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 SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF

THEORY AND PROBLEMS

of

BASIC CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
Second Edition

JOHN O’MALLEY, Ph.D.

Professor of Electrical Engineering
University of Florida

SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES

McGRAW-HILL
New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogotci Caracas Lisbon
London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Dehli
San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
JOHN R. O’MALLEY is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the
University of Florida. He received a Ph.D. degree from the University of
Florida and an LL.B. degree from Georgetown University. He is the author
of two books on circuit analysis and two on the digital computer. He has
been teaching courses in electric circuit analysis since 1959.

Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Copyright 0 1992,1982 by The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. All rights reserved. Printed
in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no
part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the pub-
lisher.

9 10 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 PRS PRS 9

ISBN 0-0?-04?824-4

Sponsoring Editor: John Aliano

Product i (I n S u pe rc’i so r : L a u ise K ar a m
Editing Supervisors: Meg Tohin, Maureen Walker

Library of Congress Cstaloging-in-Publication Data

O’Malley. John.
Schaum’s outline of theory and problems of basic circuit analysis
’ John O’Malley. -- 2nd ed.
p. c.m. (Schaum’s outline series)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-047824-4
1. Electric circuits. 2. Electric circuit analysis. I. Title.
TK454.046 1992
62 1.319’2 dc20 90-266I5

McGraw -Hill
.4 1)rrworr o(7ht.McGraw.Hill Cornpanles
Dedicated to the loving memory of my brother
Norman Joseph 0 'Mallej?
Lawyer, engineer, and mentor
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Studying from this book will help both electrical technology and electrical
engineering students learn circuit analysis with, it is hoped, less effort and more
understanding. Since this book begins with the analysis of dc resistive circuits
and continues to that of ac circuits, as do the popular circuit analysis textbooks,
a student can, from the start, use this book as a supplement to a circuit analysis
text book.
The reader does not need a knowledge of differential or integral calculus
even though this book has derivatives in the chapters on capacitors, inductors,
and transformers, as is required for the voltage-current relations. The few problems
with derivatives have clear physical explanations of them, and there is not a single
integral anywhere in the book. Despite its lack of higher mathematics, this book can
be very useful to an electrical engineering reader since most material in an electrical
engineering circuit analysis course requires only a knowledge of algebra. Where there
are different definitions in the electrical technology and engineering fields, as for
capacitive reactances, phasors, and reactive power, the reader is cautioned and the
various definitions are explained.
One of the special features of this book is the presentation of PSpice, which
is a computer circuit analysis or simulation program that is suitable for use on
personal computers (PCs). PSpice is similar to SPICE, which has become the
standard for analog circuit simulation for the entire electronics industry. Another
special feature is the presentation of operational-amplifier (op-amp) circuits. Both
of these topics are new to this second edition. Another topic that has been added
is the use of advanced scientific calculators to solve the simultaneous equations
that arise in circuit analyses. Although this use requires placing the equations
in matrix form, absolutely no knowledge of matrix algebra is required. Finally,
there are many more problems involving circuits that contain dependent sources
than there were in the first edition.
I wish to thank Dr. R. L. Sullivan, who, while I was writing this second edition,
was Chairman of the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of
Florida. He nurtured an environment that made it conducive to the writing of
books. Thanks are also due to my wife, Lois Anne, and my son Mathew for their
constant support and encouragement without which I could not have written this
second edition.

JOHN R. O'MALLEY

V
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Chapter 1 BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Digit Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
International System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1

Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
.

Chapter 2 RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Resistor Power Absorption ........................................................ 19
Nominal Values and Tolerances ................................................... 19
Color Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Open and Short Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 3 SERIES AND PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS .................................. 31

Branches. Nodes. Loops. Meshes. Series- and Parallel-Connected Components . . . . . 31
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law and Series DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Voltage Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Kirchhoffs Current Law and Parallel DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Current Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Kilohm-Milliampere Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Chapter 4 DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ..................................................... 54

Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Calculator Solutions ............................................................... 55
Source Transform at io n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Mesh Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Loop Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Dependent Sources and Circuit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter 5 DC EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS. NETWORK THEOREMS. AND

BRIDGE CIRCUITS ........................................................... 82
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems ................................................ 82
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Millman’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Y-A and A-Y Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Bridge Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

vii
 ...
Vlll CONTENTS

Chapter 6 OPERATIONAL-AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS .................................. 112

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Op-Amp Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Popular Op-Amp Circuits ......................................................... 114
Circuits with Multiple Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Chapter 7 PSPICE DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Introduction ....................................................................... 136
Basic Statements ................................................................... 136
Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
.DC and .PRINT Contro! Statements .............................................. 139
Restrictions ........................................................................ 140

Chapter 6 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE ....................................... 153

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Capacitor Construction ............................................................ 153
Total Capacitance ................................................................. 154
Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Time-Varying Voltages and Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Capacitor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Single-Capacitor DC-Excited Circuits .............................................. 156
RC Timers and Oscillators ......................................................... 157

Chapter 9 INDUCTORS. INDUCTANCE. AND PSPICE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 174

In trod uction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Inductance and Inductor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Inductor Voltage and Current Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Total Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Single-Inductor DC-Excited Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
PSpice Transient Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Chapter 10 SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sine and Cosine Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Phase Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Average Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Resistor Sinusoidal Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Effective or RMS Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Inductor Sinusoidal Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Capacitor Sinusoidal Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Chapter 11 COMPLEX ALGEBRA AND PHASORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Imaginary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Complex Numbers and the Rectangular Form ..................................... 218
Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Phasors ............................................................................ 221

Chapter 12 BASIC AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. IMPEDANCE. AND ADMITTANCE 232

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Phasor-Domain Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
AC Series Circuit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
 CONTENTS i

Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Voltage Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
AC Parallel Circuit Analysis ....................................................... 237
Admittance ........................................................................ 238
Current Division ................................................................... 239

Chapter 13 MESH. LOOP. NODAL. AND PSPICE ANALYSES OF AC CIRCUITS 265

Introduction ....................................................................... 265
Source Transformations ............................................................ 265
Mesh and Loop Analyses .......................................................... 265
Nodal Analysis .................................................................... 267
PSpice AC Analysis ................................................................ 268

Chapter 14 AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS. NETWORK THEOREMS. AND

BRIDGE CIRCUITS ........................................................... 294
Introduction ....................................................................... 294
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems ................................................ 294
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ............................................... 295
Superposition Theorem ............................................................ 295
AC Y-A and A-Y Transformations ................................................. 296
AC Bridge Circuits ................................................................ 296

Chapter 15 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS ................................................... 324

Introduction ....................................................................... 324
Circuit Power Absorption ......................................................... 324
Wattmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Reactive Power .................................................................... 326
Complex Power and Apparent Power .............................................. 326
Power Factor Correction .......................................................... 327

Chapter 16 TRANSFORMERS ............................................................. 349

Introduction ....................................................................... 349
Right-Hand Rule .................................................................. 349
Dot Convention ................................................................... 350
The Ideal Transformer ............................................................. 350
The Air-Core Transformer ......................................................... 352
The Autotransformer .............................................................. 354
PSpice and Transformers .......................................................... 356

Chapter 17 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS ................................................... 384

Introduction ....................................................................... 384
Subscript Notation ................................................................ 384
Three-Phase Voltage Generation ................................................... 384
Generator Winding Connections ................................................... 385
Phase Sequence .................................................................... 386
Balanced Y Circuit ................................................................ 387
Balanced A Load .................................................................. 389
Parallel Loads ..................................................................... 390
Power ............................................................................. 391
Three-Phase Power Measurements ................................................. 391
Unbalanced Circuits ............................................................... 393
PSpice Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits ........................................... 393
~- ~ ~~

INDEX ........................................................................... 415

This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Basic Concepts

DIGIT GROUPING
To make numbers easier to read, some international scientific committees have recommended
the practice of separating digits into groups of three to the right and to the left of decimal points,
as in 64 325.473 53. No separation is necessary, however, for just four digits, and they are preferably
not separated. For example, either 4138 or 4 138 is acceptable, as is 0.1278 or 0.127 8, with 4138
and 0.1278 preferred. The international committees did not approve of the use of the comma to
separate digits because in some countries the comma is used in place of the decimal point. This
digit grouping is used throughout this book.

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

The Znterncrtionul Sq~stewof’Units ( S l ) is the international measurement language. SI has nine base
units, which are shown in Table 1-1 along with the unit symbols. Units of all other physical quantities
are derived from these.

Table 1-1

Physical
Quantity Unit Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second S

current ampere A
t em per at u re kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr

There is a decimal relation, indicated by prefixes, among multiples and submultiples of each base
unit. An SI prefix is a term attached to the beginning of an SI unit name to form either a decimal
multiple or submultiple. For example, since “kilo” is the prefix for one thousand, a kilometer equals
1000 m. And because “micro” is the SI prefix for one-millionth, one microsecond equals 0.000 001 s.
The SI prefixes have symbols as shown in Table 1-2, which also shows the corresponding powers
of 10. For most circuit analyses, only mega, kilo, milli, micro, nano, and pico are important. The proper
location for a prefix symbol is in front of a unit symbol, as in km for kilometer and cm for centimeter.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Scientists have discovered two kinds of electric charge: posititye and negative. Positive charge is carried
by subatomic particles called protons, and negative charge by subatomic particles called electrons. Al
amounts of charge are integer multiples of these elemental charges. Scientists have also found that charges

1
 BASIC CONCEPTS [CHAP.

Table 1-2

Multiplier I Prefix Symbol Multiplier Prefix I Symbol

10l8 exa E 10.- ' deci

1015 peta P 10-2 centi
1012 tera T 10- 3 milli
109 gigs G 10-6 micro
1 O6 mega M 10-9 nano
I 03 kilo k 10-l 2 pico
1 o2 hecto h 10-1s femto
10' deka da 10- l H atto
I

produce forces on each other: Charges of the same sign repel each other, but charges of opposite sign
attract each other. Moreover, in an electric circuit there is cmservution of'ctzurye, which means that the
net electric charge remains constant-charge is neither created nor destroyed. (Electric components
interconnected to form at least one closed path comprise an electric circuit o r nc)twork.)
The charge of an electron or proton is much too small to be the basic charge unit. Instead, the SI
unit of charge is the coulomb with unit symbol C. The quantity symbol is Q for a constant charge and
q for a charge that varies with time. The charge of an electron is - 1.602 x 10 l 9 C and that of a proton i
1.602 x 10-19 C. Put another way, the combined charge of 6.241 x 10l8 electrons equals - 1 C, and
that of 6.241 x 10l8 protons equals 1 C.
Each atom of matter has a positively charged nucleus consisting of protons and uncharged particles
called neutrons. Electrons orbit around the nucleus under the attraction of the protons. For an
undisturbed atom the number of electrons equals the number of protons, making the atom electrically
neutral. But if an outer electron receives energy from, say, heat, it can gain enough energy to overcome
the force of attraction of the protons and become afree electron. The atom then has more positive than
negative charge and is apositiue ion. Some atoms can also "capture" free electrons to gain a surplus o
negative charge and become negative ions.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current results from the movement of electric charge. The SI unit of current is the C I I I I ~ C
with unit symbol A. The quantity symbol is I for a constant current and i for a time-varying current. I
a steady flow of 1 C of charge passes a given point in a conductor in 1 s, the resulting current is 1 A
In general,
Q(coulom bs)
I(amperes) =
t(seconds)

in which t is the quantity symbol for time.

