MODERN GEOMETRY  The next great advance in geometry

was made by Euclid in 30o BC, when

CHAPTER 1: CLASSICAL EUCLIDEAN he wrote a book titled “Elements”
GEOMETRY  Euclid’s Elements are a collection of
13 books that contain theorems,
OVERVIEW: constructions, and geometrical
 The origin of “geometry” comes from proofs.
the Greek word “geometrein” (geo  Euclid also presented an ideal
means earth and metrein means to axiomatic form in this text (now
measure). Geometry was oiginally known as Euclidean Geometry).
the science of measuring land.  Euclidean geometry is the study of
 The study of Geometry is extremely lines, angles, solid shapes, and
ancient and has been carried on for figures using axioms and postulates
many thousand of years, across all to prove propositions using a small
civilizations: Egypt, Babylonian, set of statements that are accepted
India, China, Greece, the Incas, etc. as true.
 Geometry’s origins go back to
approximately 3, 000 BC in ancient
Egypt. UNDEFINED TERMS:
 Ancient Egyptians used an early form
of geometry for a variety of  Undefined terms in geometry refer to
purposes, including land surveying, elements that, although often
pyramid construction and astronomy. explained, do not have a formal
 The Greeks were the first to establish definition. These elements serve as a
the concept of proofs in a systematic foundation for other well-defined
way. elements and theorems. The lack of
 According to the Rhind Papyrus, the a definition of terms
Egyptians in 1800 BC had the like point and line do not make them
approximation π = 3.1416. less important or less concrete.
 Egyptian Geometry was not a  Undefined terms are concepts that
science in the Greek sense, but are usually described through
rather a collection of mathematical examples and visual representations
rules with no rationale or for not having a formal description.
justification. Some examples are point, line,
 In Arithmetic and mathematics, the plane, and set. Each of these terms
Babylonians were far ahead of the is of extreme importance for the
Egyptians. They also knew the construction of theorems and other
Pythagorean Theorem. concepts.
 Otto Neugebauer;s recent research  In Euclidean geometry, undefined
has uncovered a previously terms, which are arbitrary and could
undiscovered Babylonian Algebraic easily be replaced by other terms,
effect on Greek mathematics. normally include points, lines and
 The Pythagorean Schools systematic planes; it would be possible to
foundation of Plane Geometry was develop Euclidean geometry using
brought to a conclusion by the such concepts as distance and angle
mathematician Hippocrates in the is undefined. Definitions of new
Elements around 400 BC. words involve the use of undefined
 The Pythagoreans were never able to terms.
develop a proportional theory that  For example, when we say polygon,
applied to irrational lengths. we mean that it is a plane figure
 Eudoxus, whose theory was bounded by a finite number of a line
incorporated into Book V of Euclid’s segments.
Elements, later achieved this  However, from the definition itself,
we must also define the other terms
used: plane figure and line segment.
 If we define a line segment as a part  A Line has no thickness.
of a line that is bounded by two  A line’s length extends in one
endpoints. We have to define again dimension and goes one forever in
the word line and endpoints. That’s both directions.
why we have to stop somewhere, we  A line has infinite length, zero width
have to have some undefined terms- and zero height.
terms that do not require definition.  A Line is assumed to be straight. (in
Euclidean Geometry)
 POINT refers to the idea of an exact,  A line is drawn with arrowheads on
fixed location. both ends.
 A This is point A  A line is named by a single lowercase
 A point in geometry, can be defined script letter, or by any two (or more)
as a dimensionless mark that points which lie on the line.
represents a location in space. Its
lack of dimensions refers to the
absence of width, height, and depth
of a point. This is line AB
 This definition sounds
counterintuitive because a point is  The thickness of a line makes no
visually presented by a small circle, difference.
which, being a geometric figure, has  Definition: Collinear points are points
two dimensions. However, one must that lie on the same straight line.
be aware that a visual representation  Postulate: One, and only one,
usually brings an extrapolation of straight line can be drawn through
what an element actually is in two distinct points.
theory.
 A point indicates a location (or  PLANE is described as a flat surface
position) in space. with infinite length and width, but no
 A point has no dimension (actual thickness.
size)  A symbol of a plane in Geometry is
 A point has no length, no width, and usually trapezoid, to appear three-
no height (thickness) dimensional and understood to be
 A point is usually named with a infinitely wide and long. A single
capital letter. capital letter, or three points drawn
 In the coordinate plane, a point is on it, name the plane.
named by an ordered pair, (x, y).

