Magazine Management and Production MCM 306

MCM 306: MAGAZINE MANAGEMENT

AND PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

Magazine Management and Production (MCM 306) provides students with both
the theoretical and practical knowledge and processes involved in magazine
production. In this course students are taught how magazines are produced,
beginning from the collection of news, copy flow, editing, page planning
( including new technique in magazine production enabled by ICT and the
Internet), till the product gets to the final consumer who are the readers. The
course also expose you to some basic concepts in magazine production such
as the mission statement, editorial policy and the house style which guide
editorial staff in the production process.

MODULE 1 MAGAZINES: AN OVERVIEW

UNIT ONE

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PRINT MEDIA

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to give a brief history of
newspaper/magazine industry in Nigeria and distinguish their characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

The media of mass communication are divided into two broad categories -
print and electronic media. Newspapers and magazines fall into the print
category. One of the basic features of the print media including newspapers
and magazines is their durability. The readers are able to make reference to
them at any time after the first contact. This is not the case with radio and
television programmes which are transient.

Being among the oldest in the mass media category, newspapers and
magazines exert some influence in the society that people look on to them not
only for the news of the day, but informed opinions on topical issues.

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What is a Newspaper?

A newspaper is defined as “an unbound publication issued at regular intervals,

which presents information in words, often supplemented with pictures”
(Sadman et al., 1976 in Okunna and Omenugha, 2012).

Newspapers carry information on a broad spectrum of issues which include:

news, advertisement, politics, education, science and technology, religion,
commerce etc. The average daily newspaper contains far more news than
available in radio, television or any other medium (Alozie, 2009). Of all the
print media, newspapers provide the most current information. Newspapers
are published either daily or weekly.

What is a Magazine?

A magazine is another type of print media. According to Alozie (2009, p.4), it is

a bound printed publication which contains news and other forms of
information on a wide range of recent and past events.

Characteristics and Nature of Magazine

Magazines possess certain characteristics which differentiate them from other

publications. Magazines that are usually publish weekly, monthly or annually
are like newspapers only that they have the following distinct nature and
characteristics:

1. Better package: magazines are better produced than newspapers with

glossy prints and colourful images. Though the advent of digital printing now
has newspaper competing with it in this direction.

2. Bound together: unlike newspapers, magazines are usually bound or held

together in semi format like books in the print family production procedure.

3. Smaller in size: magazines are usually smaller in size than newspapers.

While newspapers are often offered in broadsheet in terms of serious
publication or tabloid in the tradition of sensational journalism, magazines are
offered in pulp slick formats.

4. Contain in-depth information: serious magazine publication has

contents which demands elongated time to gather information. In this wise

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they offer readers more background information about events or subject

matters.

5. Better researched and investigates news behind the news: because

there is ample time to gather information, magazine writers conduct better
and in-depth investigation and research before embarking on their writings. It
is therefore not wrong to say that magazine thrives on interpretative reports,
especially features and in-depth analysis of issues that have. been featured in
the fast medium–the newspaper. With dwindling fortune of magazines,
newspapers have now taken up this role via interpretive and investigative
journalism.

6. Nature of the Target Audience

Magazines are published with a target audience in mind. Sometimes, the title
of the magazine such as Women’s World, Children Arena etc say much about
the target audience. In some cases, the title remains silent on the audience
especially when the magazine is expected to appeal to a wider audience.

7 The Subject Matter

Most magazines are classified based on their area of interest. Some of these
include health watch, sports world, maritime watch, IT and Telecom.

8. Technology of Publication, Size or Format

Some magazines are published on the Internet, other produce hard copies
while others publish both the online edition and the hard copy.

Moreover, just like newspapers, magazines are also classified according to the
size. In this category is the life size magazine measuring about 101/2 inches by
13 inches and some size measuring about 81/2 inches by 11 inches.

9. Area of Coverage/Circulation and Purpose of Publication

In this category are the local, national and international magazines. Also in this
category is the training magazine such as the one used in training students
and trade magazines that focus on activities in different industries or trade.

10. Ownership

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In this category are the independent and state-owned magazines. The

independent magazines are expected to be independent in discussion of public
issues while the state owned magazines are accused of being government’s
mouthpieces.

Brief History of Newspapers and Magazines in Nigeria

Newspaper

We cannot discuss the history of magazine without first taking a peep into
what newspaper is—having been the precursor of the magazine. The advent of
newspaper in Nigeria dates back to 1859 when an Anglican Priest, Rev. Henry
Townsend established the first newspaper - “Iwe Irohim fun awon Ara Egba ati
Yoruba”, translated to mean “Newspaper for the Egba-speaking people and
Yorubas”. The newspaper was set up to help in the spreading of the gospel and
literacy among the people. It combined cultural, political, social and religious
commentaries in an effort to reach the readers. The advent of Iwe Irohin was
followed by other publications which later were used as tools by the
nationalists to oppose colonial rule.

Magazine

Magazines constitute an important source of information in literate societies.

Their importance lie in the current and enduring information they carry. Their
contents keep the readers informed of current events as well as serving to
educate and entertain them. Magazines published in Nigeria include general
interest titles intended for a mass audience and specific audience targeted-
publications

According to Ehonwa (1992, 13), by the end of 1990, the country boasted of at
least ten weekly magazines and a similar number of monthly and bi–monthly
publications. A typical Nigerian magazine is comprised of articles, stories, and
features. This gives magazines an advantage over books which are designed
to be read from cover to cover.

A magazine can be read in its entirety or bit by bit. They also carry
information in various subjects. Coverage includes humanistic subjects such as
philosophy, psychology, music, language, commerce, business, sociology, and
education.

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Unlike newspapers that made early impact in Nigeria’s political history,

magazines did not enjoy early prominence. It was not until early 1970s that
magazines began to achieve reckoning in the media industry.

Evidence from available literature shows that Newswatch magazine pioneered

the era of news magazine publishing in Nigeria (Newswatch, 22 January 1990,
3). This indicates that the history of news magazine publishing in Nigeria can
be traced to mid–1980s; specifically when Newswatch came into existence on
28 January 1985.

Newswatch: the precursor of modern Nigerian magazine publication

Newswatch magazine was published weekly by Newswatch Communications Limited.

Founded in 1984 by a group of Nigerian journalists, including Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu,
Dan Agbese, and Yakubu Mohammed, the magazine's first edition was released on
January 28, 1985. Newswatch is known for its bold and investigative reporting style,
which has significantly impacted Nigerian journalism.

A 1989 description of the magazine said it "changed the format of print journalism in
Nigeria [and] introduced bold, investigative formats to news reporting in NiNigeri.

Newswatch introduced a new format of print journalism in Nigeria, characterized by

in-depth investigative reporting. The magazine's early years were marked by
controversy, including a shutdown by the Babangida administration in 1987 for
publishing sensitive government information.

The Death of Dele Giwa

Dele Giwa, the magazine's first editor-in-chief, was tragically killed by a mail bomb in
1986 in his home at Ikeja, Lagos, while in his study with Kayode Soyinka, on
Sunday 19 October 1986. The assassination occurred two days after he had
been interviewed by State Security Service (SSS) officials. In an off-the-record
interview with airport journalists, Lt. Col. A.K. Togun, the Deputy Director of
the SSS had claimed that on 9 October Dele Giwa and Alex Ibru had organised
a media parley for media executives and the newly created SSS. Togun
claimed that it was at this meeting that the SSS and the media executives
reached a secret censorship agreement. Under this agreement, the media was
to report any story with potential to embarrass the government to the SSS
before they tried to publish same.

Magazines published in the early days

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According to Nwabueze (2011), some of the early magazines include:

The Nigeria Gazette established in 1900

The Nigerian magazine established in 1972

The African Challenge established in 1947

The Drum established in 1964

The African Mirror established in 1960

The Spear established in 1961

Lagos Life established in 1972

New Breed established in 1972

Times International established in 1974 among others.

Some of these magazines were short lived and did not make much impact.
There have been other news magazines such as The News, The Week, Tell etc.

On the entertainment side magazines like City People, Prime People,

Encomium, HipHop world, Ovation International, etc have and continue to
grace the newsstand.

Today, people look forward to the publication of weekly magazines for news
behind the news and in-depth analysis of issues and events.

Takeaways

While newspapers are unbound publications that provide news to the people
on daily basis, or at least once a week; magazines publish weekly or monthly.
Also, while newspaper publishing started in Nigeria during the colonial era,
magazines came at the early 1900s. Despite this, both had played an
invaluable role in the nation’s socio-economic and political development that
they occupy an enviable position in the nation’s history. This is because of
their ability to change the people’s attitude and opinion, set agenda and mould
opinions. Those who do not take their opinions direct from newspapers and
magazines, have their intellectual standards and their method of reasoning
influenced by these media.

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UNIT TWO

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGAZINES

INTRODUCTION

Magazines just like newspapers play important role in the society as they
educate, inform, entertain and set agenda for the people. In doing so, every
magazine has a target audience whose needs the magazine wants to satisfy.
To be able to cater to this need, the magazine is packaged in a way that those
needs are supposedly met.

