EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
Unit 3: Biological Membranes and Cell Structure Study Guide
Unit 3.1: Basic Cell Types and Structure
• Categorize all cells as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes and know representative taxa.
• Define the shared common traits between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• State the 3 basic tenets of cell theory.
• Describe the three required components that are needed for the origin of life on Earth.
• Describe how the conditions on early Earth made the synthesis and persistence of organic
molecules possible.
• State the age of the earth and how long ago of the appearance of the first cells of the first
photosynthetic bacteria, the first aerobic bacteria and the appearance of the eukaryotes
occurred.
• Explain the evolutionary relationships between the three domains of life and provide
evidence as to which are prokaryotic, and which are eukaryotic.
• Explain the theory of endosymbiosis and the evolution of eukaryotic cell structure.
1. Describe the experiment and significance of the results obtained in the Miller-
Urey experiment.
a) How does it replicate the
conditions on early Earth?
a) Early earth had no oxygen
gas. Why is this important?
Predict the effect of
introducing oxygen into the
electrode chamber. Image Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5
9/MUexperiment.png
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
2. A phylogeny is a diagram that illustrates the evolutionary relatedness between
taxa. Current day taxa
are located at ends of the
branches and last
common ancestor is
found at the base.
Phylogenies can be
drawn vertically,
horizontally or as a spiral.
a. The horizontal
phylogeny shows the
evolution of the main
domains of life on our
planet. Mark on the
phylogeny where the following terms/event occur.
• Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya,
last universal common
ancestor, animals, plants
• Endosymbiosis of
mitochondria and
endosymbiosis of
chloroplasts.
• Circle all prokaryotes
b. In your own words, describe
the process of the evolution of membrane-bound organelles, mitochondria and
chloroplasts. Why do scientists conclude that the ‘mitochondria’ entered the
eukaryotic lineage before the ‘chloroplast’?
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3. Complete the table:
Bacteria Archaea Plants Animals
Chromatin in
DNA structure
nucleus
Ribosome
70 S
structure
Location of
respiration
Capable of
Yes
photosynthesis?
Size Range
Cell Wall
Biochemistry
Cell Membrane
Biochemistry
Method of
Reproduction
Unit 3.1: Cell Structures
• Label and annotate a diagram of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell with the functions of all of
the structures.
• Briefly describe where prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells perform cellular respiration and
photosynthesis.
• List all locations in a eukaryotic cell where DNA, RNA and ribosomes can be found.
• Contrast the structure of prokaryotic DNA to eukaryotic chromatin.
• Outline the pathway of protein synthesis for secreted proteins, membrane proteins, lysosomal
proteins, and cytoplasmic proteins.
• List the components of the endomembrane system.
• Scientific Skills: reading a phylogenetic tree, interpreting scientific diagrams, recognizing
organelles in TEM and digital media.
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1. Draw and label the structure of a generalized prokaryote. Include cell wall,
plasma membrane, flagella, nucleoid region (naked DNA), ribosomes.
2. Draw a cross section of a mitochondria and a chloroplast. Label the following:
Mitochondria: Matrix, inner membrane, inner membrane space, outer membrane,
DNA, RNA, ribosomes
Chloroplast: Thylakoids, thylakoid membrane, thylakoid space, stroma, inner
membrane, outer membrane, DNA, RNA, ribosomes
3. Complete the table.
Organelle Functions
Nucleus
RER
Smooth ER
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
Golgi body
Vesicles
Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Vacuoles
Cytoskeleton
Unit 3.2: Cell Membrane Structure and Transport
3.2 Membrane Structure
• Describe and draw the chemical structure of membranes and explain the nature of their
fluidity.
• Outline several ways in which phospholipids can differ from each other.
• Outline the differences between the lumen side of the endomembrane system and the extra
cellular side of the plasma membrane.
• List the functions of membrane proteins.
• Outline the effect of saturation, cholesterol and protein content on membrane structure and
fluidity.
• Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell.
• Outline the pathway of the synthesis of membrane components and secreted proteins.
• Scientific Skills: predicting outcomes from experimental data, interpreting images of
biological processes, drawing molecular structures.
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1. Compare and contrast how non-polar molecules, ions, and polar molecules cross into a
cell through the lipid bilayer
a. List 5 molecules that freely
diffuse across the bilayer.
b. Describe how the
saturation of the fatty acid
tails affect the fluidity of
membrane.
c. Why is cholesterol
considered a ‘fluidity buffer’?
Created with BioRender.com
2. The plasma membrane
contains many different types of proteins embedded within it. Briefly describe the
functions in the image.
Created with BioRender.com
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
3. a. Label all 7 components of the endomembrane system. Some components are
present more than
once in the diagram.
b. Explain the pathway of the synthesis
of a membrane-bound or secreted
protein.
c. How do vesicles of the
endomembrane system create a
continuous system of membrane during
protein development?