 The size of the dot drawn to

represent a point makes no
difference since points have no size  A plane is named by a single letter or
and they simply represent a location. by three coplanar, but non-collinear
points.
 LINE is a set of infinite many points  While the diagram of a plane has
arranged in a straight path which edges, remember that the plane
extends endlessly in opposite actually has no boundaries.
directions.  Definition: Coplanar points are points
 A Line can also be described as that lie in the same plane
infinitely long straight mark or band
that goes on forever in both  SET can be described as a collection
directions but have no width or of objects, in no particular order, that
height.
 you are studying or mathematically
manipulating.
Sets can be all these things:
 Physical objects like angles, rays,
triangles, or circles.  To produce a finite straight line
 Numbers, like all positive even continuously in a straight line or a
integers; proper fractions; or terminated line (a line segment) can
decimals smaller than 0.001 be produced indefinitely.
 Other sets, like set of all even
numbers and the set of multiples of Postulate 3: “A circle can be drawn with
five; the set of acute angles and the any center and any radius.”
set of all angles less than 15˚.  Any circle can be drawn from the end
 In geometry, we use sets to group or start point of a circle and the
numbers or items together to form a diameter of the circle will be the
single unit, like all the triangles on a length of the line segment.
plane or all the straight angles on a  Given any straight-line segment,
coordinate grid. a circle, can be drawn having the
segment as radius and one endpoint
as center.
EUCLID’S FIRST FOUR POSTULATES:

Postulate 1: “A straight line can be drawn

from any point to another point.”
 This postulate states that at least
one straight line passes through two
distinct points but he did not  To describe a circle with any center
mention that there cannot be more and distance.
than one such line. Although
throughout his work he has assumed Postulate 4: “All right angles are equal to
there exists only a unique line one another.”
passing through two points.  All the right angles (i.e. angles whose
measure is 90°) are always
congruent to each other i.e. they are
equal irrespective of their length of
the sides or their orientations.

 This postulate can be extended to

say that a unique (one and only one)
straight line may be drawn between
any two points.
Postulate 5: “Given a line L and a point P
Postulate 2: “A terminated line can be
not on the line, exactly one line can be
further produced indefinitely.”
drawn through P which is parallel to L.
 In simple words what we call a line
segment was defined as a
terminated line by Euclid. Therefore,
this postulate means that we can
extend a terminated line or a line
segment in either direction to form a
line. In the figure given, the line
segment AB can be extended as
shown to form a line.
PARALLEL POSTULATE OR EUCLID’S
5TH POSTULATE:
  Euclid’s first four postulates have
always been readily accepted by
mathematicians. The fifth postulate-
the “Parallel Postulate” however,
became highly controversial.
 The Fifth Postulate is often called the
Parallel Postulate even though it  Moreover, if two parallel lines are cut
does not specifically talk about by a transversal, then the
parallel lines; it actually deals with corresponding angles are equal .
the ideas of parallelism.  REMEMBER: A transversal line is a
line that crosses or passes through
 The consideration of alternatives to Euclid’s
two other lines.
Parallel Postulate resulted in the development
of non-Euclidean Geometry.

Postulate 5: “If a straight line falling on

two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side of it taken together less
than two right angles, then the two straight
lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that
side on which the sum of angles is less than  Corresponding angles are equal
two right angles.” when two parallel lines are cut by a
 If one line intersects two other lines, transversal.
then can you tell whether these two
lines are parallel or not?
 NOTE: If the sum of two interior
angles is 180˚, then it is a parallel
line.

1. m ∠1 = m ∠5
 This postulate says that if l // m, then

2. m ∠2 = m ∠6
3. m ∠3 = m ∠7
 In the given diagram, the sum of 4. m ∠4 = m ∠8
angle 1 and angle 2 is less than
180°, so lines n and m will meet on  Alternate-Interior Angles are
the side of angle 1 and angle 2. formed when a transversal passes
 Euclid says in his 5th postulate, if the through two lines. The angles that
sum of two angles is less than two are formed on opposite sides of the
right angles on the side, then two transversal and inside the two lines
line would eventually meet on that are alternate-interior angles.
side.

