiri alliances with Nayar women.
They wanted new laws regarding marriage and property.

The story of Indulekha is interesting in the light of these debates. Suri

Nambuthiri, the foolish landlord who comes to marry Indulekha,
is the focus of much satire in the novel. The intelligent heroine
rejects him and chooses Madhavan, the educated and handsome
Nayar as her husband, and the young couple move to Madras,
where Madhavan joins the civil service. Suri Nambuthiri, desperate
to find a partner for himself, finally marries a poorer relation from
the same family and goes away pretending that he has married
Indulekha! Chandu Menon clearly wanted his readers to appreciate
the new values of his hero and heroine and criticise the ignorance Novels, Society and History
and immorality of Suri Nambuthiri.

Novels like Indirabai and Indulekha were written by members of the

upper castes, and were primarily about upper-caste characters. But Fig. 22 – Malabar Beauty, painting by
Ravi Varma.
not all novels were of this kind. Chandu Menon thought that the novel
was similar to new trends in Indian
Potheri Kunjambu, a ‘lower-caste’ writer from north Kerala, wrote painting.
a novel called Saraswativijayam in 1892, mounting a strong attack on One of the foremost oil painters of this
time was Raja Ravi Varma (1848-
caste oppression. This novel shows a young man from an 1906). Chandu Menon’s description
‘untouchable’ caste, leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his of his heroines may have been guided
by some of his paintings.
Brahmin landlord. He converts to Christianity, obtains modern

195
 education, and returns as the judge in the local court. Meanwhile, the
villagers, thinking that the landlord’s men had killed him, file a case.
At the conclusion of the trial, the judge reveals his true identity, and
the Nambuthiri repents and reforms his ways. Saraswativijayam stresses
the importance of education for the upliftment of the lower castes.

From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that
depicted the lives of peasants and ‘low’ castes. Advaita Malla
Burman’s (1914-51) Titash Ekti Nadir Naam (1956) is an epic about
the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in the
river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas,
about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born
of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night.
Ananta leaves the community to get educated in the city. The novel
describes the community life of the Mallas in great detail, their Holi
and Kali Puja festivals, boat races, bhatiali songs, their relationships
of friendship and animosity with the peasants and the oppression
of the upper castes. Slowly the community breaks up and the Mallas
start fighting amongst themselves as new cultural influences from
the city start penetrating their lives. The life of the community and
that of the river is intimately tied. Their end comes together: as the
river dries up, the community dies too. While novelists before Burman
had featured ‘low’ castes as their protagonists, Titash is special because
the author is himself from a ‘low-caste’, fisherfolk community.

Over time, the medium of the novel made room for the experiences
of communities that had not received much space in the literary
scene earlier. Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer (1908-96), for example,
was one of the early Muslim writers to gain wide renown as a
novelist in Malayalam.

Basheer had little formal education. Most of his works were based
India and the Contemporary World

on his own rich personal experience rather than on books from the
past. When he was in class five at school, Basheer left home to take
part in the Salt Satyagraha. Later he spent years wandering in different
parts of India and travelling even to Arabia, working in a ship, living Fig. 23 – Basheer carrying books.
with Sufis and Hindu sanyasis, and training as a wrestler. In his early years as a writer,
Basheer had great difficulty
Basheer’s short novels and stories were written in the ordinary earning a living from his books.
He often sold them himself,
language of conversation. With wonderful humour, Basheer’s novels carrying copies personally to
spoke about details from the everyday life of Muslim households. houses and shops. In some of his
stories, Basheer wrote about his
He also brought into Malayalam writing themes which were days as a vendor of his own
considered very unusual at that time – poverty, insanity and life books.
in prisons.

196
 5 The Nation and its History

The history written by colonial historians tended to depict Indians as

weak, divided, and dependent on the British. These histories could
not satisfy the tastes of the new Indian administrators and intellectuals.
Nor did the traditional Puranic stories of the past – peopled by
gods and demons, filled with the fantastic and the supernatural –
seem convincing to those educated and working under the English
system. Such minds wanted a new view of the past that would
show that Indians could be independent minded and had been so in
history. The novel provided a solution. In it, the nation could be
imagined in a past that also featured historical characters, places,
events and dates.

In Bengal, many historical novels were about Marathas and Rajputs.

These novels produced a sense of a pan-Indian belonging. They
imagined the nation to be full of adventure, heroism, romance and Fig. 24 – Image from the film Chemmeen.
Many novels were made into films. The novel
sacrifice – qualities that could not be found in the offices and streets Chemmeen (Shrimp, 1956), written by Thakazhi
of the nineteenth-century world. The novel allowed the colonised Sivasankara Pillai (1912-99), is set in the
fishing community in Kerala, and characters
to give shape to their desires. Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay’s (1827-94) speak a variety of Malayalam used by fisherfolk
Anguriya Binimoy (1857) was the first historical novel written in Bengal. in the region. The film Chemmeen, directed by
Ramu Kariat, was made in 1965.
Its hero Shivaji engages in many battles against a clever and treacherous
Aurangzeb. Man Singh persuades Shivaji to make peace with
Aurangzeb. Realising that Aurangzeb intended to confine him as a
house prisoner, Shivaji escapes and returns to battle. What gives him
courage and tenacity is his belief that he is a nationalist fighting for
the freedom of Hindus.

The imagined nation of the novel was so powerful that it

could inspire actual political movements. Bankim’s Anandamath (1882)
is a novel about a secret Hindu militia that fights Muslims to establish
Novels, Society and History
a Hindu kingdom. It was a novel that inspired many kinds of
freedom fighters.