Current has an associated direction. By convention the direction of current flow is in the direction
of positive charge movement and opposite the direction of negative charge movement. In solids only
free electrons move to produce current flow-the ions cannot move. But in gases and liquids, both
positive and negative ions can move to produce current flow. Since electric circuits consist almost entirely
of solids, only electrons produce current flow in almost all circuits. But this fact is seldom important in
circuit analyses because the analyses are almost always at the current level and not the charge level.
In a circuit diagram each I (or i) usually has an associated arrow to indicate the cwrwnt rc;fircmv
direction, as shown in Fig. 1-1. This arrow specifies the direction of positive current flow, but not
necessarily the direction of actual flow. If, after calculations, I is found to be positive, then actual current
flow is in the direction of the arrow. But if I is negative, current flow is in the opposite direction.
CHAP. 13 BASIC CONCEPTS 3

I
L

Fig. 1-1

Fig. 1-2

A current that flows in only one direction all the time is a direct current (dc),while a current that
alternates in direction of flow is an alternating current (ac). Usually, though, direct current refers only
to a constant current, and alternating current refers only to a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
A current source is a circuit element that provides a specified current. Figure 1-2 shows the circui
diagram symbol for a current source. This source provides a current of 6 A in the direction of the arrow
irrespective of the voltage (discussed next) across the source.

VOLTAGE
The concept of voltage involves work, which in turn involves force and distance. The SI unit of work
is the joule with unit symbol J, the SI unit of force is the newton with unit symbol N, and of course the
SI unit for distance is the meter with unit symbol m.
Work is required for moving an object against a force that opposes the motion. For example, lifting
something against the force of gravity requires work. In general the work required in joules is the product
of the force in newtons and the distance moved in meters:
W (joules) = Qnewtons) x s (meters)
where W, F , and s are the quantity symbols for work, force, and distance, respectively.
Energy is the capacity to do work. One of its forms is potential energy, which is the energy a body
has because of its position.
The voltage diflerence (also called the potential dzflerence) between two points is the work in joules
required to move 1 C of charge from one point to the other. The SI unit of voltage is the volt with unit
symbol V. The quantity symbol is Vor U, although E and e are also popular. In general,
W (joules)
V(vo1ts) =
Q(coulombs)
The voltage quantity symbol Vsometimes has subscripts to designate the two points to which the
voltage corresponds. If the letter a designates one point and b the other, and if W joules of work are
required to move Q coulombs from point b to a, then &, = W/Q. Note that the first subscript is the
point to which the charge is moved. The work quantity symbol sometimes also has subscripts as in
V,, = KdQ.
If moving a positive charge from b to a (or a negative charge from a to b) actually requires work,
the point a is positive with respect to point b. This is the voltagepolarity. In a circuit diagram this voltage
polarity is indicated by a positive sign ( + ) at point a and a negative sign ( - ) at point b, as shown in
Fig. 1-3a for 6 V. Terms used to designate this voltage are a 6-V voltage or potential rise from b to a
or, equivalently, a 6-V voltage or potential drop from a to b.
4 B A S I C CONCEPTS [CHAP.

If the voltage is designated by a quantity symbol as in Fig. 1-3h, the positive and negative signs are
reference polarities and not necessarily actual polarities. Also, if subscripts are used, the positive polarity
sign is at the point corresponding to the first subscript ( a here) and the negative polarity sign is at the
point corresponding to the second subscript ( h here). If after calculations, Kb is found to be positive
then point a is actually positive with respect to point h, in agreement with the reference polarity signs
But if Vuhis negative, the actual polarities are opposite those shown.
A constant voltage is called a dc ro/tciye. And a voltage that varies sinusoidally with time is called
an cic idtaye.
A uoltaye source, such as a battery or generator, provides a voltage that, ideally, does not depend
on the current flow through the source. Figure 1-4u shows the circuit symbol for a battery. This source
provides a dc voltage of 12 V. This symbol is also often used for a dc voltage source that may not be
a battery. Often, the + and - signs are not shown because, by convention, the long end-line designates
the positive terminal and the short end-line the negative terminal. Another circuit symbol for a dc voltage
source is shown in Fig. 1-4h. A battery uses chemical energy to move negative charges from the attracting
positive terminal, where there is a surplus of protons, to the repulsing negative terminal, where there is
a surplus of electrons. A voltage generator supplies this energy from mechanical energy that rotates a
magnet past coils of wire.

Fig. 1-4

DEPENDENT SOURCES
The sources of Figs. 1-2 and 1-4 are incfepencfentsources. An independent current source provides a
certain current, and an independent voltage source provides a certain voltage, both independently of
any other voltage or current. In contrast, a dependent source (also called a controlld source) provides
a voltage or current that depends on a voltage or current elsewhere in a circuit. In a circuit diagram, a
dependent source is designated by a diamond-shaped symbol. For an illustration, the circuit of Fig. 1-5
contains a dependent voltage source that provides a voltage of 5 Vl, which is five times the voltage V
that appears across a resistor elsewhere in the circuit. (The resistors shown are discussed in the next
chapter.) There are four types of dependent sources: a voltage-controlled voltage source as shown in
Fig. 1-5, a current-controlled voltage source, a voltage-controlled current source, and a current-controlled
current source. Dependent sources are rarely separate physical components. But they are important
because they occur in models of electronic components such as operational amplifiers and transistors.

Fig. 1-5
CHAP. 11 BASIC CONCEPTS 5

POWER
The rute at which something either absorbs or produces energy is the poit'er absorbed or produced
A source of energy produces or delivers power and a load absorbs it. The SI unit of power is the wut
with unit symbol W. The quantity symbol is P for constant power and p for time-varying power. If 1 J
of work is either absorbed or delivered at a constant rate in 1 s, the corresponding power is 1 W. In
general,
W (joules)
P(watts) =
[(seconds)
The power ubsorbed by an electric component is the product of voltage and current if the current
reference arrow is into the positively referenced terminal, as shown in Fig. 1-6:
P(watts) = V(vo1ts) x I(amperes)
Such references are called associated references. (The term pussiw skgn convention is often used instead
of "associated references.") If the references are not associated (the current arrow is into the negatively
referenced terminal), the power absorbed is P = - VZ.

Fig. 1-6 Fig. 1-7

If the calculated P is positive with either formula, the component actually uhsorhs power. But if P
is negative, the component procltrces power it is a source' of electric energy.
The power output rating of motors is usually expressed in a power unit called the horsepoiwr (hp
even though this is not an SI unit. The relation between horsepower and watts is I hp = 745.7 W.
Electric motors and other systems have an e@cicvq* (17) of operation defined by
power output
Efficiency = ~ ~~~ ~ x 100% or = - P o ~x~ 100%
power input Pin

Efficiency can also be based on work output divided by work input. In calculations, efficiency is
usually expressed as a decimal fraction that is the percentage divided by 100.
The overall efficiency of a cascaded system as shown in Fig. 1-7 is the product of the individual
efficiencies:

ENERGY
Electric energy used or produced is the product of the electric power input or output and the time over
which this input or output occurs:
W(joules) = P(watts) x t(seconds)
Electric energy is what customers purchase from electric utility companies. These companies do not
use the joule as an energy unit but instead use the much larger and more convenient kilowattltour (kWh
even though it is not an SI unit. The number of kilowatthours consumed equals the product of the power
absorbed in kilowatts and the time in hours over which it is absorbed:
W(ki1owatthours) = P(ki1owatts) x t(hours)
6 BASIC CONCEPTS [CHAP.

Solved Problems

1.1 Find the charge in coulombs of ( a ) 5.31 x 10" electrons, and ( h ) 2.9 x 10" protons.
( a ) Since the charge of a n electron is - 1.602 x 10- l 9 C, the total charge is
-1.602 x IO-'"C
5.31 x 1 O 2 ' ms x = -85.1 c
-1
(b) Similarly, the total charge is

2.9 x 1022+ret-mKx 1.602 x 10- l 9 C

-
= 4.65 kC
-1

1.2 How many protons have a combined charge of 6.8 pC?

Because the combined charge of 6.241 x protons is I C, the number of protons is
6.241 x 10'8protons
6.8 x 10-12$?!x -___ - = 4.24 x 10' protons
I$

1.3 Find the current flow through a light bulb from a steady movement of (U) 60 C in 4 s, ( h ) 15 C
in 2 min, and (c) 10" electrons in 1 h.
Current is the rate of charge movement in coulombs per second. So,
Q 60C
(a) I = - =- = 15 C/S 15 A
t 4s
15c l*
(b) I = - x - - - 0.125 C / S= 0.125 A
2& 60s
1 0 2 2 1~$ - 1.602 x to-'" C
(c) I = x ___- x = - 0.445 C/S = - 0.445 A
1P 3600 s -1
The negative sign in the answer indicates that the current flows in a direction opposite that of electro
movement. But this sign is unimportant here and can be omitted because the problem statement does no
specify the direction of electron movement.

