6.

1 Classical Evolutionism
Q.1) Discuss the basic assumptions of 19th century evolutionism. Are these valid today? (10
M)
Approach:
Define classical evolutionism (not more than 3 lines, do not go into the historicity of anthropology)
Features of the theory
**survivals should have a socio-cultural example. Vestigial organ was just an analogy to make you
understand the topic.
Draw an info graphic for proponents – Tylor, Morgan, Frazer (give their main ideas and one major
work)
Criticism in a few points: 10M – 3, 15M – 4, 20M – 5 (at least)
Comment on the relevance citing the criticisms
Relevant conclusion – though not relevant today, is significant because it laid the foundation

Q.2) Write a note on contributions of Morgan and Tylor in the history of anthropological
thought. (15 M)
Approach: Associate them with their school of thought - Classical evolutionism. (This way you
would have linked all the parts of the question to each other in the intro itself)
Define classical evolutionism
Tylor – give a brief intro (British, founding father)
Definition of culture (Primitive culture)
Reconstruction of history of culture
Evolution of religion
Evolution of language
Morgan- Brief intro (Father of American Anthro, league of Iroquois - fieldwork)
Evolution of marriage
Kinship terminologies – Systems of consanguinity and affinity of the human family (mention
work and give examples)
Ancient society – Inventions and discoveries (primary test), Evolution of socio-political
organizations (societas to civitas), Idea of family (15/5), Idea of descent
Mention reasons – growth of private property, communal husbands started defending their
communal wives
Germs of thought
Criticism (general ones of classical evolutionism with 1 or 2 particular ones of Morgan)
Relevant conclusion – significance of their work as the foundation of anthropology
Q.3) How did Morgan explain the evolution of marriage, family, and socio-political
organization, and how did other evolutionists disagree with his explanation? (20M)
Since the answer directly asks about Morgan, start with his brief bio. Mention him being the father
of American Anthropology and give a brief insight into his work.
Evolution of marriage

Reasons - growth of private property and the need to determine descent.

Evolution of family – Ancient Society (1877) (brief 1–2-line explanations and examples from the
table given in the idea of technology table in class)
Consanguinous (Malayan)
Punaluan (Hawaiian)
Syndasmian
Patriarchal or Polygynous (Hebrew pastoral tribes)
Monogamy (Civilized western society)
Evolution of socio-political organizations -
Societas – gentes clan tribe
Civitas – advanced political organization with centralization of power. Nation states.
Promiscuous hordes – gentes – clans – tribes – state (draw a flowchart and give a few words
of explanation for these stages)
Disagreement of other evolutionists with Morgan
Meyer Fortes
John Lubbock
Henry Maine
Mclennon
And then you can mention the influence of profound racism on him affected by Samuel G Morton
– Whites have bigger heads than blacks
Conclusion

6.2 Historical Particularism, Diffusionism

Q.1) Write a note on Historical Particularism. (2015) (10 M)
Approach -
Define Historical Particularism.
Mention Boas and his article – The limitation of comparative method of anthropology
Flaws raised by Boas with respect to the comparative approach of Morgan and Tylor
Factors affecting the experiences which make the history of the culture: Make an info graphic
and give examples
a) Environmental
b) Psychological
c) Historical (Indian hybrid culture)
Culture according to Historical Particularism
Participant observation
Cultural relativism
Limitations
Conclusion – holism and relativism, anti-theoretical stance, research began to focus more on
differences than similarities

Q.2) Write a note on Franz Boas. (Repeated 5 times, 10 M)

Approach -
First proponent of historical particularism.
Define historical particularism as given by Boas briefly.
Mention the basic methodologies – Participant observation, synchronic study of culture, culture
relativism
Contributions - Study of Innuits (The Central Eskimo), Kwakiutl, trained the new generation of
anthropologists Benedict, Mead, Kroeber.
Criticism: (Kroeber believed that Boas placed too much emphasis on the gathering and organizing
of data and was too concerned with causal processes (abstract phenomena) and their description.)
Anti-theoretical stance – time taking costly
Conclusion
Another variation of these questions is Historical Particularism and Boas. Write both dimensions in
a balanced manner for this.

