Super Conductivity

Super conductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct direct current with practically
zero resistance. The phenomenon of the electrical resistance of a substance drops suddenly to
zero, when its specimen is cooled below a certain temperature is known as superconductivity.
The substance showing this property is called super as conductor.. At room temperature,
superconducting materials have greater resistivity than other elements. The temperature at which
the resistance disappears, in zero magnetic field is called the transition temperature(Tc).
Examples of super conductors: Mercury, Niobium(Nb), Lead(Pb), cadmium(Cd) etc

Applications of superconductors:
(i). Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely the superconducting
generators, which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison with conventional generators.
(ii).Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails. They can be driven
at high speed with minimal expenditure of energy.
(iii). Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch satellites into orbits
directly from the earth without the use of rockets.
(iv). High efficiency ore-separating machines may be built using superconducting magnets which
can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells by high gradient magnetic separation
method.
(v). Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change in magnitude, it
can be used for transmission lines.

Properties of super conductors:

1. At the room temperature, super conducting materials have greater resistivity than other
elements.
2. The transition temperature is different for different isotopes of an element. It decreases
with increasing atomic weight of the isotopes.
3. The superconducting property of the super conducting element is not lost by adding
impurities to it but the critical temperature is lowered.
4. There is no change in the crystal structure as revealed by x-ray diffraction studies. This
shows that superconductivity may be more concerned with the conduction electrons than
with the atoms itself.
5. The superconductor is characterized by zero electrical resistance. It can conduct electric
current even in the absence of an applied voltage and the current can persist for years
without any detectable decay.
6. The thermal properties(entropy, heat capacity, thermal conductivity) of a metal change
sharply at transition temperature of superconductor as the temperature is lowered.
7. The elastic properties do not change in transition

Effect of magnetic field:

Super conductivity will disappear if the temperature of the specimen is raised above its transition
temperature(Tc) or if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is employed. The critical value of the
applied magnetic field necessary to restore the normal resistivity, i.e. to destroy super
conductivity is called critical magnetic field( Hc), it is a function of temperature.
At critical temperature, the critical field is zero. The variation of critical field as a function of
temperature for certain elements is shown in the below figure. These curves are nearly parabolic
and represented by the following relation.
𝑇2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻0 (1 − 2 )
𝑇𝑐
𝐻0 is the critical field at 0K. The diagram look like a phase diagram. Inside the curve the
material is in the super conducting phase, and outside the curve, the material is in the normal
phase.

Type I and type II super conductors:

The ideal magnetic behavior of super conductors falls into two classes: type I and type II.

Type I superconductors:
Type I super conductors exhibit complete Meissner effect, i.e., they are completely diamagnetic.
The magnetization curve or type I material is shown in the below figure.
When critical field Hc is reached, the magnetization of super conductor become zero. This is an
abrupt change. They are called as soft super conductors since the super conductivity is destroyed
very easily at low Hc values. Pure specimens of most super conducting materials like Lead, tin,
Mercury etc.are of type I super conductors.

Type II super conductors:

In type II super conductors, the transition from superconducting state to normal state is gradual.
For such superconductors, two critical magnetic fields, lower critical field Hc1 and upper critical
field Hc2exist.

For type II super conductors, below Hc1, the specimen is in super conducting state i.e., the
magnetic flux is completely excluded. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the magnetic flux penetrates
partially in the specimen and the specimen is in mixed state and exhibits superconducting
properties. At Hc2 the magnetization vanishes and the specimen turns into normal state. Thus
super conductivity is retained till large magnetic field is reached. Hence they are called hard
super conductors. Generally alloys and transition metals with high resistivity exhibit this type of
super conductivity. Ex: NbN, Nb3Sn etc.
Meissner effect:
Meissner found that if a super conductor is cooled in a magnetic field down to the transition
temperature, then at the transition, the lines of induction B are pushed out. This phenomenon is
called Meissner effect. This shows that, in an applied external field, a bulk super conductor
behaves as if inside the specimen B=0. Hence it behaves like a perfect diamagnetic material. But
incase of a conductor, when it is cooled to its transition temperature and magnetic field is
applied, its resistivity goes to zero, but the flux distribution remains unaltered.