1.4 Electrons pass to the right through a wire cross section at the rate of 6.4 x 102' electrons pe
minute. What is the current in the wire?
Because current is the rate of charge movement in coulombs per second,

I =
6.4 x 102'hetrun3
X
-1 c x
I&
= - 17.1 C s = - 17.1 A
1* 6.241 x 60s
The negative sign in the answer indicates that the current is to the left, opposite the direction o f electron
movement.

1.5 In a liquid, negative ions, each with a single surplus electron, move to the left at a steady rate o
2.1 x to2' ions per minute and positive ions, each with two surplus protons, move to the righ
at a steady rate of 4.8 x l O I 9 ions per minute. Find the current to the right.
The negative ions moving to the left and the positive ions moving t o the right both produce a curren
t o the right because current flow is in a direction opposite that of negative charge movement and the sam
as that of positive charge movement. For a current to the right, the movement of electrons to the left is
CHAP. 13 BASIC CONCEPTS 7

negative movement. Also, each positive ion, being doubly ionized, has double the charge of a proton. So,
2.1 x 1 0 -1.602
I=------x---
0 2 ~ x 10-19C
- - x
I&
- - + -2 x 4.8 x-
10”-
~ ~ x
-
1.602_ _x lO-I9C
- - - - ~ ~

1* lJ?k&VlT 60 s l* -1
l*
x- = 0.817 A
60 s

1.6 Will a 10-A fuse blow for a steady rate of charge flow through it of 45 000 C/h?
The current is
45 000 c
x- = 12.5 A
3600s
which is more than the 10-A rating. So the fuse will blow.

1.7 Assuming a steady current flow through a switch, find the time required for (a) 20 C to flow if
the current is 15 mA, ( h ) 12 pC to flow if the current is 30 pA, and (c) 2.58 x 10’’ electrons to
flow if the current is -64.2 nA.
Since I = Q/t solved for t is t = Q/I,
20
(a) t = - --- = 1.33 x 103s = 22.2 min
15 10-3
12 x 10-(j
(h) t = = 4 x 105 s = 1 1 1 h
30 x
2.58 1015- -1c
(c) t = X = 6.44 x 103s = 1.79 h
-64.2 x 10-9A 6.241 x 1 0 1 * ~

1.8 The total charge that a battery can deliver is usually specified in ampere-hours (Ah). An
ampere-hour is the quantity of charge corresponding to a current flow of 1 A for 1 h. Find the
number of coulombs corresponding to 1 Ah.
Since from Q = I t , 1 C is equal to one ampere second (As),
3600 s
- 3600 AS = 3600 C

1.9 A certain car battery is rated at 700 Ah at 3.5 A, which means that the battery can deliver 3.5 A
for approximately 700/3.5 = 200 h. However, the larger the current, the less the charge that can
be drawn. How long can this battery deliver 2 A?
The time that the current can flow is approximately equal to the ampere-hour rating divided by the
current:

Actually, the battery can deliver 2 A for longer than 350 h because the ampere-hour rating for this smaller
current is greater than that for 3.5 A.

1.10 Find the average drift velocity of electrons in a No. 14 AWG copper wire carrying a 10-A current,
given that copper has 1.38 x 1024free electrons per cubic inch and that the cross-sectional area of
No. 14 AWG wire is 3.23 x 10-3 in2.
S

The a ~ w - a g drift
e ( 1 ' ) cqu:ils the current di\,idcd by the product of the cross-sectional area a n d
~~clocity
the electron density:
I0 p' I 1j.d 0.0254 111 Ii2lCmim
1' X
1s 3.23 x 10 3j€8 1.38 x I o ' 4 e.' 1)d - 1.603 x 10 I" q
= -3.56 x I W ' m s
The negative sign i n the answer indicates that the electrons rnn\.'e in it direction opposite that o f curren
f o w . Notice the l o w \docity. An electron tra\tls only 1.38 111 in 1 h, on the a\wage, e ~ though
~ n the electric
impulses produced by the electron inoi~cnienttra\el at near the speed of light (2.998 x 10' m s).

1.1 I Find the work required to lift ii 4500-kg elevator a vertical distance of 50 m.
The ivork required is the product of the distance moved and the force needed t o oL'crcome the weight
of the e l e ~ a t o r .Since this weight i n nc\+'tons is 9.8 tinics the 11i;iss in kilograms,
' F S = (9.8 x 4500)(50)J= 3.2
1.I= MJ

1.12 Find the potential energy in joules gained by a 180-lb man in climbing a 6-ft ladder.
The potential energj' gained by the nian equals the work he had to d o to climb the ladder. The force
i u ~ i g h t ,and the distance is the height of the ladder. The conwrsion factor from ureight in
i n ~ ~ o l ~ xisxhis
pounds t o ;i force i n newtons is 1 N = 0.225 Ib. Thus.
1 I
5 13fi 0.0254 I l l
11' = IXOJti, x 6 y x X X = 1.36 x 103 N111 = 1.46 k J
0.22.5fl IJY I Jd

1.13 How much chemical energy must a 12-V car battery expend in moLing 8.93 x 10'" electrons
from its positive terminal to its negative terminal?
The appropriate formula is 1.1'- Q I: Although the signs of Q and 1' ;ire important. obviously here the
product of these quantities must be positive because energq is required to mo\'e the electrons. S o , the easiest
approach is t o ignore the signs of Q and I : O r , if signs are used, I ' is ncgatiirc because the charge moves to
;i niore negati\ c terminal, and of coiirhe Q is negative bec;iuse electrons h a w ii negative charge. Thus,

- 1 c.
1.1' = Q I ' = 8.03 x 1o2"Am
x ( - I2 V ) x = 1.72 x 10.' VC = 1.72 kJ
6.34 x IolxLlwhmls

1.14 If moving 16 C of positive charge from point h to point (I requires 0.8 J, find 1;,,,, the voltage
drop from point I ( to point h.
w,',,0.8

1.15 In mobing from point ( I t o point b, 2 x 10'" electrons do 4 J of work. Find I;,,,, the voltage drop
from point ( I to point 11.
Worh done h j * the electron!, 1 5 cqui\ alcnt to / i c ~ c / t r t i wwork done 0 1 1 thc electron\, and \ oltage depend
o n u'ork done O I I charge. So. It,,, = - 3 J. but It:,,, = -- Cl,, = 4 J. Thus.

-3 x I()''- - I c
The negative sign indicates that there is a ~ o l t a g crise from 11 to h instead of a ~ o l t a g cdrop. In othcr
bords, point h is more positi\e than point 1 1 .
CHAP. I] BASIC C O N C E P T S 9

1.16 Find y,h. the voltage drop from point II to point h, if 24 J are required to move charges of
(a)3 C, ( h ) -4 C, and (c) 20 x 10" electrons from point N to point h.
If 24 J are required to motfe the charges from point ( I to point h, then -24 J are required to move
them from point h to point (1. In other words. it;,, = -34 J. So,

The negative sign in the answer indicates that point 11 is more ncgative than point h there is a voltage
rise from 11 to h.

Wu h -24 J 6.241 x 10'H-eketm%

((-1 Vah = - X = 0.749 V
Q 20 x 10'qsk&mmS -1c

1.17 Find the energy stored in a 12-V car battery rated at 650 Ah.
From U' = QL' and the fact that 1 As = 1 C.
3600 s
W = 6 5 0 A $ x - --x 1 2 V = 2 . 3 4 ~1 0 " A s x 1 2 V = 2 8 . 0 8 M J
1Y

1.18 Find the voltage drop across a light bulb if a 0.5-A current flowing through it for 4 s causes the
light bulb to give off 240 J of light and heat energy.
Since the charge that flotvs is Q = Ir = 0.5 x 4 = 2 C,

1.19 Find the average input power to a radio that consumes 3600 J in 2 min.
36005 I*
X = 305 s = 30 W
2min- 60s

1.20 How many joules does a 60-W light bulb consume in 1 h ?

From rearranging P = Wr and from the fact that 1 Ws = 1 J,
3600 s
U'=Pt=60Wx l $ ~ - = 216000 WS = 216 kJ
'Y

1.21 How long does a 100-W light bulb take to consume 13 k J ?

From rearranging P = Wt,

1=
w - 1 3 0 0 = 130s
._- --

P 100

1.22 How much power does a stove element absorb if it draws 10 A when connected to a 1 15-V line'?
P=C'I=115x 10W=I.l5kW
10 BASIC CONCEPTS [('HAI'.

1.23 What current does a 1200-W toaster draw from a 120-V line?
From rearranging P = VI,

1.24 Figure 1-8 shows a circuit diagram of a voltage source of Vvolts connected to a current source
of I amperes. Find the power absorbed by the voltage source for
(U) V=2V, I = 4 A
(b) V = 3 V , 1 = - 2 A
(c) V = - 6 V , I=-8A

Fig. 1-8

Because the reference arrow for I is into the positively referenced terminal for I.: the current ancl voltage
references for the voltage source are associated. This means that there is a positive sign (or the absence of
a negative sign) in the relation between power absorbed and the product of voltage and current: P = C'I
With the given values inserted,
(U) P = VZ = 2 x 4 = 8 W
(b) P = v I = 3 ~ ( - 2 ) = - 6 W
The negative sign for the power indicates that the voltage source delivers rather than absorbs power.
(c) P = V I = -6 x ( - 8 ) = 4 8 W

1.25 Figure 1-9 shows a circuit diagram of a current source of I amperes connected to an independent
voltage source of 8 V and a current-controlled dependent voltage source that provides a voltage
that in volts is equal to two times the current flow in amperes through it. Determine the power
P , absorbed by the independent voltage source and the power P , absorbed by the dependent

m"t9
voltage source for ( a ) I = 4 A, (b) I = 5 mA, and (c) I = - 3 A.