Classification According to Content & Readership —Ukonu (2006)

There are different types of magazines. Ukonu (2006) asserts that there is no
general agreement on any mode of classification for magazines, but he
recommends that magazines be classified according to CONTENT as well as
READERSHIP categories. According to him, there are ten types of magazine
which spread across these two broader classifications as follows:

1. News magazines

2. Literary Reviews and Academic Journals

3. Newsletters

4. Business and Trade magazines

5. Health magazines

6. Entertainment magazines

7. Women’s Interest magazines

8. Sports magazine

9. Scientific and

10. Religious magazine

Types and Classification According to Ate et al

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However, from a different and more concise perspective, Ate, Sunday, Ofulue
and Onwubere (2008), divide the types of magazine into four:

1. The General Interest magazines (which focuses on the activities of the

masses).

2. Specialized magazines (which are designed for specialized people or group

of people and sometimes written in specialized language).

3. Literary or Class magazine (which is usually written is a very literary style

for highly educated or sophisticated members of society).

4. Sensational or Junk (or soft sell) magazines (which are designed for general
public but usually in low quality).

Magazine production process

The magazine production process involves several essential stages, from pre-
planning and content generation and creation to design, editing, proofreading,
printing, and distribution. This key process ensures a smooth and successful delivery
of the product to the target readers at planned intervals.

There are essentially seven key processes:

1. Planning and Conceptualization

The process begins with a client or internal stakeholder providing a detailed brief
outlining the magazine's purpose, target audience, and key themes—This is in a case
of a new publication.

Moreover, the publishing team, including editors, designers, and production

managers, plan the magazine's structure, including themes, articles, and features.
Also a visual representation of the magazine's layout, including editorial and
advertising content, is created to ensure efficient pagination and printing.

2. Design and make-up

The production processes can vary from publication to publication, but in

essence, a basic formula is generally followed. Fundamentally, this process
falls on planning. It allows editorial contributors, advertising canvassers and
production artists to deliver their part of the process by the required time to
ensure all aspects run smoothly. It also helps to keep business costs to a
minimum and increase profitability.

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Magazine production used to involve an expanded team like the newspaper—

having various aspects of the production process handled by different
individuals. However, this is not so anymore as publishers need to consider
cost.

Moreover, technology has made thing easier and less hands are now required
in the management and production process. Today, publishers usually
outsource certain services as and when needed. This aspects could include
page planning, printing and packaging.

As one example, the art director, production manager, image editor, illustrator,
page designer and pre-press have evolved to become a one-man job—now
known as a 'production artist' or page planner in our local instance. It is
expected that the production artist possesses all the necessary skills and
abilities to do all the required service in order to turn out a superb product.

3. Advertisement and Revenue

Then again, since magazines are more expensive to produce and are
audience-targeted, a publisher must consider revenue and how to bring in
money. Moreover, sales and subscription are nowhere near to making shortfall
from less advertising gain.

Advertisements as we are aware holds the lion share of a print media income
and determines it survival in the marketing environment. Therefore, advert
canvassers roles are key or the publisher is influential enough to use their
goodwill to attract patronage.

In this wise, publishers and their canvassers focus on the target market and
deliver the objective. The average human query from would-be clients is "what
is in it for me"? Canvassers are able to outline benefits derivable from putting
their money in the paper and giving reasons why the publication is the ideal
go-to vehicle for the product or brand being prospect.

4. Flatplanning

With editorial and advertising information collated, the production artist will
create a flatplan under the production manager's supervision. Flatplan
translates both list(editorial and advertisements) to visually present how the
magazine is likely to be constructed. The production artist can also seek

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pagination optimisation, which can help keep printing costs in check. The
flatplan will highlight holes assessing whether further editorial should be
supplied or if advertising could be sold. With the flatplan agreed, designing the
pages can then get underway, even if pagination revisions are required during
the process. Most smaller-paginated magazines may only need a simple list.

The flatplan also allows the production artist and manager to keep track of the
magazine's progress and prompt to chase editorial or advertising that has yet
to arrive. The flatplan also helps the editor and advertising sales to keep track
of their respective progress as well.

5. Preparing for output

By today's standard, assuming content has already been checked, and the pagination
layout has gone well, visual proofing of all pages is ready for the editor.

However, for a 68-100pp issue, we find that visual proofing only requires a day or two
before the final print sign-off is received. The production artist then prepares a print-
compliant PDF file and uploads it remotely into the printer's prepress system (where
their operation is automated).

After a short processing period, the production manager can check the RIP (Raster
Image Processed) files to ensure nothing has failed before approving all pages for
print. The pages are then queued for plating. Finally, the production artist may need
to prepare further PDF variants to add a more profound reading experience by adding
links and embedding video for digital publishing or even extracting content to be re-
edited further for social media activity.

6. The Print Deadline

By the print deadline, the printer would have ordered the paper and scheduled
printing press time in advance to ensure the magazine can be swiftly turned round,
bound, trimmed and finished ready for mailing and/or onward distribution. If the print
deadline is missed, it could be several days before the printer can create a sufficient
time slot amongst other planned magazine work to get the magazine on the press.
So, to deliver any magazine on time is critical. With smaller-sized, less-paginated
magazines — such as a 32pp A5 issue — timing isn't so essential.

7. Distribution, circulation and subscription

Another key factor in the production process is distribution, circulation and

subscription. This is key because production is incomplete except readers have

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access to the materials. After putting a paper to bed, it needs to get to the
readers: either online or hardcopy. In the contemporary time, digital
publication are redefining distribution via subscriptions and see how they could
augument revenue loss from advertising.

In terms of hardcopy, magazines need to get to target audience through

distributorship or the vendors. Except in small time targeted publication where
the publishers do their own circulation, large outfits must adopt the two
options above.

UNIT THREE

Mission Statement

Editorial Policy

House Style

INTRODUCTION

Every magazine wants to fill a gap. This is the motivating factor that propels
every news medium. The mission which the publication wants to embark on
will be its first point of contact with the audience who will want to know
whether such a mission is worthwhile.

The mission statement will then give rise to the editorial policy which, like a
compass directs the activities of the editorial staff, who presents the editorial
matters in style (house style) peculiar to such an organisation. As a corporate
entity, magazines contribute their views on topical issues in the society
through editorials.

1 Mission Statement

A mission statement is a compact exposition of an organisation's reason for

existence. The statement should describes the organization's purpose and its
overall intention. The mission statement supports the vision and serves to
communicate purpose and direction to employees, customers, vendors and
other stakeholders.

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Every magazine has a mission. This is what such a magazine intends to

achieve in the society via its publication. The mission is often encapsulated in
one or two sentences and published in most or all of the editions.

The mission statement acts as a guide, not only to the publication but also
members of the public. It is a compass that directs both the publisher and the
management team in their activities. When they know the impact their
publication promises to make in the society, they formulate policies aimed at
achieving those objectives.

The mission statement is important to the extent that some publications have
them printed in every edition.

The New York Times

Our Mission

‘We seek the truth and help people understand the world.’’

This mission is rooted in our belief that great journalism has the power to
make each reader’s life richer and more fulfilling, and all of society stronger
and more just.

At The New York Times, our mission and values guide the work we do every
day. By acting according to their spirit, we serve our readers and society,
ensure the continued strength of our journalism and business, and foster a
healthy and vibrant Times culture.

Daily Sun Newspapers

Daily Sun Newspapers, one of the national newspapers in Nigeria:

"To practice journalism in the classical newspaper tradition of presenting the

news and features in an exciting style, with impact, objectivity and appeal that
generate returns to all stakeholders: The society, the investors and the
practitioners."

These mission statements are so important to the newspapers that they are
published daily on the editorial pages. Once seen by the staff, they remember
their promise to the people.

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Mission statement is the selling points of newspapers, the mantra that

tells the audience what the publication represents and why it should be
the go to medium for information gratification. Business owners should
be able to use your mission statement as yardstick in their
marketing/advertising vehicle decision process. They see whether your
paper aligns with their philosophy and needs in the marketing
environment.

2. Editorial Policy

Editorial policy are the dos and don’ts that guide the activities of every
editorial staff of a newspaper or magazine in carrying out their editorial
functions. Unlike mission statement, editorial policy is neither written down nor
static. Moreover, editorial policies are directed strictly towards core magazine
and newspaper editorial staff such as reporters, correspondents, editors,
columnists, contributors etc, who are the major content providers.

It should be noted that editorial policy can change at any point in time
depending on the ownership, government policies, prevailing social and
economic situation and interest etc.

While carrying out their daily activities, every editorial staff considers the
editorial policy of their media organisations and this policy guides and
determines the kind of news stories and features they will write.

Hence, newspapers and magazines generally adhere to an expository writing

style. Over time and place, journalism ethics and standards have varied in the
degree of objectivity or sensationalism they incorporate. It is considered
unethical not to attribute a scoop to the journalist(s) who broke a story, even if
they are employed by a rival organization.

3. House Style

House style gives character or identity to newspapers and magazines. It is the

way newspapers and magazines present issues. Students often fail to draw a
line between editorial policy and House style. While editorial policy deals with
policy matters, especially those things that are not physical, house style
mostly deals with physical things such as the way a particular publication cast

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its headlines, the page make-up, placement of its logo, giving background to a
story etc.

In other words, house style is a standard that all organisation writers should
follow. While by no means dictating to people what they should write, it
establishes elements such as the tone of voice to take and stylistic elements
such as how to present a heading. Every big publication has one. House style
includes:

1. Headlines casting

2. Spellings and hyphenation

3. Identification of subjects

4. Lead casting and presentation

In most media organisation, house style are not decreed, but evolve over a
period of time that writers in such an organisation see it as a way of life rather
than a rule. However, in some cases, they are written in a documented file for
journalists to follow and recall.