Distinction between perfect conductor and super conductor:

Both super conductor and perfect conductor have zero resistivity. Hence the distinction between
them is an issue. The only method which is used to distinguish them is Meissner effect.
For super conductor:
According to Meissner effect when magnetic field is applied to a super conductor, flux lines are
ejected from the sample surface. i.e. B=0.
For perfect conductor:
From Maxwell equation
𝜕𝐵
∇ × 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡 ………………. (1)
When a potential difference V is applied across a resistor of resistance R, from ohm’s law
V= I R
𝑉 𝐼𝑅
Electric field is defined as E= =
𝑑 𝑑
0
for perfect conductor R=0, hence E = =0
𝑑
𝜕𝐵
hence from (1), 𝜕𝑡 = 0
so, B = constant.
This shows that the perfect conductor allow to pass flux lines through it.
Two fluid model:

One of the first models to be formulated to start to describe superconductivity was the two fluid
model. This model proposed that electrons within a superconductor appear as two different
types, normal and superconducting, i.e. some of the electrons behave as they would in a normal
metal and obey Ohm’s law, while others are responsible for the superconducting nature of the
material. The crucial aspect of this model is that below Tc, only a fraction of the total number of
electrons are capable of carrying a super current. As the temperature is lowered, more of the
electrons become the superconducting type while fewer remain as normal electrons.

In the two fluid model, normal and superconducting currents are assumed to flow in parallel
when an electric field is applied. However, as the superconducting current flows with no
resistance, it will carry the entire current induced by any electric field.

London Equations and penetration depth:

London derived two field equations to explain the super conducting state of matter by modifying
Ohm’s law. He assumed that there are two types of conduction electrons in a super conductor,
namely the super electrons and normal electrons, at any temperature the sum of super electrons
and normal electrons is equal to the conduction electron density in the material in the normal
state.
Further the super electrons are not subjected to any lattice scattering and are merely accelerated
in an electric field. Below the transition temperature, super conductor consists only super
electrons but as the temperature increases the proportion of normal electrons to super electrons
increases until at transition temperature all electrons are normal.

First Equation:
Let 𝑛𝑠 be the super electron density at a temperature less than the transition temperature. Then
the super current density will be

𝐽𝑠 = 𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑣𝑠 ………. (1)

Where 𝑣𝑠 is the drift velocity of super electrons. Since super electrons are not subjected to any
lattice scattering, they are continuously accelerated by the electric field. Force on super electrons
F= ma
𝑑𝑣
Ee = m
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝐸𝑒
Hence = ……………….. (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑 𝐽𝑠 𝑑𝑣
From (1) = 𝑒𝑛𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑 𝐽𝑠 𝐸𝑒
From (2) = 𝑒𝑛𝑠 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝒅𝑱𝒔 𝒏𝒔 𝒆 𝟐 𝑬
∴ =
𝒅𝒕 𝒎

This is the first London equation which describes the absence of resistance. The equation shows
that it is possible to have stady currents in the absence of electric field. This is the phenomenon
of super conductivity.

Second equation:
Taking curl on both sides for the above equation

𝑑 𝑛 𝑠 𝑒 2 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐸 )
(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐽𝑠 )=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝜕𝐵
From maxwell’s eqations ∇ × 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡

𝑑 𝑛𝑠𝑒 2 𝜕𝐵
(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐽𝑠 )= (− )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝜕𝑡

𝑑 𝑛𝑠𝑒 2
[(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐽𝑠 ) + . 𝐵] = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑛𝑠𝑒 2
Hence (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐽𝑠 ) + . 𝐵 = constant.
𝑚

London proved that the value of this constant is zero. Hence

𝒏 𝒔 𝒆𝟐
(𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑱𝒔 ) + . 𝑩 = 0.
𝒎

𝒏 𝒔 𝒆𝟐
(∇ × 𝑱𝒔 ) =− .𝑩
𝒎

This is lonson’s second equation and explain’s Meissner effect.

Penetration depth:
According to Meissner the magnetic flux in side the super conductor is zero, when it is placed in
a strong magnetic field. But in reality, magnetic lines of force penetrates upto some extent. The
distance of penetration from the surface is called penetration depth. London derived an
expression for penetration depth.
From Ampere’s current law

∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽𝑠
Taking curl on both sides,

∇ × (∇ × 𝐵) = ∇ × 𝜇0 𝐽𝑠
 ∇ ∇. 𝐵 − ∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (∇ × 𝐽𝑠 )
𝒏 𝒔 𝒆𝟐
From London’s second equation ∇ ∇. 𝐵 − ∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (− . 𝐵)
𝒎

𝒏 𝒔 𝒆𝟐
but ∇. 𝐵 = 0, hence −∇2 𝐵 = −𝜇0 ( . 𝐵)
𝒎

𝒏 𝒔 𝒆𝟐
therefore ∇ 2 𝐵 = 𝜇0 ( . 𝐵)
𝒎

𝐵
it can be written as ∇2 𝐵 = ,
𝜆2

𝑚
where 𝜆 = , is called penetration depth. This is a three dimensional equation. For one
𝜇 0𝑛𝑠𝑒 2
dimension, it can be written as
𝑑2𝐵 𝐵
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆2