- 21

Fig. 1-9

Because the reference arrow for I is directed into the negative terminal of the 8-V source. the
power-absorbed formula has a negative sign: P , = -81. For the dependent source, though, the voltage
and current references are associated, and so the power absorbed is P , = 2 I ( I ) = 21'. With the given current
values inserted,
('HAP. 13 BASIC CONCEPTS 11

( a ) P , = -8(4) = -32 W and P , = 2(4), = 32 W. The negative power for the independent source
indicates that it is producing power instead of absorbing it.
( h ) P , = -8(5 x 10-3)= -40 x 10-3 W = -40mW
P , = 2(5 x 10-3)2= 50 x 10-6 W = 50 pW
(c) P , = -8( -3) = 24 W and P , = 2( - 3), = 18 W. The power absorbed by the dependent source re-
mains positive because although the current reversed direction, the polarity of the voltage did also, and
so the actual current flow is still into the actual positive terminal.

1.26 Calculate the power absorbed by each component in the circuit of Fig. 1-10.

I 6V

0.41

Fig. 1-10

Since for the 10-A current source the current flows out of the positive terminal, the power it absorbs
is P , = - 16(10) = - 160 W. The negative sign iiidicates that this source is not absorbing power but rather
is delivering power to other components in the circuit. For the 6-V source, the 10-A current flows into the
negative terminal, and so P , = -6(10) = -60 W. For the 22-V source, P 3 = 22(6) = 132 W. Finally,
the dependent source provides a current of 0.4(10) = 4 A. This current flows into the positive terminal
since this source also has 22 V, positive at the top, across it. Consequently, P4 = 22(4) = 88 W. Observe that
PI + P2 + P3 + P4 = - 160 - 60 + 132 + 88 = 0 W
The sum of 0 W indicates that in this circuit the power absorbed by components is equal to the power
delivered. This result is true for every circuit.

1.27 How long can a 12-V car battery supply 250 A to a starter motor if the battery has 4 x 106 J of
chemical energy that can be converted to electric energy?
The best approach is to use t = W/P. Here,
P = V l = 12 x 250 = 3000 W
And so
w 4 x 106
t=--=- = 1333.33 s = 22.2 min
P 3000

1.28 Find the current drawn from a 115-V line by a dc electric motor that delivers 1 hp. Assume
100 percent efficiency of operation.
From rearranging P = M and from the fact that 1 W/V = 1 A,

I = - P= 1.w x--745.7w - 6.48 W/V = 6.48 A

I/ 115V IJqf
1.29 Find the efficiency of operation of an electric tnotor that delikxrs I hp izrhile absorbing an inpu
of 900 W.

1.30 What is the operating efficiency of a fully loaded 2-hp dc electric motor that draws 19 A a
100 V ? (The power rating of a motor specifies the output power and not the input power.)
Since the input power is
P,,, = C'I = 100 x 19 = 1900 w
the efficiency is

1.31 Find the input pobver to a fully loaded 5-lip motor that operates at 80 percent etticienc!,.
For almost 2111 calculations. the cflicicncj, is better cxprcsscd iis ;I dccimal fraction thiit is the percentage
diyided by 100. hrhich is 0.8 here. Then from 11 = P,,,,! PI,,,
P(,,,( 5Jy.f 745.7 w
p = - - X = 4.66 k W
' '1 0.8 IhQ-

1.32 Find the current drawn by a dc electric motor that delivers 2 hp while operating at 85 percent
efficiency from a 110-V line.
From P = C'I = '1,

1.33 Maximum received solar power is about I kW in'. If solar panels, which conkert solar energy to
electric energy, are 13 percent efficient, h o w many square inoters of solar cell panels are needed
to supply the power to a 1600-W toaster?
The power from each square meter of solar panels is
P,,,,, = '/PI,,= 0.13 x 1000 = 130 w
So, the total solar panel area needed is
I ni'
Area = 1600AVx = 12.3 I l l '
I30N

1.34 What horsepower must an electric motor develop to piimp water up 40 ft at the rate of 2000
gallons per hour (gal"h)if the pumping system operates at 80 percent efficiency'?
One way to solve for the power is to use the work done by the pump i n 1 h , ~vhichis the Lveight of the
water lifted in 1 h times the height through which it is lifted. This work divided bj. the time taken is the
power output of the pumping system. And this power divided by the cfiicicncy is the input power t o the
pumping system, which is the required output poucr of the electric motor. Some nccdcd d a t a arc that I p
of water uv5gtis 8.33 Ib, and that 1 hp = 5 5 0 ( f t . Ib) s. Thus.
CHAP. I ] BASIC CONCEPTS 13

1.35 Two systems are in cascade. One operates with an efficiency of 75 percent and the other with an
efficiency of 85 percent. If the input power is 5 kW, what is the output power'?
i n0.75(0.85)(5000)W
Pou,= t / l ~ j 2 P= = 3.19 kW

1.36 Find the conversion relation between kilowatthours and joules.

The approach here is to convert from kilowatthours to watt-seconds, and then use the fact that
1 J = 1 WS:
1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3.6 x 10' WS = 3.6 MJ

1.37 For an electric rate of 7#i/kilowatthour, what does it cost to leave a 60-W light bulb on for 8 h ?
The cost equals the total energy used times the cost per energy unit:

1.38 An electric motor delivers 5 hp while operating with an efficiency of 85 percent. Find the cost for
operating it continuously for one day (d) if the electric rate is 6$ kilowatthour.
The total energy used is the output power times the time of operation, all divided by the efficiency. The
product of this energy and the electric rate is the total cost:
1 6c 0.7457w 24M
Cost = 5 W X l-cyx x x x = 6 3 2 = $6.32
0.85 1kJM 1).d I&

Supplementary Problems
1.39 Find the charge in coulombs of (U) 6.28 x 102' electrons and ( h ) 8.76 x 10" protons.
A~Is. (0)- 1006 C , ( h ) 140 C

1.40 How many electrons have a total charge of - 4 nC'?

Ans. 2.5 x 10" electrons

1.41 Find the current flow through a switch from a steady movemcnt of (U) 9 0 C in 6s. ( h ) 900C in
20 min, and (c) 4 x electrons in 5 h.
Am. ( a ) 15 A, ( h ) 0.75 A, ((8) 3.56 A

1.42 A capacitor is an electric circuit component that stores electric charge. If a capacitor charges at a steady rate to
10 mC in 0.02 ms, and if it discharges in 1 p s at a steady rate, what are the magnitudes of the charging and
discharging currents?
Ans. 500 A, 10 000 A

1.43 In a gas, if doubly ionized negative ions move to the right at a steady rate of 3.62 x 10" ions per minute and if
singly ionized positive ions move to the left at a steady rate of 5.83 x 10" ions per minute, find the current to
the right.
Ans. -3.49 A

1.44 Find the shortest time that 120 C can flow through a 20-A circuit breaker without tripping it.
Ans. 6s
14 BASIC CONCEPTS [<'HAP.

1.45 If a steady current flows to a capacitor, find the time required for the capacitor to ( ( I ) charge to 2.5 mC if the
current is 35 mA, ( b ) charge to 36 pC if the current is 18 pA, and ( c ) store 9.36 x 10'- electrons if thc
current is 85.6 nA.
Ans. (a) 71.4 ms, (b) 2 p, (c) 20.3 d

1.46 How long can a 4.5-Ah, 1.5-V flashlight battery deliver 100 mA?
Ans. 45 h

1.47 Find the potential energy in joules lost by a 1.2-Ib book in falling off a desk that is 3 I in high.
Ans. 4.2 J

1.48 How much chemical energy must a 1.25-V flashlight battery expend in producing a current flow of 130 mA
for 5 min?
Ans. 48.8 J

1.49 Find the work done by a 9-V battery in moving 5 x 102"electrons from its positive terminal to its negative
terminal.
Ans. 721 J

1.50 Find the total energy available from a rechargeable 1.25-V flashlight battery with a 1.2-Ah rating.
Ans. 5.4 kJ

1.51 If all the energy in a 9-V transistor radio battery rated at 0.392 Ah is used to lift a 150-lb man. how high in fee
will he be lifted?
Ans. 62.5 ft

1.52 If a charge of - 4 C in moving from point a to point h gives up 20 J of energy, what is CL,?
Ans. -5 V

1.53 Moving 6.93 x 1019 electrons from point h to point (I requires 98 J of work. Find LLb.
Ans. -8.83 V

1.54 How much power does an electric clock require if it draws 27.3 mA from a 110-V line?
Ans. 3W

1.55 Find the current drawn by a 1OOO-W steam iron from a 120-V line.
Ans. 8.33 A

1.56 For the circuit of Fig. 1 - 1 1, find the power absorbed by the current source for ( L J ) 1.' = 4 V. I = 2 mA
(b) V = - 50 V, I = - 150 pA; (c) V = 10 mV, I = - 15 mA; ( d ) V = - 1 20 mV, I = 80 mA.
Ans. (a) -8 mW, ( b ) -7.5 mW, (c) 150 ,uW, ( d ) 9.6 mW

Fig. 1-1 1
CHAP. 13 BASIC CONCEPTS 15

1.57 For the circuit of Fig. 1-12, determine P , , P , , P , , which are powers absorbed, for ( a ) I = 2 A, ( b ) I =
20 mA, and ( c ) I = - 3 A.
Ans. ( a ) P , = 16 W, P , = -24 W, P , = -20 W; ( b ) P , = 0.16 W, P , = -2.4 mW, P , = -0.2 W;
(c) P , = - 2 4 W, P , = - 5 4 W, P 3 = 30 W

I 8V I

0' 61

1 ov

Fig. 1-12

1.58 Calculate the power absorbed by each component in the circuit of Fig. 1-13.
Ans. P, = 16 W, P , = -48 W, P , = -48 W, P , = 80 W

Fig. 1-13

1.59 Find the average input power to a radio that consumes 4500 J in 3 min.
Ans. 25 W

1.60 Find the voltage drop across a toaster that gives off 7500 J of heat when a 13.64-A current flows through
i t for 5 s.
Ans. 110 V

1.61 How many joules does a 40-W light bulb consume in 1 d?

Ans. 3.46 MJ

1.62 How long can a 12-V car battery supply 200 A to a starter motor if the battery has 28 MJ of chemical energy
that can be converted to electric energy?
Ans. 3.24 h