House style demands that journalistic prose is explicit, precise and try not to
rely on jargon. As a rule, journalists will not use a long word when a short one
will do . They offer anecdotes, examples and metaphors, and they rarely
depend on generalizations or abstract ideas. News writers try to avoid using
the same word more than once in a paragraph (sometimes called an "echo" or
"word mirror).

Common style guides include the AP Stylebook and the US News Style Book.
The main goals of news writing can be summarized by the ABCs of journalism:
accuracy, brevity, and clarity.

The Associated Press (AP) Style Book

Associated Press (AP) style is the go-to English style and usage guide for
journalism and news writing, such as magazines and newspapers. AP style
dictates basic rules for grammar and punctuation, as well as specific styles for
numbers, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations, acronyms, and much more.

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The ins and outs of AP style can be found within the “Associated Press
Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law.”. While the AP style guide was originally
sold as a handbook for reporters, it’s rapidly become the leading reference for
the majority of public-facing communication, including websites, white papers,
and press releases to reflect new additions to the English language or address
common verbiage seen in the media. For instance, the latest edition included
new or revised entries for digital wallets, smart devices, and the novel
coronavirus. If you’re ever in doubt about acceptable word use or modern
jargon, the style guide is continuously refreshed to keep up with trends.

Benefits of using AP style

AP style was originally developed with print media in mind. Back in the 1950s,
when the guide was first published, writing space was limited, and it was
extremely costly for news outlets to correct errors.

Today, the ease of online media outlets and blogs makes available space much
less of an issue. However, that’s not to say that many of AP’s earliest benefits
for journalists don’t still benefit the content marketers of today.

For one, the continued use of AP style means that writing style is uniform
across all outlets. This helps ensure that content marketing is easy to read and
concise, so it can connect with a wide audience. Plus, it creates a writing style
readers can come to expect and recognize, assisting in branding efforts.

Takeaways

While the mission statement is a tentative statement that specifies what a

publication intend to achieve in the society; the editorial policy guides the
daily activities of the editorial staff. House style refers to how the publication
presents matters which gives it character while editorials refers to the opinions
of a newspaper on a particular issue.

UNIT FOUR

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FUNCTIONS OF CONTENT:

1. THE EDITORIAL PAGE

2. OPINION PAGES

3. EDITORIAL CARTOONS

Newspapers and magazines contain two basic things, editorial matters and
advertisements.

Editorial matters include all the editorial contents - news, features, cartoons,
photographs, opinions etc. that are not paid for while advertisements are paid
for.

The editorial matters are contained in different section of the newspapers and
magazines depending on the house style of the organisation. However,
organisations place high premium on the editorial page (the page where the
opinion of the newspaper is expressed), the opinion pages and the editorial
cartoon which often compliments the editorial.

Editorial Page

The editorial page has become a feature of newspapers and magazine.

However, certain magazines seldom have editorial pages or use editorials. At
times, magazine’s opinion is expressed in the editorial pages and such
opinions are called editorials. This opinion as expressed is neither the opinion
of the publisher of the magazine/newspaper nor the editorial team but the
opinion of the magazine/newspaper as a corporate body. The most important
item in the editorial page is the editorial. However, the page often contains
other items such as the editorial cartoons and the imprint.

Opinion Pages

Presently, news has gone beyond the 5Ws and H. People now want to know not
only what happened. They also need to know why it happened. They need
those issues to be interpreted and put in proper perspective for better
understanding. They also want to know the opinion of the people on topical
issues especially those whose opinion matters.

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This also helps them in opinion formations. Most magazines and newspapers
dedicate a page for opinions. Magazine has its own corporate opinions. But,
the trend is changing. Apart from the opinion page, magazines/newspapers are
presently dedicating more pages including the back page (especially
newspaper) for opinions.

Editorial Cartoons

According to Nwodu (2011);

A cartoon is a picture with or without words which on first exposure makes a

devastating visual and intellectual impact and evokes laughter. The author
argues that cartoons have become a valuable mass media content which strike
readers’ visual and intellectual cord while stimulating laughter simultaneously.

In other words, cartoons are satirical display in print production which serve
as catharsis. Apart from the stimulation of laughter, entertainment and
education, cartoons still enlighten the audience on social issues. There are
different types of cartoon which are often used to address social issues.

Takeaways

Editorial pages, opinion pages and editorial cartoon play important role in the
society. While editorials express the opinion of the newspaper, opinion express
the views of individuals while cartoons in a satirical form, showcase social
issues in the society.

Module Two
EDITING AND PAGE MAKE-UP
Unit 1 Why Editing and Page Make-Up?
Unit 2 Copy Fitting and Types of Page Make-Up
Unit 3 Elements of Page Make-Up
Unit 4 Headlines and their Importance
In magazine production, an editor who could be located at different stages of
the production processes ensures that the magazine content meet basic
standard established either by the media organisation or the society. They act
as a check on what gets to the final consumer. Also, since the media is a

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competitive industry, the editors and/or management team ensures that their
products are appealing to the people.
This is done through packaging (both in form and content). Also, because of
the competition in the industry, page make-up has become an integral part of
modern newspaper and magazine production since, the editors could, through
that, attract the attention of the readers. This, not only increases the appeal,
but the financial success of the newspaper or magazine.
UNIT 1
WHY COPY EDITING AND PAGE MAKE-UP?
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

explain copy-editing and page make-up in newspaper/ magazine

enumerate the importance of editing and make-up in newspapers and
magazines.
INTRODUCTION
A newspaper or magazine’s goal of getting information to the readers
scattered in different location is partly achieved when reporters turn in their
copies. The next step is the copy selection based on the news value, and the
copy editing process. At this stage, it is the responsibility of the different
editors to prepare the copy for publication. They edit the stories, removing the
irrelevancies and adding the essentials that may have been ignored by the
reporters.
According to Ferguson, Patten, & Wilson (1998), “This job is vital because if an
error has crept into the reporter’s copy, it almost certainly will get into the
paper unless the copy editor catches it.”
Also, since the layout and design has become an integral part of visual
communication, the final production is arranged in a way to attract and appeal
to the readers. Page design or layout is the first point of contact that attracts
or repels a reader. Whether a potential reader will glance twice on a

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newspaper at the news-stand or ignore it depends on the attractiveness of the

page make-up.
Copy Editing
Editing constitutes a major aspect of treatment of contents in newspaper and
magazine production. It is crucial and dictates the editorial content and
character of a publication (Nwabueze, 2011). No matter the nature of a story,
its newsworthiness and relevance to the readers; poor editing could mess it up
or even give an opposite meaning to the message the publication wants to
pass out.
Editing is a painstaking job which involves:
1. Removing irrelevant or unwanted portions of a story including making
corrections,

2. Rewriting portions of the story, and ensuring that the house style (accepted
way of presenting stories by an establishment) is adhered to (Nwabueze,
2011).

3. It also involves the consideration of ethics, legal issues, ownership and

advertisers interest.

Since media houses have Dual Mandate, one to the society and the other to
the owners, the editors and management team try to balance these two
mandates in their daily operation.

An editor must be a master of his/her publication’s stylebook, knowing the

rules of grammar, spellings, punctuation and the use of titles. They should also
master the use of editing symbols.

Ogbuoshi (2003) cited in Anaeto, Solo-Anaeto & Tejumaiye (2009,) listed

Seven Reasons For Editing. These are:
1. Editing for correctness - this is editing to correct weak sentences, wrong
spellings, etc.

2. Editing for grammar - This is editing for semantics and syntax.

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3. Editing for accuracy of facts - This is editing for for truthfulness, making
certain that all details are right.

4. Editing for balance - This is editing for for objectivity while avoiding outright
bias in case of opinion piece and subjectivity in case of straight news report.

5. Editing for safety - This is editing to remove any ethical or legal

encumbrances in a report that may exposed a publication to public
opprobrium or legal entanglement.

6. Editing for clarity - This is editing to remove mussy items and improve
comprehensiveness. Reports should say what they need to say without being
open to multiple interpretation.

7. Editing for style - This is editing for to meet house style of the publication.

Also, editorial matter could be edited for space. This is to ensure that it fits
into the news hole allotted to it in the dummy.

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Table 1: Some of the Symbols Used by Editors during Editing

Culled from Anaeto, Solo-Anaeto & Tejumaiye (2009)

Page Make-Up
Page make-up is the arrangement of types, the type and style of headlines,
the number and length of stories, the number and size of pictures etc, with a
view to attracting the attention of the readers.
Nowadays, visual communication has become an important area in journalism.
To attract readers, newspapers and magazines use graphic designs.

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According to Ferguson, Pattern & Wilson (1998):

Learning to design copy in a format that attract readers and makes a
strong verbal-visual connection for them is a challenging and
interesting task. Today, audiences expect strong visual graphics and
stories packaged to attract and hold their attention …Publication that
chose to use the older, more traditional approach to design, featuring
numerous small photos and headings, may lose many of their readers.
Today’s publication must feature strong story-telling photos,
informational graphics, and carefully selected types to draw in the
audience.

Note that most often, the three terms –page layout, page-make-up or page
design are used interchangeably in newspapers and magazines.
Key Takeaways
Editing is the process of checking a copy; improve it and making it suitable for
publication. In newspaper and magazine production, virtually all copies need
editing. When copies are published unedited, they do not only say things
about the character of the publication and its editors, but may attract
litigations. All these, no doubt, may have serious consequence on the
publication.
Copies for publications are edited for error of grammar, spelling, omissions,
biases in reporting, libelous materials and other matters that may not only
offend the readers but land the publication in serious problems. Not only do
editors check the story, they write the headlines and “package” the pages to
make them attractive to the reading public.