The solution of the above equation can be written as

−𝑥 𝑥
B= 𝐵0 𝑒 𝜆 + 𝐵1 𝑒 𝜆
𝑥
After applying boundary conditions, 𝐵1 𝑒 𝜆 = 0
−𝑥
Hence B= 𝐵0 𝑒 𝜆

Here 𝐵0 is the magnetic flux density at the surface of super conductor and x is the distance from
the surface of super conductor. Now 3 cases arise.
𝐵0
Case 1: if x= 𝜆, now B becomes B=
𝑒

From this, we can define London’s penetration depth as the measure of distance from the surface
of the super conductor at which the magnetic flux decays to 1/e of its value at the surface of the
super conductor.
𝑥
Case 2: if x<< 𝜆, in this case 𝜆 ≈ 0

And hence, B = 𝐵0 . i.e. at a distance where x<< 𝜆, the magnetic flux density is constant and is
equal to the value at the surface of the super conductor.
𝑥
Case 3: if x>> 𝜆, in this case 𝜆 ≈∝

And hence B=0. i.e. at a distance where x<< 𝜆, the magnetic flux density inside the specimen
will be zero.
BCS theory:
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) provided the better quantum explanation of super
conductivity and accounts very well for all the properties exhibited by the superconductors. This
theory involves the electron interactions through phonons as mediators.

Electron-Phonon interaction:
Lattice vibrations play an important role in the phenomenon of super conductivity. When an
electron approaches an ion in the lattice, both interact electro statically. Thus momentum is
imparted to ions which causes them to move together due to elastic behavior of lattice. This
slight movement together increases the positive charge density in the region around the electron.
This dislocation of positive charges generates phonon. Thus the region of increased positive
charge density propagates a wave, which carries a momentum through lattice.

Cooper Pairs:
At this stage, if another electron passes by the region of increased positive charge density, it will
experience an attractive colomb interaction and hence can absorb all the momentum, the moving
wave carries. In other words, the second electron absorbed the phonon, there by absorbed the
momentum supplied by the first electron. Thus, two electrons have exchanged momentum
through an interaction involving phonon as intermediary. In this way, interaction between two
electrons take place. This is an attractive interaction because at each step electron participate in
attractive way. This interaction between two electrons via phonon exceeds the colomb repulsion.
The pair of these two electrons is known as Cooper pairs.
The two electrons which pair up have opposite momenta and spin. This pair of electrons
will not transfer any energy to the lattice. Therefore, electrons do not get slowed down. As a
consequence of this, the substance does not possess any electrical resistivity and the conduction
is large. As a result, cooper pairs travel for ever through a super conductor with out any
resistance at all. Because of such an uninterrupted flow of cooper pairs, super conductors exhibit
zero resistance.

Isotope effect:
It has been observed that the transition temperature of the super conductors varies with isotopic
mass. The transition temperature Tc is proportional to the reciprocal of the square root of their
respective isotopic masses, i.e.,
1
𝑇𝑐 ∝
𝑀
1
𝑀2 𝑇𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 --------------- (1)
A heavier isotopic mass lowers the lattice vibrations. From the definition of Debye temperature
1
(𝜃𝐷 ), 𝑀2 𝜃𝐷 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 --------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
𝑇𝑐
= Constant
𝜃𝐷

1
In general we can write 𝑇𝑐 ∝ 𝜃𝐷 ∝ 𝑀

This tells this importance of lattice vibrations or electron-phonon interaction for the occurrence
of superconductivity.

Specific heat behavior of super conductors:

In normal metal the electronic specific heat varies as the absolute temperature i.e., C ∝ 𝑇
But in super conductor specific heat varies exponentially with temperature according to the
relation
𝑏𝑇𝑐
𝐶𝑒𝑠 ∝ 𝑒 − 𝑇

This exponential form is an indication of the existence of a finite gap in the energy spectrum of
electrons separating the ground state from the lowest excited state. The number of electrons
thermally excited across this gap varies exponentially with the reciprocal of temperature. The
energy gap is believed to be a characteristic feature of the superconducting state which
determines the thermal properties as well as high frequency electromagnetic response of all
superconductors.