Many of these novels also reveal the problems of thinking about

the nation. Was India to be a nation of only a single religious
community? Who had natural claims to belong to the nation? Fig. 25 – A still from the
Kannada film Chomana Dudi
(Choma’s Drum, directed by
B.V. Karanth in 1975).
5.1 The Novel and Nation Making The film is based on a novel of
the same title written in 1930 by
Imagining a heroic past was one way in which the novel helped in the celebrated Kannada novelist
popularising the sense of belonging to a common nation. Another Sivarama Karanth (1902-1997).

197
 way was to include various classes in the novel so that they could be Box 9
seen to belong to a shared world. Premchand’s novels, for instance,
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) developed the
are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels Bengali novel after Bankim’s death. His early novels
of society. In his novels you meet aristocrats and landlords, middle- were historical; he later shifted to writing stories
about domestic relationships. He was mainly
level peasants and landless labourers, middle-class professionals and
preoccupied with the condition of women and
people from the margins of society. The women characters are nationalism. Both concerns are featured in his
strong individuals, especially those who come from the lower classes Ghare Baire (1916) translated in 1919 as The
and are not modernised. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Home and the World. The story is about Bimala,
the wife of Nikhilesh, a liberal landlord who
Premchand rejected the nostalgic obsession with ancient history. believes that he can save his country by patiently
Instead, his novels look towards the future without forgetting the bettering the lives of its poor and marginal
sections. But Bimala is attracted to Sandip, her
importance of the past.
husband’s friend and a firebrand extremist. Sandip
Drawn from various strata of society, Premchand’s characters create is so completely dedicated to throwing out the
British that he does not mind if the poor ‘low’
a community based on democratic values. The central character of castes suffer and Muslims are made to feel like
his novel Rangbhoomi (The Arena), Surdas, is a visually impaired beggar outsiders. By becoming a part of Sandip’s group,
from a so-called ‘untouchable’ caste. The very act of choosing such Bimala gets a sense of self-worth and self-esteem.
Rabindranth also shows the contradictory effects
a person as the ‘hero’ of a novel is significant. It makes the lives of of nationalist involvement for women. Bimala may
the most oppressed section of society as worthy of literary reflection. be admired by the young males of the group
We see Surdas struggling against the forcible takeover of his land but she cannot influence their decisions. Indeed
she is used by Sandip to acquire funds for the
for establishing a tobacco factory. As we read the story we wonder movement. Tagore’s novels are striking because
about industrialisation and its impact on society and people. Who they make us rethink both man-woman
does it serve? Must other ways of living be sacrificed for it? The relationships and nationalism.

story of Surdas was inspired by Gandhi’s personality and ideas.

Godan (The Gift of Cow), published in 1936, remains Premchand’s

best-known work. It is an epic of the Indian peasantry. The novel
tells the moving story of Hori and his wife Dhania, a peasant couple.
Landlords, moneylenders, priests and colonial bureaucrats – all those
who hold power in society – form a network of oppression, rob
their land and make them into landless labourers. Yet Hori and Dhania
retain their dignity to the end.
India and the Contemporary World

Activity
Read Godan. Write briefly on:
¾ How Premchand depicts the life of peasants in the novel.
¾ What the novel tells us about the life of peasants during the Fig. 26 – Portrait of
Premchand (1880-
Great Depression.
1936).

198
Conclusion
We have seen how, over the course of its history in both the West
and in India, the novel became part of the lives of different sections
of people. Developments in print technologies allowed the novel
to break out of its small circle of readers and introduced fresh
ways of reading. But through their stories, novels have also shown a
capacity to include and focus on the lives of those who were not
often known to literate and middle-class circles. We have seen some
examples of these in Premchand, but they are equally present in the
works of other novelists.

Bringing together people from varied backgrounds produces a sense

of shared community. The most notable form of this community
is the nation. Equally significant is the fact that by bringing in both
the powerful and the marginal peoples and cultures, the novel throws
up many questions about the nature of these communities. We can
say then that novels produce a sense of sharing, and promote an
understanding of different people, different values and different
communities. At the same time they explore how different groups
begin to question or reflect upon their own identities.

Novels, Society and History

199
 Write in brief

1. Explain the following:

a) Social changes in Britain which led to an increase in women readers
b) What actions of Robinson Crusoe make us see him as a typical coloniser.

Write in brief
c) After 1740, the readership of novels began to include poorer people.
d) Novelists in colonial India wrote for a political cause.
2. Outline the changes in technology and society which led to an increase in
readers of the novel in eighteenth-century Europe.
3. Write a note on:
a) The Oriya novel
b) Jane Austen’s portrayal of women
c) The picture of the new middle class which the novel Pariksha-Guru portrays.

Discuss

1. Discuss some of the social changes in nineteenth-century Britain which Thomas Hardy
and Charles Dickens wrote about.
2. Summarise the concern in both nineteenth-century Europe and India about women
reading novels. What does this suggest about how women were viewed?
3. In what ways was the novel in colonial India useful for both the colonisers as well as the
nationalists?

Discuss
4. Describe how the issue of caste was included in novels in India. By referring to any two
novels, discuss the ways in which they tried to make readers think about existing social
India and the Contemporary World

issues.
5. Describe the ways in which the novel in India attempted to create a sense of pan-Indian
belonging.

Project

Imagine that you are a historian in 3035 AD. You have just located two novels which were written
in the twentieth century. What do they tell you about society and customs of the time?
Project

200