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3.2 Membrane Transport
• Predict the direction of diffusion based on concentration gradients.
• Explain passive transport across membranes in terms of simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion.
• Outline the process of osmosis and the role of aquaporins in cells.
• Contrast the structure and function of carrier proteins and ion channels.
• Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across the membrane.
• Understand the basic functions of the proton pump and sodium-potassium pump.
• Understand the relationship between the membrane potential, protein pumps and an
electrochemical gradient.
• Recognize the potential energy of the electrochemical gradient.
• Understand how ion channels equilibrate the electrochemical gradient.
• Compare different ways in which molecules are transported in bulk across membranes.
• Scientific Skills: Using graphs of saturation curves, explaining changes in mass due to
osmosis.
1. Outline the conditions required for the following methods of membrane
transport:
Membrane
Concentration ATP (source of
proteins
gradient energy)
required
Simple
yes no no
diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated
diffusion
Active
transport
Image Sources: https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/5/transport
Image Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2625_Aquaporin_Water_Channel.jpg
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
2. Diffusion across a membrane is due to the Brownian motion of particles.
Molecules will bounce off each other when crowded together and the result of
diffusion is the equal distribution of particles across a membrane. Simple diffusion
occurs when the molecules can slip in between the phospholipids of the
membrane.
• Molecules that undergo
simple diffusion:
o O2 and CO2
o Steroids
o Ethanol
o Water (very slowly)
Facilitated diffusion also uses the driving force of a downhill concentration gradient
but it requires a protein to facilitate the transport.
Two main classes of
proteins perform
facilitated diffusion:
channel proteins and
carrier proteins.
• Channel proteins allow
rapid flow of very
specific ions, like
calcium or sodium.
Gated channels will change shape and open to allow rapid ion flow into or out of the
cell.
• Carrier proteins are very specific to the solute due to specific fit between solute and
transport site. Carrier proteins undergo a shape change as they transport the solute.
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Aquaporins
The Nobel prize in chemistry was awarded in
2003 for the characterization of specialized
channel proteins called aquaporins. Even
though water can squeeze through the bilayer
it happens very slowly. The diffusion of water-
called osmosis- occurs rapidly in cells that have aquaporin proteins in their
membranes.
• Molecules that undergo facilitated diffusion:
o Sugars, Amino Acids, Proteins through carrier proteins
o Ions through channel proteins
o Water through aquaporins
Graphs of Diffusion
Simple Diffusion: The graph is showing the effect of concentration gradient on the
rate of simple diffusion. A direct proportion is observed such that each incremental
increase in the gradient results in the same incremental increase in the rate of
diffusion.
3. Three different solutes (A, B or C)
have different permeabilities to the
membrane.
a. Which solute most easily crosses
the membrane?
b. Predict the effect of increasing
temperature on rates of diffusion.
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Facilitated Diffusion: The graph is showing the effect of concentration gradient on
the rate of facilitated diffusion through a carrier protein. The rate reaches a
maximum high rate due to the saturation of transport proteins.
4. a. Where on the graph is the rate
of diffusion close to zero?
b. Where on the graph has the rate
of diffusion reached a maximum high
rate?
c. Predict the effect on diffusion rate
of increasing the number of carrier
proteins in the membrane.
Active transport uses cellular energy of ATP to create a concentration gradient.
Cells do active transport of
ions to create
concentration gradients
that also carry an electrical
charge- an electrochemical
gradient.
5. The proton gradient is an area with a greater concentration of protons and a
stronger charge.
a. Predict if the pH outside the cell will increase or decrease because of the proton
pump.
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
6. The sodium-potassium pump creates two electrochemical gradients at the same
time. The protein couples ATP energy to pumping sodium ions out of the cell and
potassium ions
into the cell.
a. Explain why the
sodium-potassium
pump results in a
net positive
charge on the
outside of the cell
membrane.
Zooming in on the membrane, we see-
• Inside of the cell has more potassium K+
and less sodium Na+ ions
• Outside has more Na+ and less K+.
• Cytoplasm carries a negative overall
charge that attracts Na+ alongside the
lipid bilayer
There is a strong gradient driving the K+
ions out of the cell all the time. Luckily
the sodium potassium pump is always
working to restore the correct imbalance
of ions!
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
7. Five dialysis bags, constructed from a semi-permeable membrane that is
impermeable to sucrose, were filled with various concentrations of sucrose and
then placed in separate beakers containing an initial concentration of 0.6 M sucrose
solution. At 10-minute intervals, the bags were massed (weighed) and the percent
change in mass of each bag was graphed.
a. What is the independent and dependent
variable in this investigation?
b. Explain which line represents the bag that
contained a solution isotonic to the 0.6 molar
solution at the beginning of the experiment.
c. Explain which line represents the bag with the highest initial concentration of
sucrose.
d. Explain which line or lines represent(s) bags that contain a solution that is
hypertonic to the surrounding solution at the end of 60 minutes.