UNIT 2
COPY-FITTING AND TYPES OF PAGE MAKEUP
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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define copy-fitting
state why copy-fitting is necessary
list the different types of page make-up or page design.
INTRODUCTION
Newspaper and magazine production starts with the reporter who is the first
person in the process of news gathering. However, the exploits of the reporter
means nothing if the news they gather are not published or placed in a
pattern that would attract the readers.
Editors place these editorial matters into news holes. And, this is done in such
a form that they attract the readers especially now that newspapers and
magazines are in stiff competition for readers’ patronage. The electronic
media is also posing a challenge.
Copy-Fitting
Copy-fitting is the placement of editorial matters (headings, body
text, photographs) into the news holes. Copy-fitting helps editors and/or
page planners know the space each of the items will occupy in the dummy
and how a page will look like after production. It also helps the page planner
to know whether there is under-matter or over-matter in a page.
For efficiency in copy-fitting, editors usually give instructions on a copy. This
instruction which is copy-marking indicates the size of the headline, the
number of columns a story will run, the font, point size or whether the lead of
the story will be in bold or light. With the use of computers and other
software in page planning, the job of copy-fitting has been made easy since
the computer can easily adjust the point size, etc to fit into the space
allocated for the copy.
What is Page Make-Up?
Page makeup and design is the process of arranging text, images, and other
elements to create visually appealing and effective pages. By considering
these categories, designers can create effective and visually appealing page
designs that communicate their message clearly.

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Types of Page Make-Up

First we will look at some categories of page makeup and design before
considering the types of make-up:
1. Layout design: This is the arrangement of text, images, and other
elements on a page. The process includes considerations such as balance,
proportion, and white space.
2. Typography: This is the selection and arrangement of fonts, font sizes,
and font styles.Considerations is given to such elements as readability,
legibility, and visual hierarchy.
3. Colour:The use of colour to enhance the visual appeal and effectiveness of
a page is key to page planning. News publisher employ this element to
enhance framing and priming. Considerations here are colour theory, contrast,
and harmony.
4. Graphics and Illustrations: This is the use of images, diagrams, and
other visual elements to support the text. It includes considerations such as
image resolution, placement, and relevance.
5. White Space: The use of empty space to create a clear and uncluttered
design and is key in design. Cluttered page reduce visibility and distract
readers. A page planner should consider elements such as margins, padding,
and line spacing.
6. Visual Hierarchy: it is the arrangement of elements to create a clear
visual hierarchy. Here consider items such as size, color, and placement.
7. Responsive Design: In digital mode, this is designing pages to adapt to
different screen sizes and devices. It could includes considerations such as
flexible grids, images, and media queries.

Classification of Page Make-Up

However, according to Anaeto, Solo-Anaeto & Tejumaiye (2009), page make-
up or page design could be classified into the following forms:

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i. Vertical make-up
In this kind of make-up, elements in the newspaper or magazine are vertically
placed.
ii. Horizontal make-up
This is a make-up where the elements in the page are horizontally placed.

iii. Focus or brace make-up

This is a make-up pattern where focus or prominence is given to one story and
its headline. This story is given prominence with a bigger headline.
iv. Modular make-up

This is a type of makeup where stories are arranged in modules or boxes.

Here stories are either tinted or separated by lines or boxes.
v. Circus make-up
In this type of make-up, elements are arranged without regard to each other.
The arrangement does not follow any specific pattern. Here stories and
photographs compete for attention and none is given preference.
Irrespective of the method that is used, a page can either be balanced or not.
A balanced make-up attracts readers and makes reading easy.
Key Takeaways

While copy-fitting helps editors know the length of a finished copy, and the
space it will occupy in the entire page, page make-up helps them know how
the entire page would look after production. Both are technical issues in
newspaper and magazine production.
Irrespective of what some people may have done behind the scene, the
interest of a reader is what gets out in the news stand. That is why
professionals in the print media pay much attention in packaging their
product, so that the final product will be appealing to the people. This, they do
through copy-fitting and page make-up. A well arranged page is an asset to a
newspaper or magazine since it is the first thing that draws reader’s attention
to the publication.

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UNIT 3

1 Elements of Make-Up
INTRODUCTION
Competition in the newspaper/magazine industry is becoming stiffer. So,
every publication now competes for the people’s attention. The advent of the
electronic and the digital media is not helping matters. Today also, the
competition is not only in terms of content but also in aesthetics. And, any
medium that attracts and sustains the attention of the readers is the one that
would make it to the next level. During production, editors employ different
techniques and use different elements to make the pages look better and
attractive.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
state the elements editors use to make the pages attractive
explain how these elements could be used to achieve the desired results.
Elements of Make-Up
To produce a page that will attract the attention of the readers, editors use
the following elements.
1. Name plate

The placement of the name plate in a page can make a difference. In some
newspapers and magazines, the logo runs across the entire columns while in
others it runs across half of the columns or towards the end, creating an ear
piece. Also, in some publication, it is placed in the uppermost part of the front
page while in others; it is lowered into the page. Any of these arrangements
adds to the page make-up or the aesthetics of the page.

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2. Body type contract

Variations in the body type in which stories are set contribute to the make-up.
Stories could be set in 10 points, 12 points etc. or set in different fonts and
across two or three columns to achieve variety. It could also be set in bold
types to draw attention to a story.

3. Headline pattern

Headlines are used to attract attention to stories. They

are also elements of page make-up especially when set
in different type faces, different decks or different type
sizes. They could also be flushed left, right or centre in
a bid to achieve a certain make-up pattern.
4. Boxes

In page make-up, boxes are used to separate stories, draw attention to a

particular story or for variety. Once a story is “boxed” it makes the story
distinct from other stories and attracts the attention of readers. These boxes
also add variety to the items on a page.

5. Photographs

In newspapers and magazines, photographs are not only used to tell the story,
they are also an important element in page make-up. Before the use of
photographs in the print media, pages look dull because they are filled with
only text. Today, the story is different.

6. Dashes and rules

In newspaper and magazines, dashes, rules and other
signs are used to separate stories, indicate the end of a
story or simply for aesthetics. Some of the signs used
to indicate the end of a story are: (-o-), (x x x),
(- - - -) etc.

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7. White spaces
White spaces are elements of page make-up when they
are used to achieve aesthetic value. Imagine a page
that is clustered with text without any space and the
one where there are spaces with other elements
arranged in a particular pattern.
8 Colour
As competition in the media increase, many newspapers and magazines
introduce the colour element in page make-up. Now, newspapers and
magazines appear in different colour designs all calling for the attention of the
readers. In different pages, stories are typeset in colour or boxed in colours not
only to attract readers but to add aesthetic value.

Key Takeaways

With the ongoing competition, make-up has become an important factor in the
success or failure of newspapers and magazines. Hence, they employ different
elements of make-up to make their pages attractive to the readers whose
patronage sustains the publication.
To survive the competitive business environment, newspapers and magazines
employ different elements of make-up. These include the placement of name
plates or logo, variation in body type, arrangement of headlines, boxes, use of
photographs, white spaces and colour.

UNIT 4
HEADLINES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

3.1 What is a Headline?

3.2 Importance of Headlines
3.3 Headline Casting
3.4 Headline Counting

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INTRODUCTION
Early in the morning, vendors flash newspapers and magazines on people
going to work. These vendors have only one Unique Selling Proposition (USP)
which they use to attract these people; and this USP is the headlines.
Headlines are the shop windows that tell people the content of a newspaper or
magazine and whether such publication deserves the attention of the reader.
With headlines, people need not read stories to know what it is all about.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the essence of headlines in newspapers and magazines 

enumerate types of headlines and the need for headline counting.
What is a Headline?
A headline is that bold caption of a news story in few words which draws
attention to the story. It summarises and grades a story, telling readers the
importance of each story in a newspaper or magazine (Alozie, 2009). Also,
Ogunsiji (1989) summarises the essence of headlines thus:
A headline is a summary of the main points in the lead. It is expected to tell
the readers at a glance what the story is all about. It must be short, punchy,
and attractive in order to catch the attention of the readers. Headlines are cast
purposely to index the news i.e. to tell readers the value of news. They are
also expected to serve as a guide to readers about the seriousness and
significance of the news. Apart from providing some display, headlines sell a
newspaper and denote its character.

Importance of Headlines
Headlines in newspapers and magazines perform the following functions:
attract the attention of the readers
they grade the news
they sell news stories
they summarise the stories
they are elements of page make-up

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they facilitate reading and choice of stories.

Headline Casting
Writing or casting headlines may not be as easy as they may look. They do
not always follow the rule of syntax and avoid the use of unnecessary
adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions etc. They are also better cast in the present
tense to give currency to the news. Headline casting is an art. And, since it is
what newspapers/magazines use to attract readers, editors pay special
attention to it and cast those flashy headlines that will draw the attention of
people and lure them into buying the product.
Headline Counting
The essence of headline counting is to determine the amount of space the
headline will occupy in the dummy. Newspapers and magazines count
headlines by units. Horizontal spaces are measured in picas, points and units
while the depths of the columns are measured in inches. To determine the
space needed for a particular headline, the total number of units for all the
letter and spaces between words in the headline has to be counted.