1.63 How long does it take a 420-W color TV set to consume (a) 2 kWh and (b) 15 kJ?
Ans. (U) 4.76 h, ( h ) 35.7 s
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
public walks called parks. The largest, richest in avenues, fields, and
lakes peopled by innumerable ducks and fish, is called Hyde Park.
This is the promenade where all the fashionable world meet. Ladies
and gentlemen on horseback dash down the interminable avenues of
this park, giving loose rein to their fiery steeds. It is a fine sight to
see these animals, so elegant in form, and at the same time full of
fire, pawing the ground, neighing, and fretting at the bit, from their
desire to be off: but still more beautiful to look at are those gentle
ladies on their backs; and when they are going at full pace, bending
slightly forward on their fiery steeds, their flowing skirts, in ample
undulating lines, giving a slender, flexible look to their figures, you
feel carried away, and as if you would like to follow them in that
rapid, anxious race, where peril changes into pleasure, and where the
inebriation of the senses becomes ideality. Such is the fascination
youth, beauty, and strength produce on the mind and senses of all
natures susceptible of feeling. It is a pungent pleasure; the soul
struggles in these meshes of flowers, and their perfume inebriates
and captivates it. I beg pardon of the reader, if, for an instant
attracted by this race of beautiful ladies, my head galloped away with
them. Another time I will hold the reins tighter; and it ought not to
be difficult to stop this little horse of mine, sixty years old.
Hyde Park, as I have said, is larger than the two
others, St James's Park and Regent's Park, and is DISTRIBUTION
OF CRIMEAN
about five miles in circumference, which seems a MEDALS.
good deal; but so it is. These country spaces in the
middle of London are, as have been justly said, the lungs of the great
city. By means of these green oases, impregnated with oxygen, the
air of that gigantic body of London, where millions of men swarm like
ants, is constantly renovated. These parks are rich in timber, and
flowers are there cultivated with every art. There are very few
guards, for great respect is shown for the laws prohibiting the
damaging of the plants. A curious but very just penalty is inflicted by
them, and this is it: If Signor Tizio has damaged a plant, or only
picked a flower, Signor Tizio, according to the gravity of the mischief
he has done, is prohibited from entering those precincts for fifteen or
twenty days. And this is not enough—it would be too little; his name
is posted up to view at all the park entrances, specifying the damage
he has done and the penalty inflicted on him, that everybody who
goes there may read and laugh!
I was present in Hyde Park at the distribution of medals to the troops
on their return from the Crimea. That great national fête was a
splendid success—the whole army in arms and full uniform, every
part of it in its proper place, cavalry, artillery, marines, and infantry.
At the end of a large camp a throne was erected for the Queen, her
children, and her husband, Prince Albert. The Ministers, Court
dignitaries, and Lords surrounded her. The ceremony was a long one.
The troops had been on foot since early morning, and many were the
numbers who received medals. The sun beat down with great force
on our heads, for it was in the month of June. It is a fine sight to see
the youth of England, tall, square-shouldered young fellows, with
upright bearing and brilliant colouring; but notwithstanding all this, it
would seem that for all their strength of nature they cannot endure
hunger. I was present at some little occurrences that astonished me
extremely: two or three of those young men fainted as if they had
been delicate girls, although they had herculean chests and arms. But
so it is: the Englishman, when the hour has come, requires absolutely
to have his tea; if this fails, he can no longer stand on his feet.
That this must really be the case, was
demonstrated to me by the affectionate solicitude ENGLISHMEN
MUST HAVE TEA.
shown by their comrades and the people carefully
conveying these fainting youths to the ambulances. Instead of this
with us Italians, we see young men of twenty bear long marches,
discomfort, and hunger with a bright face. It is the difference of
nature and habits in the two nations. I do not mean, indeed, to say
that we do not feel hunger—in fact, I can say for myself that I feel it
most ferociously; and if this expression seems exaggerated, I will
correct myself and add, brutally and insolently, and will recount a
little anecdote in proof of my appetite, especially after fasting. It is a
trifling matter, that goes as far back as thirty years. At that time of
juvenile effervescence one wishes for much and feels much, and is
not very fastidious about ways and means. The fact is a curious one,
and, to say the truth, would not be very pleasant for me to narrate
were it not that it is peculiar, and with the touch of a brush paints to
the life the character of my early youth. I had quite forgotten it, and
it really would have been a mistake to do so. Those fasting English
soldiers reminded me of it, and I am very glad of it.
The benevolent reader must betake himself back to
the time when I was twenty-six years of age, which, VISIT TO
QUARTO.
in a young artist, sometimes means being
possessed of twenty-six devils. True it is that with time and increase
of years these devils, alas! diminish. Therefore, at my present stand-
point, I feel myself absolutely free of them, and could bear fasting
and hunger without dreaming of committing the impertinence that,
without other preamble, I am about to narrate.
Lorenzo Mariotti, an agent of the Russian Government, as I have
before mentioned, brought me a paper, on which were written the
following words:—
"Professor Duprè is requested to come at an early hour to-morrow
morning to Quarto. A. Demidoff."
Quarto is an enchanting villa that was afterwards in the possession of
the Grand Duchess Maria of Russia; at that time, it was the property
of Prince Anatolio Demidoff, who had bought it from Prince Girolamo
Buonaparte, the father of Princess Matilde. It is four miles distant
from Florence, on the skirts of the steep hill of Monte Morello,
enclosed by beautiful gardens and a fine park. I therefore betook
myself there at an early hour; and in the hopes of quickly
despatching my business, I had not thought of breakfasting before
starting, but merely took a cup of coffee. I got into the carriage, and
arrived there at about eight o'clock. It was a good season of the year,
being May, and the day was a splendid one; in its quietness and
fragrance it reminded me of those most sweet verses of the divine
poet:—

"E quale, annunziatrice degli albori,

 L'aura di maggio movesi ed olezza,
Tutta impregnata dall'erbe e da fiori."[9]
So I tasted the voluptuousness of these first warm days in the pure
quietness of our hills, and I looked forward to a short conversation
with the Prince (as I imagined the motive of his summons), and a
speedy return to Florence. I dismounted, and told the coachman to
wait; he lighted his cigar, took a turn round the villa, and then placed
himself in the shade. I asked for the Prince, and was answered that
he was not up. Then I feared that I should be obliged to wait; but
the message was, "at an early hour." Who knows, however, what is
an early hour to a gentleman? I found out afterwards, as the reader
will soon hear.
I walked about in the apartment, in the court, in the
garden, and in the park, and from time to time I HUNGER AT
QUARTO.
came back to see if the Prince had asked for me;
but the Prince had not yet called. Two good hours were already past.
The pure air of the beautiful country, the pleasant shade in the park,
the odour of the violets and roses, all had served to sharpen my
appetite. I risked asking a servant if he could give me some
breakfast, but he answered that no one could have anything to eat
before his Excellency had ordered his breakfast.
"And is it late before his Excellency orders his breakfast?"
"Ah! that is as it happens,—at mid-day, at one o'clock—when he
thinks best." So saying he left me, and I began my walks again. The
beautiful country seemed to me less beautiful, the shady avenues of
the park had assumed a certain sadness and obnoxious freshness,
the odour from the flowers made my head giddy! What was I to do?
Return to Florence? It was far. And what then of the Prince's
message? I did not wish to fail to meet his invitation. I reflected a
little, and then resolved to make a somewhat rash attempt, but which
succeeded admirably. I had caught sight of the breakfast-room, with
its table all set out with cups, plates, glasses, cakes, confectionery—
in fact with everything, even with flowers in crystal vases that were a
wonder to look at. I went into the room and rang the bell with
violence; in an instant a servant appeared dressed in black, to whom
I turned, and with my head well in the air pronounced in a harsh firm
voice the one word—
"Breakfast!"
The servant disappeared, and returned almost on
the instant with a silver soup-tureen, which he I ORDER
BREAKFAST FOR
placed on the table before me, and then stationed MYSELF.
himself behind me. Two other servants brought me
ham, tongue, caviale, veal cutlets, cold galantine, AFTER A GOOD
and then asked if I wanted Madeira, Bordeaux, or BREAKFAST.
Marsala. I was satisfied with the Bordeaux, and also
partook of a plate of strawberries; and as a last sacrifice, I sipped a
cup of Mocha coffee—really inebriating—lighted my cigar, and lost
myself in the thickest part of the park. I was really beaming. I felt
restored in body, and in a state of perfect wellbeing, feeling a certain
sort of complacency with my spirit, my genius, my quickness—my
impertinence, let us say—which, au fond, was of good service to me
and did nobody any harm. Carlo Bini assures us that the prison so
sharpened his brains that it was as much use to him in expressing his
ideas as style was:—

"La prigione è una lima sì sottile,

Che aguzzando il cervel ne fa uno stile;"