Q.3) Critically examine the Historical Particularistic approach of Franz Boas to the study of
culture.
Approach
Define historical particularism and give a brief intro about Boas
(Link them together in the first line, and then explain the school)
Basic features of historical particularism
Approaches of Boas – Participant Observation, Culture Relativism
Criticism
Conclusion

Q.4) Distinguish between British school of Diffusion and Austro-German school of

Diffusion.
Approach-
Define Diffusion
British School - basic premise
Proponents - G E Smith, William J Perry, WHR Rivers
One Center of Culture: British diffusionists, such as Smith and Perry, believed in the idea of a
single center of culture, with Egypt often being identified as this center.
Diffusion in Bits and Pieces: They believed that cultural traits diffused in a fragmented manner,
often as singular traits or elements that spread from one culture to another.
Variety of Explanations: British diffusionists explained cultural similarities through both
functional reasons (e.g., the practical utility of certain traits) and historical contact between cultures.
Importance of Egypt: Egypt was considered the primary center of culture and the origin of various
cultural traits. British diffusionists emphasized Egypt's role in the diffusion of culture.
Why did the German school emerge?
(Limitations of British school – Egypt centric, uninventiveness of people, did not account
for multiple diffusions, did not give importance to the meaning and significance attached
with a cultural trait)
German school:
Basic premise and proponents.
Multiple Centers of Culture: German-Austrian diffusionists believed in the existence of multiple
centers of culture, as opposed to a single center.
Diffusion of Culture Complexes: They argued that culture complexes, consisting of multiple
related cultural traits, diffused in their entirety, rather than as isolated elements.
Contact and Similarity: German-Austrian diffusionists explained cultural similarities as a result of
historical contact between cultures. Even cultures geographically distant from each other could have
come into contact if similarities existed.
Criteria for Diffusion: They introduced criteria such as the "criterion of form" and "criterion of
quantity" to identify instances of cultural diffusion based on the nature of the traits and the quantity
of similarities observed.
Kulturkreis (Culture Circle): They introduced the concept of "kulturkreis" to explain how
diffusion occurred, involving the idea of cultures originating in specific centers and spreading
through larger circles.
Focus on Mapping Migration and Diffusion: German-Austrian diffusionists emphasized the
need to map regions and routes of migration and diffusion across the world.
Criticisms: The German-Austrian diffusionist approach faced criticism for its emphasis on trait
complexes, the complexity of sorting and understanding traits, the idea that all world cultures
derived from a few basic cultures, and subjectivity in associating elements with each culture.
Conclusion – Balanced significance of both – one of the very first to talk about diffusion which
had been ignored as a way of spread of culture by the classical evolutionists.

Q.5) What is meant by cultural diffusionism? Give an account of Fritz Graebner’s

contributions to the theory of cultural diffusionism.
Approach
Define diffusionism.
Factors influencing the process of diffusion.
Conditions related to cultural diffusion.
Fritz Graebner – brief intro (not an extreme diffusionist)
 Concept of Primeval culture - Identifying six primeval culture complexes in the Oceania
region, "Methode der Ethnologie": (1. Tasmanian culture - oldest 2. Australian boomerang
culture – deserts of Aus to entire Oceania, 3. Totemic hunter culture - Mauris, 4. Horticulure
and shifting culture 5. Melanesian bow culture 6. Polynesian patrilineal culture – newest
one.)
You need not remember all cultures, just the oldest and the newest.
Basic rules accepted by Graebner – criterion of form and criterion of quantity
Development of Kulture kreis (Culture Circle)
Adopted concepts of culture area and PUoM - His theory of culture circles or centers posits
that culture traits are invented once and combine with other culture traits to create culture
patterns, both of which radiate outwards in, all other things being equal, concentric circles.
By examining these various culture traits, one can create a world culture history.
Criticism – Limitations of the German School
Conclusion – Following his approach every culture can be described through a grid of similarities
and differences. Would not be an exaggeration to call him a taxonomist of cultures.

6.3 Functionalism
Q.1) What is functionalism? Discuss the functional approach to the understanding of
Religion. (2014, 20M) (Maintain a semblance of balance between both parts of the question)
Define functionalism
Influenced by Spencer’s organic view of society. (Then you explain the organic view in a line)
Draw the diagram (why? Because it is 20M)
Basic ideas:
Culture acts as a means to satisfy needs.
Each cultural trait performs a specific function.
Expression of cultural traits through institutions.
Proponents and the sub-schools
Bio-cultural school – Mention the proponent and the basic idea
Structural – Proponent and the basic idea
Functional approach to religion
Malinowski – integrative needs – to cope with anxiety and uncertainty + Trobriand Islanders –
protection from danger. (Fishing nearby vs far into the ocean). Helps people cope with hardships
and fear of death. Sense of control during life altering events like birth, marriage and death.
Radcliffe Brown- focus on social solidarity and maintenance of social structure - Totemism and
Ancestor worship. Provides for a normative and sanction system for individuals in the society, thus
helping in maintaining social structure.
Criticism
Conclusion

Q.2) Write a note on Functionalism. (10 M)

Define the school of thought
Mention the influences –Spencer and Durkheim – organic analogy
Basic tenets of the school
Mention proponents and their ideas in brief (You can draw an info graphic for this)
Criticism
Conclusion