1.
Universalizability Test
A principle in ethics (especially from Immanuel Kant) that asks: “What
if everyone did this?”
An action is morally right if the rule guiding it could be applied
universally without contradiction.
Example: If lying were universal, trust would be impossible—so lying is
morally wrong.
2. Morality of Dying
Refers to ethical questions about death and dying, including:
o Euthanasia and assisted suicide
o Palliative care and the right to die
o Withholding or withdrawing treatment
Moral considerations often include dignity, autonomy, quality of life,
and religious or cultural views.
3. Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory
A theory describing how people develop moral reasoning through six
stages across three levels:
1. Pre-conventional: Obedience and self-interest
2. Conventional: Social approval and law/order
3. Post-conventional: Social contract and universal ethical
principles
It’s not about what people think is right, but why they think it's right.
4. Ecological Challenges
Ethical concerns related to the environment:
o Climate change
o Biodiversity loss
o Pollution and resource depletion
Raises moral questions about human responsibility to future
generations, other species, and the planet itself.
5. Justice
Broad concept about fairness, equality, and moral rightness.
Types include:
o Distributive justice: Fair distribution of resources
o Retributive justice: Fair punishment
o Procedural justice: Fair processes and laws
Central to political philosophy, law, and ethics.
Here’s a concise summary of all the main ethical theories—including ones
that relate to the topics you mentioned earlier. These are grouped into major
categories:
⚖️Normative Ethical Theories
These ask: "What is the right thing to do?"
1. Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)
Key thinker: Immanuel Kant
Morality = Following rules/duties
Universalizability is a key test
Example: Telling the truth is right, even if it causes harm
2. Consequentialism (Result-Based Ethics)
Key type: Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill)
Morality = Maximizing good consequences
"The greatest good for the greatest number"
Example: Lying may be okay if it saves lives
3. Virtue Ethics
Key thinker: Aristotle
Morality = Developing good character traits (virtues)
Focuses on being rather than just doing
Example: A courageous, honest, and kind person will naturally act
morally
4. Ethics of Care
Key thinkers: Carol Gilligan, Nel Noddings
Emphasizes relationships, empathy, and care over abstract principles
Morality = Nurturing others and maintaining trust
Often applied in family, nursing, and community contexts
5. Social Contract Theory
Key thinkers: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Morality = Agreement among individuals for mutual benefit
Basis for modern ideas of justice, rights, and democracy
6. Natural Law Theory
Key thinker: Thomas Aquinas
Morality = Following the natural purpose or design in life (often with
religious basis)
Life, reproduction, and reason are natural goods
7. Moral Relativism
No universal standard of right or wrong
Morality depends on culture, context, or individual choice
8. Postmodern Ethics
Questions grand narratives and objective morality
Focus on marginal voices, diversity, and power dynamics
Influenced by Foucault, Derrida, etc.
🧠 Moral Development Theories
These describe how people develop moral reasoning rather than define
right/wrong:
1. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
6 stages across 3 levels: pre-conventional, conventional, post-
conventional
Moves from obedience to universal principles
2. Gilligan’s Ethics of Care (in contrast to Kohlberg)
Emphasizes compassion, connection, and care rather than abstract
justice
🌍 Applied Ethics
Focused on specific real-world issues, using the theories above:
Bioethics (e.g., morality of dying, abortion)
Environmental ethics (e.g., ecological challenges, sustainability)
Business ethics
Justice and political ethics (e.g., fairness, equality)
Examples:
Here are 20 situational moral dilemmas or examples, each matched
with how different ethical theories might approach them:
1. Lying to Protect a Friend
Deontology: Wrong (lying breaks a moral rule)
Utilitarianism: Right if it prevents harm
Virtue Ethics: Depends—was it done with compassion or cowardice?
2. Stealing to Feed a Starving Child
Deontology: Wrong (stealing is always wrong)
Utilitarianism: Right if it saves a life
Natural Law: May be justified to preserve life
3. Abortion in Case of Rape
Kantian Ethics: Difficult—depends on autonomy vs. duty
Utilitarianism: Allowed if it prevents more suffering
Natural Law: Often opposed (life begins at conception)
4. Euthanasia of a Terminally Ill Patient
Deontology: Usually wrong (killing is wrong)
Ethics of Care: May be acceptable to reduce suffering
Utilitarianism: Right if it reduces pain for all involved
5. Cheating on an Exam to Avoid Failing
Virtue Ethics: Wrong (dishonest character)
Utilitarianism: Might justify it if consequences are minimal
Deontology: Wrong regardless of outcome
6. Donating to Charity vs. Buying Luxury
Utilitarianism: Charity is more ethical
Virtue Ethics: Generosity is a virtue
Moral Relativism: Depends on personal/cultural values
7. Free Speech vs. Hate Speech
Social Contract: Limit harmful speech to protect society
Postmodern Ethics: Analyze power behind the speech
Kantian Ethics: Uphold dignity of all people
8. Using Animals for Medical Testing
Utilitarianism: Justified if many lives are saved
Ethics of Care: Concern for suffering of animals
Natural Law: Humans may be prioritized but with responsibility
9. Whistleblowing Against Corruption
Deontology: Duty to tell the truth
Virtue Ethics: Courageous and just
Utilitarianism: Good if it benefits the greater public
10. Breaking the Law for Civil Disobedience
Social Contract: Laws should be challenged when unjust
Kohlberg (Stage 6): Moral principles > legal rules
Deontology: Conflict between legal and moral duties
11. Choosing to Have Children During Climate Crisis
Ecological Ethics: Consider sustainability
Utilitarianism: Consider long-term impacts
Virtue Ethics: Is the choice responsible and hopeful?
12. Surveillance for National Security
Social Contract: May be allowed for safety
Postmodern Ethics: Question who holds power and why
Deontology: Invasion of privacy may be wrong
13. Helping a Stranger in Need
Virtue Ethics: Compassion is virtuous
Utilitarianism: Good consequences expected
Ethics of Care: Caring builds community bonds
14. Downloading Movies Illegally
Deontology: Wrong (theft of property)
Utilitarianism: Depends—harm to creators?
Moral Relativism: Might vary by culture/view
15. Physician Breaking Confidentiality to Prevent Harm
Deontology: Conflict between duties
Utilitarianism: Justified if harm is prevented
Kohlberg: Advanced reasoning required
16. Robots Replacing Humans in Jobs
Social Justice: Raises questions of fairness
Utilitarianism: Net benefit?
Postmodern: Who profits and who is silenced?
17. Choosing Between Two Lives in a Trolley Problem
Utilitarianism: Save the most people
Deontology: Wrong to intentionally harm
Virtue Ethics: Focus on the actor’s integrity
18. Refusing Vaccination on Personal Grounds
Social Contract: Duty to community health
Natural Law: Preserve life
Relativism: Depends on beliefs
19. Genetic Engineering of Embryos
Natural Law: Opposed (tampering with life)
Utilitarianism: Support if benefits are great
Postmodern: Who controls the tech?
20. Releasing Prisoners for Overcrowding
Justice Theory: Balance fairness with public safety
Utilitarianism: May reduce systemic harm
Deontology: Punishment must fit crime regardless