and does not hunger, I say, sharpen the brain? I could cite a
thousand examples of well-known geniuses who have grown up in
the midst of privations and hunger, but I do not wish to be pedantic.
This I know full well, that I should never have been capable of such
an escapade had I not had that formidable appetite, nor should I
have had the idea of satisfying it in that way. Necessity sharpens the
intellect to invent and to act; health and physical wellbeing kindle and
spur on the fancy through flowering pathways of flattering hopes.
Who knows with how many beautiful grilli and beautiful bright-
coloured butterflies, swift of flight, a little glass of Bordeaux, or better
still, a glass of our good Chianti wine, has brightened the life of poets
and artists? I found myself in one of those beautiful dreams. My mind
wandered from one thing to another; the past and the future were
mixed up together. History and fable, religion and romance, light and
serious love, the fantastic and the positive, fine statues, fine
commissions, friends distinguished for rectitude and genius,—all
passed before me. The flowers in the garden seemed to me more
beautiful and more odorous than ever, the sky brighter and purer;
and never did the hills of Artimino, Careggi, or Fiesole, populous with
villas, seem to me so fair. I never gave a thought to the Prince or to
his having sent for me, any more than if it had been all a dream. And
all was a dream; for I fell asleep seated on one of the sofa-chairs
made of reeds, and in my sleep my thoughts went back to those
beautiful legends of history and fable—beautiful women, fine statues,
sweet friends—and to the delightful country, when a slight touch on
my shoulder woke me from my placid sleep. It was one of the
Prince's servants, who was in quest of me to take me to him. To
judge from their dress, the Prince and Princess must have only been
up a short time. The Prince was standing; he had a cup in his hand,
and dipped some pieces of toasted bread into it. From the odour, I
became aware that it was consommé. The Princess was seated,
turning over the leaves of a book of prints. She was of rare beauty,
and the time, the place, and mild season of the year made her seem
even more beautiful. She ought therefore to have seemed and to
have been an object of love and profound admiration to her happy
husband; and if you add to the attractions of youth and beauty, grace
of education, culture of mind, and prestige of birth, the affection of
the man who possessed her should have verged on idolatry. But,
alas! in life such perfect happiness never lasts; and the reader
remembers what I told of the end of this union.
"My dear Duprè, you have arrived a little late, have
you not? I sent for you, but you had not yet come." PRINCE
DEMIDOFF'S
COMMISSION.
"Your Excellency, let me tell you. I arrived betimes—
in fact, very early, as your Excellency indicated I should do in your
note; but——" And here I told him the whole story already known to
my reader; and I cannot describe how delighted he and the Princess
were with it. Now and again the Prince held out his hand to me,
saying, "Bravo! In faith, I like this. Bravo!"
Then he told me what was the object of his sending for me. It was to
give me an order for a life-size statue of Napoleon I., in the very
dress which he possessed, and would furnish me with. He would
procure me a good mask and some authentic portraits; but he
begged me to make it in the shortest possible time. It was very
evident that he wanted to please the Princess, because whilst he was
speaking to me he looked with loving intensity at her, and from time
to time caressed her with a gentleness almost childlike.
It has been said that this man was extravagant and
almost brutal; but when I remember the expression PRINCE
DEMIDOFF'S
of radiant joy he had on his face when he was CHARACTER.
looking at his wife while proposing to give her a
statue, as if it had been only a flower or a fan—when I recall that I
have seen him shed warm tears for the death of Bartolini, and when I
remember his great charity in founding and maintaining the Asylum
of Saint Niccolo,—I cannot but deplore the bad feeling and injustice
of those who take pleasure in blackening his character, in
misinterpreting facts, and maligning his intentions.
The order for the statue of Napoleon proved a failure, as also for that
of the Princess, owing to the separation of husband and wife. And
now let me go back to my place, for oh, how I have wandered away
from the fainting young soldiers in Hyde Park!
The exhibition of the models competing for the Duke of Wellington's
monument was about to be opened, so I thought it better to return
home—all the more, because I wished to stop in Paris on my way
back, as I had been in too great a hurry to see it when I came
through. By this time, nothing that there was to be seen in London
had escaped me, and I could describe with great precision the Docks,
the Tunnel, Westminster, St Paul's, the Tower of London, the Houses
of Parliament, &c., &c.; but to what use? Are there not guide-books?
And my impressions are many, it is true, and not of the common run;
but they would require no little space, and this would change the
simple design and form of these papers.
Two or three days before the opening of the
exhibition of these models, the Minister of Public EXAMINATION OF
THE MODELS IN
Instruction, accompanied by the royal commissioner LONDON.
and other officials, visited the great hall at
Westminster, where the models were exhibited. Some English and a
few foreign artists thought proper to accompany the Minister when
he went to inspect these works. As for me, I felt no such wish; and
not wanting to be thought rude, and as neither the commissioner nor
any of the people with the Minister knew who I was, I reclined in my
shirt-sleeves on one of the cases belonging to these monuments, and
so passed for a common workman in the hall. The commissioner, in
fact, only knew me as a person of trust, who had some ability in
restoring a work in plaster. I hope the reader has not forgotten that
little affair. I was consoled, however, by seeing that the Minister
stopped some time to look at my work, although he passed by others
in too much haste, excusable in many instances, but not in some,
where attention and praise were merited. Be it as it may, I was well
pleased that he stopped before mine—and all the more so, that I did
not form a part of his Excellency's suite. In fact I have been always
very slow in putting myself forward with Ministers of Public Works,
and I don't know to what saint I owe this feeling of respect for the
Ministry. With certain members I have had frank cordial relations,
before they became Excellencies; afterwards, when once they were in
the Ministry, as if by a sort of magic they became for me such
respectable personages that I retired into myself, and kept most
willingly to my own place. Then those poor gentlemen have so much
to do that, without a doubt, if you wanted to see them, you would be
told that they could not receive you. So the fact of it is, that I have so
much respect for them, and just so much for myself, as not to be
willing to annoy them, and there is not a Minister of Public Works
who can say, "This fellow has bored me about this or that thing."
True it is, that by the grace of God I have never felt the necessity of
doing so. Once only, and that not on my own account, but from a
sentiment of dignity and justice, negotiations were entered into with
the Ministers Natoli, Correnti, and Bonghi, as to the completion of a
base for my Tazza, which I mentioned some time back; and as it just
fits in here, I shall now bring this story to a close. The subject is a
delicate, and for me a trying one, but I shall discuss it with calmness,
and in as few short words as truth and reason can be clothed.
The base of the Tazza that I had modelled was
either to be cast in bronze or cut in marble, and the THE BASE OF THE
TAZZA.
last was decided on. Whilst they were looking for a
pure piece of close-grained marble, the revolution
took place, and the Grand Duke left. My model had I LEAVE LONDON.
already been paid for, and I hoped that the present Government,
sooner or later, would have confirmed the commission; but I hoped in
vain. After several years had passed, I asked my friend
Commendatore Gotti, Director of the Royal Galleries, to make known
my claim to the Ministry, which was done; but I obtained nothing.
Later, Professor Dall'Ongaro spoke about it to Correnti, the Minister,
and also obtained nothing. At last Commendatore D'Ancona was most
pressing in speaking to Bonghi the Minister, and Betti the Secretary;
but then came the fall of the Minister with his Cabinet, and I was
really tired out by the whole thing, with its long, wearisome, and
useless negotiations. I must add, that as the model had already been
paid for, the expense for executing it was all that was required; and
yet, notwithstanding all these recommendations, this little sum was
not granted, and I was not given a hearing. And here it is to the
purpose to remind the Ministers of our Government that I for more
than fifteen years have occupied the gratuitous post of Master of
Finishing; and as in the statute creating this office it is declared that
the Royal Government is not wanting in funds to pay the professors
who shall have done the most for the good of their young pupils, it is
to the purpose, I repeat, to remind them of the office that I have
filled, and to declare to them that the pupils I have taught are now
for the most part young living artists—some of them already
professors, cavalieri, and masters in the schools—and that meanwhile
I not only have not obtained a recompense, but even my demand,
which to my belief was but a matter of pure justice, was not even
listened to. But enough of this. I return to London, or rather let me
say I leave it, as my work was finished and in place, only waiting for
the judges. I therefore packed my trunk, paid my landlord, said good-
bye to my friends, and got into the train, thinking of that blessed
Channel where I had suffered so much in crossing.
 CHAPTER XVII.
MY FATHER'S DEATH—A TURN IN THE OMNIBUS—THE FERRARI MONUMENT—I
KEEP THE "SAPPHO" FOR MYSELF—THE "TIRED BACCHANTE" AND THE
LITTLE MODEL—RAPHAEL AND THE FORNARINA—THE MADONNA AND BAS-
RELIEFS AT SANTA CROCE AND CAVALIERE SLOANE—MY DAUGHTER AMALIA
AND HER WORKS—MY DAUGHTER BEPPINA—DESCRIPTION OF THE BAS-
RELIEF ON THE FAÇADE OF SANTA CROCE—I AM TAKEN FOR THE WRONG
PERSON BY THE HOLY FATHER PIUS IX.—MARSHAL HAYNAU—PROFESSOR
BEZZUOLI AND HAYNAU'S PORTRAIT.

Y stay in London had been rather a long one, but it

was necessary for the restorations (and what
restorations!) of my work, and also to see the
wonders of art collected by that powerful nation, by
force of will, money, and time. I stayed there about
two months; and notwithstanding the many and novel
distractions which that vast city offered, and the good health I
enjoyed at that time under a climate so different from ours, I felt
every day more and more keenly the ardent desire to see my family,
so that when I arrived in Paris I delayed very little. The letters which
I received from home breathed the same affectionate longing that I
felt myself; and the gay, thoughtless life of Paris, instead of attracting
me, disgusted me. My daughters by their mother's side in our little
parlour were always present to me; and knowing their dispositions,
and the loving wisdom of the mother, I felt that tender, holy joy
which is difficult to describe, but such as a loving and beloved father
feels for his dear ones. I had lost two years ago my poor father from
cholera. The poor old man had at first resisted the fury of that
tremendous disease. He lived at the Carra, beyond Porta al Prato. All
around death reaped its victims,—young and old, poor and rich; it
spared no one. Almost every evening, at dusk, I went to him to
assure myself of his health. One evening I found him unwell and in
bed; but he had no fever, and his servant-maid, a good girl, served
him with affectionate zeal. I left him quiet. On going away I urged
her to be attentive to my father through fear of the epidemic then
raging. The girl assured me that I need not doubt of her being so,
and that I might be tranquil. The next evening I went back to see
him: he was still in bed, and was better; but he told me that he
stayed there as a precaution, and that he was to get up the following
day, having the physician's permission to do so. The door had been
opened for me by a little boy, to whom he gave lessons in drawing
and ornamentation—Gabriello Maranghi—who to-day is one of our
ornamental marble-workers.
"Oh, Rosa," I said to my father; "where is she?"
MY FATHER'S
"Rosa, poor thing, died this morning. She came ILLNESS—DEATH
OF ROSA.
back from marketing, put down her things, went
into her room, and I have not seen her since. They carried her away
a short time ago!"—and the poor old man was much moved.
This sudden news of a death so instantaneous upset me and
frightened me for my poor father. It was the same whether he stayed
there or was carried elsewhere, for in every district they died in the
same way. I went away sad at heart. The next day he got up, and
was pretty well, even gay—in fact, for several days continued well,
and went on with his work as usual. One morning—it was Sunday—
my wife, who had got up before me, came into the bedroom, waked
me up, and said—
"Nanni, get up; father is ill."
DEATH OF MY
I looked in my wife's face, and read there the FATHER.
nature and gravity of my poor father's illness. I ran
to him; he recognised me, and said—
"My good Giannino, you have done well to come quickly to your
father; I am so glad to see you before I die."
He lived all day, but had spasms of pain and wandered in mind. Then
he died, and his face became serene, as if he were sleeping
peacefully. Whoever has lost a father knows the kind of grief it is!
As I have said, I stayed but a few days in Paris. I saw, on the wing as
it were, and without being able to study them, the monuments of art
in which that great capital is rich. I repeat, I felt an irresistible desire
to return home. Of the artists, I saw only Gendron, whom I had
known in Florence; Anieni, a Roman; and Prince Joseph Poniatowsky,
then in his prime. What was most to my taste was to ride up and
down the streets of Paris in an omnibus to get an idea of the
movement and grandeur of that city; but an incident occurred to me
that prevented my having that desire any longer, and I should have
put an end to this going up and down even if I had not already
determined upon my departure. This was what happened. I had just
come from a walk in the Champs Elysées, when I saw the omnibus
which goes from the Barrière du Trône to the Madeleine standing still.
I said to myself: "Very good; I will get in here, go through all the
Boulevards as far as the Barrière, and without even descending, turn
about again, and when I get back to the Rue du Helder (where I
lodged), I will get out and go home." The omnibus started, drove
through all the Boulevards des Italiens, des Capucines, Poissonnière,
&c., and arrived at the Barrière. The passengers got out, the omnibus
stopped, and the conductor said to me—
"Monsieur, descendez, s'il vous plait."
I RETURN TO
I answered, "Je ne descends pas moi." FLORENCE.