Crowell in Ogunsiji (1989) says the general rule for a dependable line count is
to count the letters as follows:
Letter Unit
s

Cap: M Q W …….……………………………. . 2

Cap: I J ………… .……………………….. ….. ½ (1)

All other caps ………………………………....... 1½

Lower case m w ………………………………… 1½

Lower case f l i r t y ……………………………… ½

All other lower case letters ……………………… 1

Figure 1 ………………………………………….. 1

Other figures …………………………………….. 1½

Punctuation ……………………………………… ½

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& N % ? & …………………………………. 1½

- (Dash) ………………………………………… 2

Space between words ……………………………. ½

Before the advent of computer and the page-maker, that is, during the time of
letter press when headline counting was done manually, this headline
counting system was in vogue. But, with the advent of computers and their
use in page planning, headlines are cast and placed with computer that
editors do not have to go through the rigour of this counting.
Key Takeaways

Headlines and their placement in newspapers and magazines are vital in the
production process and appeal to the readers. And, in this era of stiff
competition, the race is becoming keener. Though the computer had removed
the job of headline counting from the editors, their ingenuity is still required in
the casting of headlines to put their publication ahead of others.
Headlines are the hook that attract readers to a news story and at a glance
tell them in a nutshell what the story is all about. They grade the stories and
help in the general page make-up. They have become a major tool in the page
make-up and an indispensable one indeed.
ASSESSMENT

Why are headlines necessary in newspapers and magazines?

ASSIGNMENT
Pick a headline from your local newspaper and count the headline to
determine the number of units it may require.

Module Three

1. Newsroom Personnel and Organisation

2. Copy Flow and Copy Editing

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3. The Concept of Gate-Keeping

4. Conflict of Dual Mandate and Business Interest

5. Ethical And Legal Issues In Magazine Production

6. Factors Militating Against Newspaper/Magazine Production In

NigeriA

7. Basic Principles of Management and their Application

UNIT ONE

NEWSROOM PERSONNEL AND ORGANISATION

The newsroom is the melting point of activities in a newspaper or magazine

house. This is where the editorial staff beginning from the least reporter to the
editor converge and their daily activities are coordinated to produce what will
go into the next edition of their newspaper or magazine. In the newsroom,
some of the departments are based on beats. They are often referred to as
desks – the political desk, business desk, etc.

Also, the newsroom is the “home” of all editorial staff irrespective of the
ranking in the editorial hierarchy. These include the different categories of
reporters and correspondents, desk heads or line editors, the subeditor and
their colleagues, the assistant editors, deputy editors and the editor. It
includes anyone that has anything to do with the editorial process or the copy
flow.

The newsroom personnel however vary from one media organisation to the
other depending on the size of the organisation and its organisational
structure. While rich and big media organisation can afford to have an editor in
charge of different news beats, others may not afford such. In this situation,
reporters report direct to the editor or the deputy editor as the case maybe.

Newsroom Organisation/Departments

No two media houses have the same organisation; either in human resources
or structure. What is obtainable is every newspaper or magazine organisation
depends on the size, financial strength and orientation of the management
team. For instance, while a small and growing media organisation may have

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only few editorial staff which may not give room for much division of labour, an
established one may have so many desk heads, assistant editors, editors in
charge of different beats and well defined departments. For example, while an
international publication should have editors in charge of different foreign
operations; a local publication has no business with such.

Some of the departments in the newsroom which are often referred to as

desks are: the business desk, political desk, women affairs, judiciary, police
affairs, labour, etc.

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Fig. 1.1: The Organisational Chart of a Typical Print Media Culled from
Sambe & Nyitse (2003)

Fig. 1.2: The Organisational Chart of a Typical Print Media Culled from
Nwabueze (2011)

The newsroom just like every human organisation is made up of people and
structures. The people, through the established structures, co-operate and
coordinate their activities to achieve the organisational goal of the particular
newspaper or magazine. This cooperation and coordination is more noticeable
in the copy flow right from the reporter (the first gatekeeper in the chain) to
the editor or editor-in-chief who takes the final decision in editorial matters.

UNIT TWO

COPY FLOW AND COPY EDITING

In media organisations especially in newspapers and magazines copy (news

stories and other editorial matters) flow through a channel from the reporter to
the editor. The reporter who does the leg-work as the first gate-keeper covers
newsworthy events and other assignments given to him/her by the editor and
delivers same to the editor through other personnel in the editorial chain.

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In the process, the copy passes through many media gate-keepers who make
inputs so that the copy will conform to the organisational houses style, news
value, ethics and legal standards. In doing that, both the reporter and others in
the copy flow chain are guided by so many factors which could be personal,
socio-economic, political and religious factors.

In newspapers and magazines, there are so many intermediary communicators

between an event and the ultimate receiver (the readers). The nature of the
information will determine the nature and number of the intermediaries. These
intermediaries are the gate-keepers. For instance, a copy can flow from the
reporter to the deputy political editor, to the political editor, deputy editor and
then the editor.

Taking a hypothetical example, in newspapers and magazines, there are so

many intermediary communicators between an event and the ultimate
receiver (the newspaper and the readers). The nature of the information will
determine the nature and number of the intermediaries.

Copy Editing

Within the confines of a traditional newspaper or magazine newsroom, there

may be dozens of different kinds of editors. These editors make editorial
judgments such as story selection and do other kinds of jobs such as:

Editing for facts

Editing for style

Editing for grammar and spellings

Editing for defamatory and unethical material

Writing of headlines and captions

Layout design/page planning.

Assessment:

Discuss the concept of copy flow and editing process with emphasis on the six
editorial duties of the editor.

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Takeaways

In different parts of the world, people place high premium on information

especially those from mass media. It is generally believed that the mass media
moulds public opinion and influence people in their daily activities. In view of
this, media practitioners ensure that what gets to the people meets acceptable
standard. Hence, the need for different people whom copies pass through; and
who in their individual capacities ensures that those copies conform to the set
standard.

UNIT THREE

THE CONCEPT OF GATE-KEEPING

In newspaper and magazines, items meant for publication pass through

different individuals before it gets to the final consumers. These people who
are professionals act as checks and ensure that nothing goes wrong and that
those items conform to the accepted standard. These people are the gate-
keepers. Gate-keeping has become part of the production process in
newspapers and magazines.

What is Gate-Keeping?

The concept gate-keeping came out of the work of White (1950). The author
argues that information flows along certain channels in media organisation.
These channels, he added, contain “gate areas” where decisions are made by
the gate-keepers as to whether the information will be allowed to pass
through. In newspapers and magazines, these are different stages of gate-
keeping, each manned by a gate-keeper.

Factors affecting Gate-Keeping

In print production, so many factors influence the gatekeeping function.

According to Agbanu (2013) the factors include the following:

1. Individual ideology and Idiosyncrasies

Every human is a distinct being who has an identity of their own. Apart from
the innate characters, such a person belongs to different social groupings and
lives in an environment that influence their actions. All these also affect their
news judgment and selection. That is why reporters in the same location can

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decide to cover different assignments respectively and an editor may select a

particular story while his colleague will select the other.

2. Ownership Interest

Ownership plays an important role in gate-keeping in the media. It is said that

he who pays the piper dictates the tune. Newspaper and magazine owners
covertly influence what happens in their organisation and this consequently
affect both the reporters and the editors in their daily activities.

3. Economic Considerations/Advert Interest

A newspaper or magazine can only serve the interest of the people if it is on

the news-stand. To serve the people, a print media must first survive as a
business organisation. In Nigeria, examples abound of media organisations
that came out with a bang, giving the people high hopes and promises.
Unfortunately, these media houses later went off the news-stand with the
hopes unfulfilled simply because the owners could not finance the operations.
So, media gate-keepers also consider their sources of revenue while carrying
out their assignments.

4. Legal and Ethical Considerations

Every human activity is guided by both legal and ethical considerations. In

media activities, there are the law of defamation, copy right laws, contempt of
court, right of privacy, Official Secret Act, etc. All these checkmate the
activities of the practitioners. So, the practitioners are guided by the laws of
the land in everything they do so as to avoid litigations. They also ensure that
what they do does not offend public taste.

5. News Holes

Editorial matters in newspapers and magazines are most of the time

determined by the availability of news holes. Putting all other factors aside, a
news editor who has only three news pages will pick only the stories that will
fill those pages. Other news items will either be left behind or preserved for
another day.

6. Editorial Policy/House Style

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Every media organisation has its editorial policy and house style. And, these
guide individual reporters and editors while carrying out their daily activities.
Any story that did not meet the house style or the editorial policy of the
organisation is left behind.

7. Readers’ Interest

The ultimate aim of every media organisation is to satisfy the interest of its
audience wherever they may be. When a newspaper or magazine has a wide
audience, this will attract advert and other goodwill. So, every publication
considers first, the interest of the readers on which the media organisation
exists. So, to remain in business, every publication wants to be the darling of
the people and gives out reader-friendly contents.

8. Activities of Competitors

The media business just like every other business is competitive. And to
compete favourably, one must “spy” on the activities of his or her competitor
to know what they are doing. No reporter or editor will like to miss the major
news of the day or the topical issues being discussed in other media. So, what
happens in other media organisations determine what both editors and
reporters do in their own media organisation.

9. News Value

One of the qualities of a good reporter or editor is to have news sense (ability
to detect newsworthy events and issues). So any item that should be selected
for publication must have news value. Those that are not newsworthy are
thrown into the waste paper basket. Newsworthiness guides reporters and
editors.