Entropy difference between normal and super conducting states:

In all super conductors the entropy decreases markedly on cooling below the critical temperature.
From the lowered entropy in the superconducting state, it can be concluded that superconducting
electrons are more ordered for the entropy is a measure of disorder. For type I super conductors,
there is a spatial order which extends over a distance of the order of 10−6 m. this range is called
coherence length.
Let us consider a phase state, in which normal and super conducting phases are in equilibrium.
Meissner effect suggest’s that transition between normal and superconducting states is
thermodynamically reversible. Let us consider type I super conductors. For this B=0.
From Maxwell’s thermodynamic relations
dU = TdS – PdV --------------- (1)
in the presence of magnetic field, the internal energy is expressed as
dU = TdS + HdM
comparing above two equations,P = -H and V= M
from the definition of Gibb’s free energy
 G = H + PV
G = U-TS + PV
G = U-TS – HM
Differentiating dG = dU – TdS – SdT – HdM – MdH ------------- (2)
From (1) and (2), dG = TdS + HdM – TdS – SdT – HdM – MdH
dG = – SdT – MdH
at constant temperature dT = 0
hence dG = - MdH ---------------- (3)

Normal state(N):
For normal state the specimen is in non magnetic state i.e., magnetization M = 0
Hence dGN = 0

Integrating GN (T,H) = GN (T,0) ---------------- (4)

Hence Gibb’s free energy of unit volume of specimen in normal state is not changed by the
application of magnetic field.

Super conducting state (GS):

The relation between magnetic field B and magnetization H is defined as

𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4𝜋𝑀
For type I superconductors B=0
𝐻
Therefore 𝑀=− ---------------- (5)
4𝜋
𝐻
From (3) and (5) dG =( )dH
4𝜋

𝐻2
Integrating on both sides, GS(T,H) = GS(T,0) + ---------------- (6)
8𝜋

hence, Gibb’s free energy of the specimen is increased when it is placed in a magnetic field.
Normal and superconducting states are in equilibrium when H=Hc

Now, GN(T,Hc) = GS(T,Hc) ---------------- (7)

from (4), at H = Hc, GN (T,Hc) = GN (T,0) ---------------- (8)

𝐻𝑐2
from (6), H = Hc, GS(T,Hc) = GS(T,0) + ---------------- (9)
8𝜋
 𝐻𝑐2
from (7), (8) and (9) GN (T,0) = GS(T,0) +
8𝜋

𝐻𝑐2
GN (T,0) - GS(T,0) = ------------------ (10)
8𝜋

This is the basic equation, obtained by Gorter.

𝜕𝐺
Entropy is defined as 𝑆 = −(𝜕𝑇 )𝑃,𝐻

Differentiating equation (10), with respect to temperature

𝜕𝐺𝑁 (T,0) 𝜕𝐺𝑆 (T,0) 𝐻 𝑑𝐻𝑐
( )𝑃,𝐻 - ( )𝑃,𝐻 = 2 . 8𝜋𝑐
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝐻 𝑑𝐻𝑐
−𝑆𝑁 (0) + 𝑆𝐺 (0) = 4𝜋𝑐 𝑑𝑇

𝑯 𝒅𝑯𝒄
𝑺𝑵 𝟎 − 𝑺𝑮 𝟎 = − 𝟒𝝅𝒄 𝒅𝑻

This is the entropy difference between normal and superconducting states.

At T = Tc and Hc = 0, 𝑆𝑁 0 − 𝑆𝐺 0 = 0

Or 𝑆𝑁 0 = 𝑆𝐺 0
Therefore entropy of normal and superconducting states is equal at critical temperature and zero
magnetic field.
𝑑𝐻𝑐
If Hc > 0, <0, hence 𝑆𝑁 0 − 𝑆𝐺 0 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑇

i.e., 𝑆𝑁 0 > 𝑆𝐺 0
this tells us, superconducting state is the state of higher order.

Josephson junction and SQUID:

Josephson junction consists of a thin layer of insulating material placed between two
superconducting materials. This insulator acts as barrier to the flow of electrons. Quantum
tunneling occurs when a pair of electrons move through a space at junction caused the flow of
electric current, called Josephson current. Depending upon the type of current flows through the
insulator we have two types of Josephson effects.
DC Josephson effect: without electric field
AC Josephson effect: with electric field
SQUIDs:
Full form of the SQUID is Superconductive Quantum Interference Device. Basically SQUIDs
are super conductors, that act as storage devices for magnetic flux. They consist either one or two
Josephson junctions. They are basically two types dc squids and rf squids.
dc squid consists two Josephson junctions in a superconducting ring. rf squid consists one
Josephson junction.
Applications of Squids:

 SQUID can be used as a sensitive magnetic flux meter

 It can detect weak magnetic fields produced by biological currents like human brain
hence it is used in MIR scanning machines.
 It is used to detect mineral ores in geological applications
 It is used to detect submerines in oceans
 It is used in communication system.
 It is used to measure Earth’s magnetic field.