"Pourquoi donc?"
"Parce que je retourne sur mon chemin."
The ill-concealed laughter made me aware of my mistake, and the
conductor, with good manners, gave me to understand that the drive
ended there, and on account of the lateness of the hour there was no
return trip. I got out, and was at least four miles from home. To find
a carriage, I was obliged to take a long walk towards the centre of
Paris, and finally found one, and had myself conveyed home,
muttering against my own stupidity. The next day, without turning
either to the right or to the left, I returned to Italy,—to dear, beautiful
Florence; to the bosom of my family; to my studies; to my works; to
my good pupils; to my faithful workmen; and to my dear friends.
Fortune had favoured me in London: my work had gained one of the
first prizes in the competition. Another prize was obtained also by
Professor Cambi.
I had scarcely got back from London when Count Ferrari Corbelli
ordered from me the monument for his wife, the Countess Berta,
whom he had lost a few days before. This work, which he wished to
see finished as soon as possible, was the cause of my abandoning
the group of the "Deluge," which I had already sketched, as I have
before stated. The monument was composed of a base, on which
was placed the urn containing the body of the deceased. Modesty
and Charity, the principal virtues of the departed Countess, stand
leaning on the angles of the sarcophagus, and above these the Angel
of the Resurrection points the way to heaven for the soul of the
Countess, snatched from the love of her husband and children. The
monument stands under an arch, on which are three putti who hold
up some folds as if they were opening the curtain of heaven. The
background is encrusted with lapis-lazuli. This monument is placed in
the Church of San Lorenzo, in the chapel next to the sacristy. My
friend Augusto Conti liked the conception of this monument, but
objected to the nudity of the child of Charity. I have a sincere respect
for his criticism, as I respect also the one he made on the monument
to Cavour. He is a profound and conscientious critic of art; and
besides this, he has had, and has, for me and my family, a truly
fraternal love, and I remember with emotion the part which he took
during the illness and death of my daughter and my wife.
Contemporaneously with this work I modelled a
"Sappho," and put it at once into marble, by order COUNTESS
FERRARI
of Signor Angiolo Gatti, a dealer in statues; but it
happened that when he should have received the CORBELLI.
statue he had no funds, and so I sent it to our
Italian Exhibition. The Government, which had set apart a sum of
money for the acquisition of the best works of art, decided not to
take my statue, so I have it by me now. It seems to me (I confess
the weakness) as if I had been wronged, so to speak, and as if my
poor "Sappho" resented this wrong from the new Phaons: so I have
wished to keep my faith with her, since the desertion of her lover had
caused her death; and although I have several times had offers not
to be despised, yet I have never been willing to sell her. Who can tell
where this poor "Sappho" will be, and how situated, after my death?
At this same time—that is, in 1857—I made the
model of the "Tired Bacchante"; and the idea of this MODEL OF THE
"BACCHANTE."
figure was suggested to me by a little model who
was brought to me by her mother, and who had never before been
seen naked by any one. The freshness of this young girl, her
unspoiled figure, the delicate beauty, somewhat sensual, of her face,
suggested as a subject the "Tired Dancer," which afterwards was
converted to a "Bacchante"; and as some time before I had made a
little statue, representing Gratitude, for the Signora Maria Nerli of
Siena, the general lines of that statuette served me as a sketch for
this. But were I to say that it was only the beauty of the model, the
subject suggested so spontaneously to me, and the composition
already made, that persuaded me to keep the girl and make the
statue, I should not be telling the exact truth. The mother of this girl
was one of those women who not only throw aside all a mother's
duty and responsibility, but despising all decency, show that they are
capable of worse things. I tried at first to dissuade her from taking
the young girl about to studios, and so forcing her to lose all that a
maiden has most precious—modesty; nor was I silent about the perils
that she was exposing her to. But my words were thrown away, for
she smiled at them as if they were childish: so I kept the young girl
and made the statue. I can assure you that she was a good young
creature, and when I had finished the model I dismissed her with
paternal words. I saw her many years after, so changed and sad, that
one could hardly recognise her. She told me her sad story,—a name
was on her lips, but a daughter's love made her conceal it. I repeat,
she was good, and suffered, but not by any fault of hers. I have
never seen her again: perhaps she is dead—the only good thing that
can befall any of those unhappy creatures.
To some it may seem as if I have been rather
tedious about this poor Traviata; but most people, I THE NUDE
MODEL.
hope, have found my indignation reasonable, for
the condition of such a girl as this is most sad and humiliating,—
forced by her mother, who ought to be the jealous guardian of the
modesty and innocence of her child, to strip herself naked before a
man. Even though her mother remain there present, it is always a
hard thing, and most disagreeable to a young woman jealous of her
good name, and dreading the looks and thoughts of the man there
before her. It is not even impossible that it may be thought I have
studiously and affectedly deplored such cases as these, as if I wished
to show myself better than I am. I have no answer to give to any one
who thinks thus, for in these papers he will find nothing to justify
such an opinion. I only desire to remind the profane in art, that when
we have a model before us, our mind and all our strength is so
absorbed in our work, and the difficulties are so great in taking from
nature just so much as is required for the character, expression, and
form of our subject, that nothing else affects us. He who does not
credit this is not an artist, and does not feel art.
I see a little smile of incredulity, almost of triumph, come over the
face of my unbelieving reader, and the old story, so often sung and
perhaps exaggerated, of Raphael and the Fornarina placed before
me, to belie my words. This case of Raphael and the Fornarina was a
unique one, and quite different from the ordinary relations that exist
between the artist and his models. A model is for us like an
instrument or a tool, necessary for our work. If good and beautiful,
we prize her and respect her as we would a good tool; if neither
beautiful nor good, we bid her be off. The Fornarina was beautiful,
and perhaps she may have been even good; but unfortunately she
was of a sanguine temperament, imaginative, and ardent, as she
appears from the portraits Raphael has left of her. The graceful
nature, the delicate figure of the young artist, and the prestige of his
fame, roused the love and ambition of the beautiful Trasteverina.

"Amor che a nullo amato amar perdona,"[10]

"Love, that exempts no one beloved from loving,"