10. Pressure Group Activities

Media organisations do not exist in a vacuum. They are part of the society and
feel the pulse of the people in everything they do. The way pressure groups
influence activities in the society, the same way they influence the media. The
media often responds to public outcry on issues and often report and write
editorials in accordance with this public outcry.

Takeaways

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Gate-keeping is one of the functions that media practitioners perform. Right

from the reporter to the editor-in-chief, they perform one form of gate-keeping
or the other all aimed at meeting the set objectives.

UNIT FOUR

THE DUAL MANDATE SYNDROME

In virtually every environment especially in a free enterprise economy,

newspaper and magazines have dual mandate. The first is the role which the
society bestows on them as the fourth estate of the realm or the watchdog of
the society while the second is their role as a business enterprise expected to
break even or make profit for the owner. This has been the greatest challenge
to most newspaper/magazine industries in Nigeria. That is, the challenge of
being socially responsible and at the same time imbibes the business spirit to
make profit.

Newspaper and magazines earn their revenue from three main sources. These
are:

1. Sales

2. Income from adverts

3. Subsidy/Subvention from the owner.

Business Consideration vs. Dual Mandate Syndrome

In a free enterprise economy, the main interest is profit. In view of this,

businesses do all sorts of things to survive. The principle in this kind of
situation is “the end justifies the means.” Here also ethics and legal
consideration are often relegated to the background. But, this is not the case
in newspaper and magazine businesses. The publications owe a lot to the
society. While they try to make profit to remain in business, they always
remember that they are socially responsible and societal watchdog. With this
social responsibility in mind, it could be rightly said that newspapers and
magazines are not pure business outfits as business consideration are placed
side by side with the social responsibility function.

This dual mandate has been the problem facing different media organisations
in Nigeria. And, once the social responsibility function weighs higher than the

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business function, revenue starts to dwindle and this may lead to the collapse
of the outfit.

Takeaway

In different parts of the world, the media especially newspapers and

magazines are social institutions. They are the fourth estate of the realm and
the watchdog of the society. But, this function is being threatened by the
increasing need for them to generate revenue and fend for themselves.

UNIT FIVE
ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES IN MAGAZINE PRODUCTION
Journalists in their daily activities are guided by some ethical and legal
considerations. This is because they wield much influence in the society; and
if not guarded, will end up misleading the people. Ethics helps journalists to
decide the right thing to do especially in their editorial functions. Every
journalist has to contend with the laws of the land in and outside the
newsroom. During the production processes, the editor must ensure that all
his/her actions and inactions conform to the laws of the land. Also, they owe
ethical duties to the society, their professional bodies and their individual
conscience.
Some Ethical Issues Editors Contend with during Production

Anaeto, Solo-Anaeto & Tejumaiye (2009) list some of the legal and ethical
issues that newspaper/magazine editors contend with during production.
Among these considerations are: Accuracy, truthfulness, objectivity, libel,
sedition, contempt of court and right of privacy.
Accuracy
The ethics of the journalism profession requires reporters and editors to be
accurate in presenting facts. Accuracy is the hallmark of the journalism
profession. A popular axiom in the profession says: when in doubt, leave out.
What this means is that journalists in an effort to beat deadline should not
sacrifice accuracy for speed. They should crosscheck their facts before
publishing so that they will not mislead the people either intentionally or
unintentionally.
Truthfulness
Truth is the foundation of the journalism profession. The reporters are
expected to present matters and issues the way they are without adding their

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own opinion. They should leave opinions to opinion writers and separate the
opinions from facts. As a societal watchdog, the society looks on to the media
practitioners for facts and nothing more than that. So in whatever they do, the
practitioners must put this before them and detach themselves or personality
from issues under discussion.
Objectivity
A journalist should be objective in his/her daily assignments. This is one of the
primary considerations in news writing. It is also one of the provisions of the
Code of Ethics of the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) which is an umbrella
body that controls the activities of the Nigerian media practitioners.
Objectivity means presenting the facts the way they are without a deliberate
effort to side any of the parties involved. It also means presenting all the sides
of a story and representing the parties fairly.
Libel
Libel is defamation in permanent form. Defamation matters in the magazines
are libel. Both reporters and editors who want their organisation to remain in
business remove anything that will attract libel action against the
organisation. And, once a magazine starts to attract legal action, it will lose
the confidence of the people despite the financial loss. In fact, it loses its
credibility.
Sedition
Sedition is a more serious offence than libel. It is a criminal offence against the
state rather than an individual. A seditious offence is one meant to incite the
people against the state or disturb the peace and security or corporate
existence of the state. The law of sedition does not prevent the people from
criticising the government. They should criticise but such a criticism must not
be done in a malignant manner. Such a criticism should be fair comment not a
comment made with the intent to pull down a state or its government.
Contempt of court
This refers to publications that are likely to interfere with judicial proceedings
or ridicule those charged with the responsibility of administering justice.
When a case is pending in court, journalists should be careful on how they
report those issues. Such reportage should not be done in a way that will
interfere or influence the outcome of a case or muster public opinion in favour
of one of the parties. Also, judicial proceedings must be reported correctly and
put in the proper perspective.

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Right of privacy
The right of privacy is the right enjoyed by individuals in a society. Everyone
has a right of privacy and should not be deprived of privacy even by the
media. While reporting, media practitioners should draw a line between a
person’s private and public life. However, as one becomes a public figure, the
border between his/her public and private life becomes thinner; and some of
the things originally seen as his/her personal life becomes public issues.

Takeaways
Journalists, in every stage of their work have both the legal and ethical
considerations at the back of their mind. In news gathering, editing, proof
reading, headline writing, cutline writing etc, they think of the law and the
ethics of the profession. So many media organisations had suffered because
of the carelessness of one or more persons in the production process. Those
who made such mistakes pay dearly for it.
Some of the legal and ethical considerations that guide the activities of media
practitioners in the conduct of their duties include: accuracy, truthfulness,
objectivity, libel, sedition, contempt of court and the right to privacy. These
laws and ethics are considered by media practitioners in every stage of the
production process to safeguard against unnecessary litigations. Those who
ignore this pay dearly for such negligence.

The class ends

UNIT SIX
FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST NEWSPAPER/MAGAZINE PRODUCTION
IN NIGERIA
INTRODUCTION
In Nigeria, newspapers and magazines face a lot of challenges. These
challenges are socio-economic, political and legal challenges that at times
hinder the production and circulation of the products. Some of these

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challenges have led to the death of some of the publications which at

inception, came with lots of hope and the people expect them to make
appreciable impact in the society. Some of these challenges are discussed
below.

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

list some of the problems or constraints that newspapers and magazines face
in a developing nations such as Nigeria.

Some of the constraints newspapers and magazines face in Nigeria

include:

1. Low literacy level: For one to be able to read either newspapers or

magazines, that person must have attained certain level of literacy.
Unfortunately in Nigeria, the literacy level is low. That affects the readership
and sales of newspapers and magazines and the revenue they generate.

2. Distribution problem: Nigeria is a vast nation and has a difficult terrain.

This vastness and terrain affect the distribution of newspaper and magazine
that some of the acclaimed national newspapers and magazine still find it
difficult to distribute in the six geo-political zones. To avert this problem, some
newspapers either produce two different edition or print simultaneously in two
different location.
3. Financial constraint: Newspapers and magazine publishing is capital
intensive. Each edition needs a new set of newsprint and circulation process.
Unfortunately, the cost of this newsprint is high. This is quite different in the
electronic media where once established, the owner only has to contend with
the cost of maintenance. Also, generally, the cost of doing business in Nigeria
is high.

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4. Managerial problem: Management problem is one of the issues that

confront newspapers and magazines in Nigeria. This has led to the success of
some of the flourishing publication and the death of some other that stopped
publication few months after establishment. In Nigeria, some of the managers
of newspapers and magazines were newspaper editors who turned manager
overnight. This affected their performance since only few acquire
management training.
5. Inadequate advert support: Advert revenue is one area that support
newspapers and magazine and keep them afloat. Unfortunately, since the
reward for advertisement is intangible, many Nigeria do not value advert. This
has led to dwindling revenue from advertisements. Also some advert agencies
find it difficult remitting advert revenue to media houses. This affects the
financial stand of these media houses.
6. Owners’ interference: In Nigeria for instance, because of the role which
the media played during colonial rule and immediately after independence,
media owners see their newspapers and magazines as a means to advance
their political and economic interests. As a result of this, they interfere in the
daily operation of the newspaper. Those owned by the government are not
left out since they are seen as government megaphone. This affects public
perception and patronage.
7. Lack of modern communication facilities: In ICT development, Nigeria
is still lagging behind. The absence of these facilities affects the operation of
these media houses including newspapers and magazines. Despite the
introduction of GSM in the country, many people still argue that their services
are epileptic.
8. Dearth of practicing professional journalists: Despite the huge
number of people that graduate from journalism and mass communication
schools, only few practice the profession. To those who join other professions,
journalism is stressful. This attitude creates room for non-professional
journalist to dictate the pace in different newspapers and magazines houses.