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8. Cells were injected with aquaporin mRNA (purple circles) or a solution without
mRNA (green circles). Cells with the aquaporin mRNA translated the protein and
inserted it into the cell membrane.
Water permeability was tested by
incubating the cells in a hypotonic
solution and measure cell volume over
time. After the time point marked X in
the upper curve, intact cells were not
visible in that solution.
a. State the independent and
dependent variables.
Created with
b. Why did the cells with the aquaporin BioRender.com
mRNA increase in volume?
c. What happened at point X?
d. What would the data look like if the two cells had been placed in a hypertonic
solution?
A: Both cells would lose water, shrivel and die
B: Both cells would gain water, expand and burst
C: Only the cells with the mRNA would lose water, the others would remain unchanged.
D: Only the cells without the mRNA would lose water, the others would remain unchanged.
E: Neither cell would change volume.
e. What would the data look like if the two cells had been placed in an isotonic
solution?
A: Both cells would lose water, shrivel and die
B: Both cells would gain water, expand and burst
C: Only the cell with the mRNA would lose water, the other would remain unchanged.
D: Only the cell without the mRNA would lose water, the other would remain unchanged.
E: Neither cell would change volume.
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Unit 3.3 Study Guide: Cell Communication
• Recognize the link between receptor proteins, target cells, and specificity of cellular
response.
• Discriminate three main stages of cell signaling.
• Distinguish between water soluble and lipid soluble hormones and the location of their
receptors.
• Compare autocrine, paracrine, synaptic, and endocrine signals.
• Outline three main classes of receptor proteins.
• Explain protein phosphorylation.
• Outline the role of the cascade reaction in transduction pathways.
• Identify the role of secondary messengers and ions in transduction pathways.
• Recognize the relationship between ATP, cyclic AMP, and adenylyl cyclase.
• Describe three types of cell response.
• Scientific Skill: track a signal transduction pathway in a cell.
1. The small space between two neuron cells is called a synaptic cleft (aka synapse).
Signaling between neurons occurs when neurotransmitters are released from the
sending cell (presynaptic neurons) and
bind to ligand-gated ion channels on the
receiving cell (post-synaptic neuron).
A. Draw a flow chart on the image below
that links the sequence of events at the
synapse.
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
2. a. Distinguish between peptide vs steroid
endocrine signals.
b. Provide a scientific explanation why
peptide signals require a cell surface receptor
and steroids bind to an internal receptor.
Image Source
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillar
y_Materials/Worksheets/Biology_Tutorials/Sig
3. Narrate the nal_Transduction
process of how
a steroid hormone can stimulate the synthesis of
a new protein.
Image Source:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_M
aterials/Worksheets/Biology_Tutorials/Signal_Tran
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EXPERIENCE COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE
3 Main Classes of Membrane Receptors
4. The diagram shows the basic steps of a G-protein coupled receptor.
GPCRs are a more specific type of signaling and tend to elicit a unique cell
response.
GPCRs are found in all life
on our planet.
a. Use your curiosity to
search for a unique GPCR
that you could use as a
conversation starter.
b. Explain the receptor
you chose and why you
chose this receptor.
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5. Tyrosine Kinase receptors (RTKs) become enzymes that activate other proteins
when bound to by ligand.
• They act like kinases and catalyze the transfer of
phosphate groups from ATP to tyrosine amino
acids on other proteins.
• RTKs can activate numerous pathways when
bound by a single ligand.
• RTKs are frequently found in cancer cells.
a. Use your curiosity to search for a unique
cancer causes in part by a RTK mutation.
b. Provide a link or picture and a short reason
why you chose this cancer.
Image Source: https://openstax.org/books/biology-
2e/pages/9-1-signaling-molecules-and-cellular-
receptors
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6. Ion Channels: The gated ion channel protein will change shape in response to a
stimulus. When closed, ions are trapped on either side of the membrane. When
open the protein allows ions to rush into the cell.
Notice that ion channels are both a transport protein (of ions) and a receptor
protein (of stimuli).
Label and describe how 4 different
stimuli can open ion channels.
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7. Describe the action of kinases and
phosphatases in regulating protein
activity.
a. In your own words, provide a
hypothesis as to why phosphorylation
causes shape change in proteins.
8. Tyrosine is an amino acid with a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon ring in the
side chain.
b. Circle the side chain of tyrosine.
c. Circle the phosphate group.
9. Track the pathway of kinase action and p-group transfers (phosphorylation) in
the diagram. Why is the process called a phosphorylation cascade?
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