seized hold of that angel and smothered him in its embrace. What
has this most fatal story to do with our usual artistic life? To-day
there are no more Fornarinas, and, above all, there are no Raphaels;
and if by chance an artist falls in love with his model, why, he marries
her, and there is an end of it. In conclusion, a good and beautiful
model that willingly and honestly (I use this word for want of a
better) does her business, I like and employ; but a simple, good-
natured, ignorant young girl forced to this shame by her own mother,
irritates me and makes me sad.
At this time they were making the façade of the
Church of Santa Croce, with the most valuable aid RAPHAEL AND
THE FORNARINA.
of Cavaliere Sloane, to whom we are chiefly
indebted that it was possible to complete this work. In the design of
the façade there were bas-reliefs in the arches over the three doors:
over the middle door the "Triumph of the Cross"; over that of the
right nave the "Vision of Constantine"; and over the other, on the left,
the "Refinding of the Cross." I had already made for the façade the
Madonna, who stands high up over the cuspide of the middle door;
and because the subject was dear to me, as also the idea which it
should convey, I was content with a price which would barely cover
the cost of making it, without counting my work on the model. But
these three bas-reliefs were much more arduous work; and as I could
not make them at the same rate as I had made the Madonna, I
refused. Cavaliere Sloane, however, who much desired that these
bas-reliefs should be made, came to me and begged me to accept
them. As to the price, he assured me that we should agree, and that
he would himself pay it, because he wished that the façade should be
made by me. I took time to reply, and reflecting that the three bas-
reliefs would take much more time than I had to dispose of, and
desiring to help my two clever and affectionate pupils, I proposed to
Cavaliere Sloane to divide this labour into three parts. The larger bas-
relief, that over the central door, I would make; the other two, over
the lateral doors, should be made, one by Sarrocchi of Siena, and the
other by Emilio Zocchi of Florence. Sloane was satisfied with my
proposition, but with the understanding that I should be answerable
for the excellence of these works, and while I should leave these
artists freedom in their conceptions, I should direct them in such
conceptions as well as in the execution. This I formally promised to
do, and the work was decided upon.
These bas-reliefs, which I relinquished to my
scholars, recall to my mind other works also given BAS-RELIEFS ON
SANTA CROCE.
up to scholars, but not mine. Among these is
Professor Costa of Florence. In the beginning of my artistic career,
when I was making the "Cain" and "Abel," "Giotto," and "Pius II.," I
had also a commission to make a statue representing Summer, for
one of the four seasons which ornament the palace once called
Batelli. This commission, though a poor one, I should have executed,
because I had engaged to do so, and poor Batelli had urged it in a
friendly way; but Pietro Costa, then very young, studious, and needy,
begged it of me, and I, with the consent of the person who had given
the commission, gave it up to him, and it was a great success.
Now that I am speaking of my scholars, it is but
just that I should mention my daughter Amalia. She MY DAUGHTER
AMALIA.
used at that time to come and see me in my studio
with her mother and sisters; and while the little Beppina and Gigina
stayed out in the little square playing together and gathering flowers,
Amalia remained in my studio silently watching me at work. When
her mother was getting ready to take her home, she was so unwilling
to tear herself away from gazing at my work, that I asked her one
day—
"Would you like to do this work?"
"Yes, papa," the child quickly replied.
"Well, then," I said, "stay with me."
Then I turned to my wife and said, "Leave Amalia with me for
company; she can return home with me." I arranged a slate on a
little easel in form of a reading-desk for her, prepared some bits of
clay, and showed her how to spread the clay to a certain thickness on
the slate as a foundation; then I placed before her a small figure of
one of the bas-reliefs from the doors of San Giovanni, by Andrea
Pisano, and I said to her,—"With this little pointed stick you must
draw in the figure, then you must put on clay to get the relief; but
first I must see if your drawing is like the original. Only the outline is
necessary, and this line should only reproduce the movement and
proportion of the little figure you have before you. Do you
understand?" The child understood so well, that, at the first trial, she
traced all the outline of the figure correctly. It must, however, be
remembered that Amalia and her sisters had taken lessons in drawing
from me, and had always kept them up.
From that day to this Amalia has never left the
studio, and art has become so dear a thing to her AMALIA DUPRÈ
AND HER WORKS.
that she can now no longer do without it. Her works
are well known. Besides portraits, of which she has many, the greater
number of them in marble, she has modelled and executed in marble
various statues and bas-reliefs. The statues are: the "Child Giotto,"
Dante's "Matelda," "St Peter in Chains," the Monument of the Signora
Adele Stracchi, and that of our dearest Luisina—statues all life-size,
and except the "Matelda" and "St Peter," all cut in marble; also two
small statues, a "St John," and an Angel throwing water, for the
baptismal font in a rich chapel of one of Marchese Nerli's villas; also a
little Angel, still in plaster, and a group of the Madonna and Child with
a lamb, for the Church of Badia in Florence. The bas-reliefs are: the
Madonna, accompanied by an angel, taking to her arms the youthful
soul of the daughter of the Duchess Ravaschieri of Naples. For
Arezzo: the Sisters of Charity conducting the asylum children to the
tomb of Cavaliere Aleotti, in act of prayer and gratitude; eight saints
in bas-relief for the pulpit of the Cathedral of San Miniato; four bas-
reliefs for monuments in that same cathedral to the following persons
—"Religion" for Bishop Poggi, "History" for Bernardo Buonaparte,
"Physics" for Professor Taddei, and "Poesy" for the poet Bagnoli; a
font, with a small statue of Sant'Eduvige, for the Countess Talon of
Paris; a bas-relief for the lunette over the door of my new studio at
Pinti; a little bronze copy of the "Pietà"; a copy of the "Justice," also
in bronze; a statuette of St Joseph, and a statue of St Catherine of
Siena, in terra cotta, for the chapel of a pious refuge for poor children
at Siena; a little group in marble of the Virtù teologali for Signor
Raffaello Agostini of Florence; and a large statue, life-size, of the
Madonna Addolorata, in terra cotta, for the Church of St Emidio at
Agnone. All these works, you understand, were done by her as a
pleasant way of exercising herself in her art, gratuitously, as is most
natural; but it did not so appear to the tax-agent, who, however, was
obliged to correct himself by cancelling her name from the roll of
taxpayers, where it had been put. Poor Amalia, working from pure
love of art, doing good by giving your work away, and often the
worse for it in your pocket; and then to behold yourself taxed in the
exercise and sale of your work! A pretty thing indeed!
As I am now on a subject that attracts me, I cannot
tear myself from it in such a hurry. It is not AMALIA'S
CHARACTER.
permitted me to speak of the artistic merit of my
daughter. My opinion would be a prejudiced one, both as father and
as master, and therefore I have restricted myself only to note down
the works that she has done so far; but I cannot refrain from making
known the internal satisfaction I feel in seeing my teaching
productive of such good fruit. It fell on ground so well prepared that
it sprouted out abundantly and spontaneously. The consolation a
master feels when he sees his pupil understand and almost divine his
thought, is very great; and when this pupil is his own daughter, one
may imagine how much the greater it is. And when I think of her
modest nature, shrinking from praise, desirous of good, tender and
compassionate with the poor in their sorrow, grieving as I do for the
many irreparable family misfortunes, I still thank the Lord that He has
let me keep this angel, and also my other daughter Beppina, who is
not less loving to us and to her husband, by whom her love is
returned in a Christian spirit. She also is endowed by nature with
sentiment for art, and her drawings and certain little models in clay
are the indications of wide-awake, ready aptitude. I treasure a bust
of Dante that she modelled, and that was cut in marble, and deplore
that the new life she has entered upon, and perhaps a delicate
feeling of consideration for her sister, have made her desist from the
continuation of a career well begun. Now she is a mother; and the
duties of a mother are so noble and so arduous as to repress any
other tendencies even more natural to her and more attractive.
Now let us return to the façade of Santa Croce. I
ordered the "Refinding of the Cross" from Sarrocchi, THE FAÇADE OF
SANTA CROCE.
and the "Vision of Constantine" from Zocchi; and
both Zocchi and Sarrocchi set themselves at once to
work. Here is the explanation of the conception of BAS-RELIEF,
TRIUMPH OF THE
my bas-relief: It seemed to me that the "Triumph or CROSS.
Exaltation of the Cross" ought to be explained by
means of persons or personifications that the Cross, with its divine
love, had won or conquered. The sign of the Cross stands on high
resplendent with light, and around it are angels in the act of
adoration. Under the Cross, and in the centre of the bas-relief on the
summit of a mountain, there is an angel in the act of prayer,
expressive of the attraction of the human soul towards Divinity. By
means of prayer descends the grace that warms and illuminates the
intellect and affections of man. The affections and intellect, divided
from the Cross, again return to the Cross, and are expressed by the
following figures that stand below: A liberated slave, half seated, half
reclining, with his face and eyes turned upward, expressive of
gratitude for his liberation,—for from the Cross descended and spread
over all the earth that divine word of human brotherhood; and near
the slave a savage on his knees, leaning on his club; the stupidity
and fierceness of whose look are subdued and illuminated by the
splendour of the Cross. These two impersonations are in the centre
below, leaving the space to the right and left for the following
personages: On the right of the person looking at the bas-relief is
Constantine unsheathing his sword when he beheld the sign and
heard the words, "In hoc signo vinces"; near Constantine is the
Countess Matilda, whose pious attitude revealed her strong love for
the Church of Christ, and enabled it to put up a barrier against
foreign arrogance, and to defend the liberty of the Italian
Communes; behind her, nearly hidden, owing to her holy timidity, the
Magdalen, to indicate that the ardours of lust were conquered by the
fire of divine love. On his knees, bent to the ground, with his face in
his hands, is St Paul the elect, who from an enemy had become the
strenuous defender of the Gospel and apostle of the Gentiles. St
Thomas, with one knee on the ground, a book in his hand, in a
modest pensive attitude, recalls the words of Jesus, who said, "Bene
scriptisti de me, Thoma." A little in the background, near Constantine,
is the Emperor Heraclius, dressed in sad raiment, commemorative of
the wars against the Christians; and a Roman soldier bearing the
standard inscribed with "S.P.Q.R." closes the composition on this part
of the bas-relief. On the left side the principal figure is Charlemagne;
an unsheathed sword is in one hand, and in the other a globe with a
cross, emblems of his vast dominions and his mission of propagating
the true faith; he also represents the greatest material power
conquered for the glory of the Cross. Dante is near him—the greatest
Christian intellectual power—and he holds in his hand the three
'Canticles,' called by him 'Poema Sacro.' Near Dante the poor monk of
Assisi, with his hands pressed to his breast, looking lovingly and with
fixed attention at the Cross. In these three figures are represented
the dominator of the world, the dominator of the spirit, and the
dominator of poverty and humility attracted by love of the Cross. To
complete this group you see St Augustine in his episcopal robes,
holding in his hand a volume of 'The City of God'; and behind them a
martyr with a palm, as pendant to the Roman soldier on the opposite
side.
Such is the composition of the "Triumph of the
Cross," which is above the middle door of that THE TRIUMPH OF
THE CROSS.
temple where the ashes of Michael Angelo and
Galileo rest, and where it has been my desire for so many years that
a memorial monument to Leonardo da Vinci should be placed. And,
vain though it be, I shall always call for it louder and louder, the more
that I see the mediocrity that a want of taste continues to erect
there.
As it is not permissible for me to speak of the praise I had for this
work, I will not pass over in silence a criticism that was made to me
about my having selected the Countess Matilda to put into my
composition. It was objected that the Countess Matilda served the
Pope, served the Church of Rome, but did not do homage especially
to the Cross. I have given the reason of her serving the Pope. I have
already given a few words in explanation of that personage; and as
for the distinction that there is between the Church of Christ and
Christ Himself, I must frankly say that I do not understand it. Let not
the reader believe, however, that I am one of those Christians
desirous of being more Christian than the Pope himself, and
excessively intolerant and passionate. No;
I am with the teaching of the apostles, and that
seems to me enough, for it includes all, even PIUS IX. IN
FLORENCE.
comprising the beautiful exhortation of Father
Dante, when he says—

"Avete il vecchio e il nuovo Testamento,

E il pastor della Chiesa che vi guida,"[11] &c.

"Ye have the Old and the New Testament,

And the pastor of the Church who guideth you."

In fact—not now, but soon—I will let you know, and touch with your
hand, so to speak, the fact that I am not in the good graces of some
of those people who depicted me to the eyes of the Holy Father after
the manner of a bad barocco painter—falsifying proportions,
character, and expression. But, as I have said, I will return to this
later on; and meanwhile, I must say that the Holy Father did not
know me at all, as the only time that I had the honour of bending
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