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Definitely, the activities of these people who are not trained affect the
operation and, distress becomes the order of the day.
9. Non-payment of staff salaries: In many newspaper and magazine
establishments, payment of staff salaries has become a privilege rather that a
right. This has led to all forms of unethical practices that affect the operation
of the organisations and drag their name in the mud. Some of the unethical
practices in the newsrooms could be traced to this non-payment of salaries
and allowances of media practitioners.
10. Repressive/Censorship laws: There are some repressive laws that
affect the operation of newspapers and magazines in Nigeria. Some of these
laws were inherited from either the colonial masters or are product of military
rules. Some of these laws are: law of sedition, Official Secret Act. etc. The
result of this is that newspaper and magazine have become watchdogs in
chain.
newspaper and magazine undergo different forms of censorship in their daily
operations. Different government policies often affect their operation. At times,
media houses are closed down or have their products confiscated. Sometime,
import duties are placed on imported raw materials such as newsprint needed
by the media.

Key Takeaways
The business environment in Nigeria has not been conducive for newspapers
and magazines. They face hostile environment from the socio-economic
system, the government and even the employers. These constraints prevent
the people from getting the best out of the media houses.
Newspapers/magazines in Nigeria face a lot of constraints. These range from
non-payment of staff salaries to ownership interference, inadequate advert
support and low literacy level. Others include: financial constraints,
distribution problems and management problems.

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ASSIGNMENT
List and discuss ten factors militating against newspaper/magazine production
in Nigeria.

UNIT SEVEN

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT AND THEIR

APPLICATION IN THE PRINT BUSINESS

It may be noted that while the principles of management are universal, they
may have to be modified to suit the needs and requirement of different
situation in the newspaper and magazine organization.The principles of
management including those suggested by Henry Fayol, the great French
Writer on management, are briefly discussed as below.

1. PRINCIPLE OF OBJECTIVE — This principle requires that every member of

the magazine/newspaper organization should be familiar with its basic goals
and objectives, and every activity of the print organization soul be directed
and should result in the accomplishment of these objectives. The magazine
organization as a whole and very part of it must contribute to the attainment
of organisation objectives.

2. PRINCIPLE OF SPECIALISATION = This is also known as the Principle of

Division of labour, the principle of specialization implies that the work of every
person in the magazine/newspaper organization should be limited as far as
possible to the performance of a single leading function.

The application of this principle enables an editor or a correspondent or any

other personnel working in the newspaper organization to concentrate his
efforts on a single line of endeavour which permits him to have better
acquaintance with the subject matter and a better utilization of time.

3. PRINCIPLE OF SPAN OF CONTROL -— This principle states that no

superior should have more than a specific and limited number of subordinates.
The principle of span of control makes the magazine/newspaper executives
aware of the fact that on account of the limitation of time and ability there is a
limit on the number of subordinates that they can effectively supervise.

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4. PRINCIPLE OF AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY — According to this

principle, authority and responsibility should go side by side in the
magazine/newspaper organization. It implies that a person working in the
magazine/newspaper organization should be held responsible for carrying out
an activity in so far as he has authority over that activity. Authority should not
be conceived apart form responsibility.

5. PRINCIPLE OF UNITY OF COMMAND — The principle of unity of command

is the most widely recognized principle of management. It states that each
subordinate should have only one superior. Ernest dale states this principle
follows : "Each person should receive orders from only one superior and be
accountable to him". Fayol stated, "an employee should receive orders from
one superior only". The principle of unity of command is based on the sound
reason that if a person receives orders from more than one superior, it would
lead to confusion and chaos.

6. PRINCIPLE OF UNITY OF DIRECTION OR ORDER GIVING — This

principle states that orders concerning a particular operation should be
received directly from one person only. It was stated by Fayol as "one head
and one plan for a group of activities having the same objectives". The
principle of unity of direction is largely meant to ensure co-ordination. It should
not be confused with the principle of unity of command. The former is meant
for sound functioning of the organization while the later is related to the
functioning of the personnel.
7. THE EXCEPTION PRINCIPLE — The exception principle means that every
manager at every level should take all decisions within the scope of authority
and only matters beyond the scope of his authority should be referred to his
superior for decision. The premise of this principle is that decisions which recur
frequently should be reduced to a routine and delegated to subordinates while
the supervisors should concentrate their energy and time on unusual matters
of exceptional character. This principle will enable the top executives to
devote his time to policy matters and his energies will not be frittered away on
matters of routine.

8. SCALAR PRINCIPLE — This principle means that authority and

responsibility should flow in a clear unbroken line from the highest executive
to the lowest operative. According to Fayol, "The scalar chain is the chain of
superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks.". This

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principle envisages that in every undertaking some kind of hierarchy involving

superior subordinate relationship should be established and that direct
authority should flow from superior to subordinate throughout the entire
organization.

9. SUBORDIANTION OF INDIVIDUAL INTEREST TO GENERAL INTEREST —

This principle states that in a business the interest of one employee or groups
of employees should not prevail over that of the concern. To ensure this the
Fayol suggested (i) Firmness and good example on the part of superiors,(ii)
Agreement as fair as possible, and (iii) Constant supervision.
10. REMUNERATION OF PERSONNEL — This principle of Fayol states that
remuneration should be fair which gives satisfaction both to personnel and
firm (employee and employer).

11. EQUITY — This principle of Fayol states that managers must treat
employees with 'kindness'. Desire for equity and equality of treatment are
aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees. A manager
should strive to instill a 'sense of equity' throughout all levels of the scalar
chain.
12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL — Fayol pointed out that
instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect bad running.
He asserted that generally the managerial personnel of prosperous concerns is
stable, that of unsuccessful ones is unstable.

13. PRINCIPLE OF UNBAISNESS – Obviously, In magazine/newspaper

organization, manager i.e. editor should possesses this quality for all
employees and work profile. Decision should be made after the complete
scanning of the factors responsible for a problem or publishing an information
in the form of NEWS.
14. PRINCIPLE OF MORALE AND ETHICS – As per the norms, rules and
regulations regarded, magazine/newspaper organizations must follow up the
morals and ethical standards towards the work culture and trustworthiness of
news/information published by him. Like to avoid nudity, abusing or negative
stimulating statements etc.

15. PRINCIPLE OF INITIATIVE — This principle of Fayol enjoins managers to

sacrifice some 'personal vanity' in order to permit the subordinates to keep up
their zeal and initiative.

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16. PRINCIPLE OF ESPRIT-DE-CORPS — This principle states that "union is

strength". Fayol exhorts manger to encourage cohesiveness and Esprit-de-
Corps among his subordinates.

Module Four
MAGAZINE PRINTING, DISTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES
Unit 1 The Printing Process

Unit 2 ICT Application in Magazine Production

Unit 3 E-Publishing
Unit 4 Factors Militating against Magazine
Production in Nigeria

To the economist, the process of production ends only when goods get to the
final consumer. In magazines, though reporters and editors may have done
their own beats, the production will only come to an end when the product
gets to the final consumer which is the reader. This is why the printing and
distribution of magazines are so vital. Imagine when the editorial team
produces the best of newspaper in their imagination and such a product is
messed up in the printing house.
Also, imagine when the printers produce the best of magazines and those
final products did not get to the people they are meant for - the readers. All
these scenarios are better imagined than experienced because they could
turn to nothing all the human and material resources invested by the editorial
and management teams.

UNIT ONE
THE PRINTING PROCESS

1 The Gutenberg Era

2 Modern Printing

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INTRODUCTION
Printing is not a new phenomenon. It started from the primordial era till the
present age. According to Umechukwu (1997), printing could be traced to the
Paleolithic cave dweller who nursed serious ambitions towards recording for
posterity. These cave dwellers, on the wall of their caves record events is
paintings and drawings and that formed the first crucial step towards printing.
Nevertheless, this system harboured a lot of inadequacies and alphabets were
therefore introduced.
These alphabets were adopted by the Egyptians who were the forerunners of
modern alphabets. With the invention of alphabets, attention was focused on
the invention of writing surface, an effort that led to the invention of paper on
which prints are made.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
highlight the modern methods of printing both newspapers and magazines
explain the evolution of the printing process.
The Gutenberg Era
In Germany, between 1453 and 1456, Johannes Gutenberg used movable type
to develop a printing press. This press produced the early books such as the
Bible (Campbell, Martin & Fabos; 2006). By this feat, Gutenberg and his
colleagues did not only devise a way to promote knowledge across borders,
but developed the prototype for mass production of printed materials
(Hanson, 2005).
During this period, printing was time consuming and expensive. But, this early
effort led to the spread of information and knowledge outside their places of
origin. It led to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and people began to have
information far beyond their places of origin.
Modern Printing
More than a century ago, the demand for printed materials grew as a result of
the increase in the literacy level. Then, there was the need for a quicker and

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more mechanised printing process to satisfy the demand. The evolution of

steam-powered machines and the Rotary Press lowered the cost of printing.
Then came the era of offset lithography developed in the early 1900s. This
process allowed for printing from photographic plates instead of metal casts.
This also led to computer typesetting. This latest production process made
commercial production of newspapers and magazines possible. With the
emergence of the new media, some newspapers and magazines also publish
on the web so that people now read newspapers and magazines at the press
of the buttons of their mobile phones.
Key Takeaway
Today, newspapers and magazine get wider readership and coverage because
of the improved printing technology which is not only cheaper but faster. Also,
the modern printing technology enables them to compete with the digital and
electronic media that are rave of the moment. This would not have been
possible without the modern printing technology.
Right from the primordial age through the Gutenberg era, to the present
digital age, the printing technology has gone through different stages, each
improving on the one before it. Undoubtedly, newspapers and magazine are
benefiting from the evolution of the printing press. This improved technology,
according to Roger Fidler, in Biagi (2003) is called mediamorphosis - the rapid
transformation in the media industry.

ASSESSMENT
How has the mass production of printed matters contributed to the spread of
knowledge?
ASSIGNMENT
Trace the evolution of the printing press from the Gutenberg era to the
present age.

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UNIT 2
ICT APPLICATION IN NEWSPAPERS PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
We live in a changing world and one of the developments that brought about
changes in modern world is information and communication Technologies.
One of the industries that have benefited from the impact of ICT is the print
media industry. According to Amadi (2011), gone are the days for notepads
and pens which use to be the tool of the journalism trade. They now belong to
the past. The author adds:
Journalism practice in those days was a hard-on vocation, of
course with the aid of the good old reporter notebooks, midgets
(tape recorder), and the ball point pen, journalists were trained
to write their stories on the move, inside taxis or buses, the
slow process of news gathering then made deadline a dreaded
word in most news rooms.
The situation has changed. From the Gutenberg era to the modern age of the
World Wide Web, new technologies are being invented and they influence the
way people gather information in newspapers and magazines; process those
information; print and distribute the printed or online copies. On the influence
of ICT on newspapers and magazines, Anaeto, Solo-Anaeto & Tejumaiye
(2009,) writes:

The use of ICT in newspaper and magazine publishing has

enable more cost effective in gathering and disseminating
information, made the whole process easier, improves the
quality of published materials and also reduces cost of
production.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
differentiate between ICT used in newspaper and magazine production

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explain how they are used

highlight the stages of the production process where they are used.

Mentioned below are some of the ICT, newsmen use in newspaper/magazine

production and their application in the production process.
a) Computers
In modern newspaper and magazine production, computers have become an
indispensable asset. They are used to type, store and process information.
They are also used in page planning, photo-editing and colour separation,
copy-fitting etc. (Amadi, 2011). The use of computer in designing and
preparing print publication is called desktop publishing.
b) Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
The advent of GSM made the sharing of information easy. With GSM which has
become a household name, reporters can reach news sources, colleagues and
their editors irrespective of the physical distance. It makes contact between
the reporters/editors and their source of information easier. With GSM, a
reporter could in the comfort of his office conduct an interview, verify a story
or get background information. GSM made information dissemination not only
easier, but faster. E-mail services are also utilised by media practitioners and
their clients to send news releases, feature stories, photographs from far
distances to the newsrooms.
c) Fax Machines and Facsimile
This is a machine that not only sends and receives texts, but also can send
photograph from one point to the other. At the receiving end, the machine
prints out the document or image that was sent. Through the facsimile, photo-
journalist can send to the production centre, not only texts but also
photographs.
d) Internet
The Internet is a web of computes located in different part of the world. It
served as a source of information to journalists who are always in need of
background information. The emergence of the Internet has also led to e-

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publishing where newspapers and magazines publish online editions. The

online editions make newspapers and magazines accessible to greater
number of readers.
e) Electronic Mail (e-mail)
The e-mail is an electronic mail box in the Internet through which people send
electronic mails (texts and photograph). With e-mail addresses, people could
share private information. With this technology, journalist could file in their
reports from anywhere in the world and, in like manner, receive information.
f) New Developments in Printing Technology
With new developments in the printing process such as the photocomposing
machines which is one of the latest developments in newspaper and magazine
printing, images are easily transferred to films. The result is that newspaper
pages could be sent to different places as far as continents in a matter of
minutes. This is facilitated by high speed modems and satellite links.
g) Page Facsimile Transmission
This is a new technique in newspaper and magazine publishing. Before now,
newspapers and magazines produce different editions to cover the vast
distance. Now, they print simultaneously in two or more locations. This is
possible because with the aid of ICT, planned pages could be photographed
and transmitted from the main production centre to satellite printing plants.
This makes it possible for the printing operations to be carried out
simultaneously in different locations. For instance, ThisDay newspaper prints
simultaneously in Lagos and Abuja while Champion newspaper print in Lagos
and Owerri.
Key Takeaway
The advent of ICT has made newspaper and magazine production not only
easy, but faster and more efficient. Media practitioners in different part of the
world depend on different ICT in their daily activities right from the gathering
of information, processing, production and distribution of the final product.
Today, newsrooms are no longer the usual mad house where reporters cluster
to submit, proofread, edit and plan pages. With ICT, these functions could be

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performed better without reporters clustering in the newsroom or using

typewriters.
For a reporter to effectively carryout his/her function in this age, he/she must
depend on information and communication technologies. Right from the
gathering of information to the processing, ICT is needed. And, in the
newsrooms, the different professionals need ICT for editing, proofreading,
storing and other activities. In fact, ICT is the life wire of modern newspaper
and magazine production.

UNIT THREE
E- PUBLISHING

1 What is E-Publishing?
2 Need for E-Newspapers/Magazines
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of ICT did not only impact on news gathering, production, and
distribution. It has also impacted on readership. Gone are the days when
people early in the morning gather at the news stands for the news of the day
from the daily newspapers and magazines. Now, some people read the daily
newspapers/ magazines even before the print copies are made.
All these are as a result of the online editions that made it possible for people
to read the newspapers/magazines without access to the printed copies. This
trend, no doubt has drastically affected the circulation of some of the
newspapers and magazines which has for some time now, been dwindling.
With e-publishing, time and space no longer pose a barrier. Publishers no
longer talk of area of circulation since the newspapers and magazines could
be read for everywhere.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
discuss what e-publishing is all about

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explain why so many newspapers and magazines now embark on e-

publishing.
What is E-Publishing?
The term “e-publishing” also known as web publishing is self explanatory. In
the media industry, e-publishing means the online delivery of
newspapers/magazines to prospective readers. What this means is that it is
only those that have access to the Internet that will be able to receive the
publication.
The fundamental difference between e-newspaper/magazine and print
newspaper/magazine is that the e-newspaper/magazine is an electronic
document devised to be read in a computer or special hand-held devices such
as mobile phones. Commenting on the services of e-publishing in newspapers
and magazines, Owuamalam (2010) writes:
It is at the website that data are posted as publication for public
consumption. The potential consumer therefore needs to obtain
the web address of the site where the needed publication is
posted. It is through logging into the web address that access to
a posted document can be obtained. The consumer who wishes
to obtain the downloaded document in hard form, as a copy,
uses the printer facility, connected to the computer to print. The
printed copy bears the information about its source, web
address, and time of download and printing. It is the publication
as obtained that serves the reading desire of the consumer.
Electronic newspapers/magazines perform in the society, the same function
which the print versions perform. They inform, educate and entertain. In fact e-
newspapers/magazines have become more popular in recent years since most
readers find it more convenient reading the online copies.

They have become a very good resource for learning as knowledge could be
delivered and accessed instantly whenever and wherever one needs it. It has
amazingly become popular and is replacing the print copies. This is because it

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has numerous advantages over the conventional print editions. It is easy to

both publish and circulate enewspapers/magazines through the Internet.

Need for E-Newspapers/Magazines

In recent time, there has been an upsurge in the number of people that read
newspapers and magazines electronically. This no doubt is affecting the sales
of the printed copies. To be part of the technological revolution, many
newspapers and magazines have joined the train and are publishing online
editions. In Nigeria for instance, this is the case. But the situation is much
more than that in other places that it seems the death of newspapers and
magazines as predicted by Gutenberg may be near.

Newsweek one of the international magazines that has made a mark in the
print media industry recently announced that from December 31, 2012, it
would only produce the online edition. The management of the magazine while
making the announcement said such a measure became necessary because of
the magazine’s dwindling revenue from sales which came as a result of many
of its readers depending on the online edition.

Key Takeaway

E-publishing is one of the latest developments in the newspaper/magazine

business. Not only that it is cheaper, it makes it possible for
newspapers/magazines to reach greater number of people since distance is no
longer a barrier. But, it has reduced the circulation and readership of the
printed copies and led to dwindling revenue to the publication. With the trend,
the death of the print copies is envisaged in the near future.
E-publishing in the media industry means the online publication of
newspapers and magazines. The website is the base of e-publishing. It is on
the website that these newspapers and magazines are published. The
websites have addresses known as the web address. Only those who are
connected to the Internet and have the web address can have access to the
electronic version of the newspapers/magazines.

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FURTHER READING
Amadi, R. N. (2011). “Uses and Impact of ICT in the Print Media.” In: I. S. Ndolo
(Ed.). Contemporary Issues in Communication and Society. Enugu.
Rhyce Kerex Publishers.
Anaeto, S. G., Solo-Anaeto, M. & Tejumaiye, Y. A. (2009). Newspaper and
Magazine: Management, Production and Marketing. Lagos: Stirling-
Horden Publisher Limited.
Ferguson, D. L., Patten, J. & Wilson, B. (1998). Journalism Today. Illinois:
National Textbook Company.
Daniel, Y. A. (2012). “The E-Book Evolution Format and Design.” In: J. O.
Daniel; I. E. Ifidion & T. Okegbola (Eds). Trends in Library and
Information Science in Nigeria: Festchrift in Honour of Prof. Sam E.
Ifidon. Lagos: Elis Associates.
Owuamalam, E. (2010). Principles of Publishing: Books, Periodicals, Electronic.
Owerri: Top Class Agencies Limited.
Shrivastava, K. M. (1991). News Reporting and Editing. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

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