 Other examples of alternate-interior

angles:
  AB is parallel to CD. Since the angle
EGB equals the angle GHD and the
angle EGB equals the angle AGH.
Therefore, the angle AGH equals the
angle GHD. And they are alternate.
Therefore, AB is parallel to CD.
 Next, since the sum of the angles
BGH and GHD equals two right
angles and the sum of the angle AGH
PROPOSITION: “If a straight line falling on
and BGH also equals two right
two straight lines make the alternate
angles, therefore, the sum of angles
angles equal to one another, the straight
AGH and BGH equals the sum pf the
lines will be parallel to one another”
angles NGH and GHD.
 Subtract the angle BGH from each.
Therefore, the remaining angle AGH
equals the remaining angle GHD.
And they ae alternate, therefore, AB
is parallel to CD.
 Therefore, if a straight line falling on
two straight lines makes the exterior
 PROOF: Let ST be a transversal angle equal to the interior and
cutting line AB and CD in such a way opposite angle on the same side or
that angles BST and CTS are equal the sum of the interior angles on the
(labeled a in the figure). same side qual to right angles, the
 Assume that AB and CD meet in a straight line is parallel to one
point P in the direction of B and D. another.
Then in triangle SPT, the exterior
angle CTS is equal to the interior PROPOSITION: “A straight line falling on
opposite angle TSP. But this is parallel straight line make the alternate
impossible. It follows that AB and CD angles equal to one another, the exterior
cannot meet in the direction of B and angle equal to the interior and opposite
D. By similar argument, it can be angle, and the interior angles on the same
shown that they cannot meet in the side equal to two right angles.”
direction of A and C. Hence, they are
parallel.

PROPOSITION: “If a straight line falling on

two straight lines make the exterior angle
equal to the interior and opposite angle on
the same side, or the interior angles on the
same side equal to two right angles, the  PROOF: Let AB and CD be parallel
straight lines will be parallel to one lines cut in points S and T,
another” respectively, by the transversal ST.
 Assume that angle BST is greater
than angle CTS. It follows that the
sum of angles BST and STD is
greater than two right angles and
consequently the sum of angles AST
and CTS is less than two right angles.
 PROOF: Let the straight-line EF Then, by Postulate 5, AB and CD
falling on the two straight line AB must meet.
and CD make the exterior angle EGB  We conclude that angle BST cannot
equal to the interior and opposite be greater than angle CTS. In a
angle GHD, or the sum of the interior similar way, it can be shown that
angle on the same side, namely BGH angle CTS cannot be greater than
and GHD, equal to two right angles. angle BST. The two angles must be
 equal and the first part of the Playfair’s Axiom: “Through a given point,
proposition is proved. The remaining not on a given line, exactly one line can be
parts are then easily verified. drawn parallel to the given line.”
 Playfair’s Axiom is equivalent to
the 5th Postulate in the sense that it
ATTEMPTS TO PROVE THE PARALLEL can be deducted from Euclid’s five
POSTULATE: postulates and common notions,
while conversely, the 5th Postulate
Given: Point P not on-line K. can be deduced from Playfair’s
Axiom together with the common
notions and first tour postulates.

The Angle-Sum of a Triangle: “A second

alternative for the 5th Postulate is the
familiar Theorem: (The sum of the three
angles of a triangle is always equal to two
right angles.)”
 This is a consequence of Playfair’s
Axiom, and hence of the 5th
Postulate, is well known.

The Existence of Similar Figures

 The following statement is also
 Let Q be the foot of the
equivalent to the 5th Postulate and
perpendicular form P to K.
may be substituted for it, leading to
 Let m be the line through P
the same consequences:
perpendicular to line PQ.
 “There exists a pair of similar
 Let m is parallel to k.
triangles, i.e., triangles which are not
 Let n be any line through P distinct
congruent, but have the three angles
from m and line PQ.
of one equal, respectively, to the
 Let ray PR be a ray of n between ray
three angles of the other.”
PQ and a ray of m emanating from P.
 There is a point A between P and Q.
Equidistant Straight Lines
 Let B be the unique point such that Q
 Another noteworthy substitute is the
is between A and B and AQ is
following:
congruent to QB.
 “There exists a pair of straight lines
 Let S be the foot of the perpendicular
everywhere equally distant from one
from A to n.
another.”
 Let C be the unique point such that S
 Once the 5th Postulate is adopted,
is between A and C and AS is
this statement follows, for them all
congruent to SC.
parallels have this property of being
 There is a unique circle G passing
everywhere equally distant. F the
through A, B and C.
above statement is postulated, we
 K is the perpendicular bisector of AB,
can easily deduce the 5th Postulate
and n is the perpendicular bisector of
by first proving that there exists a
AC.
triangle with the sum of its angles
 K and n meet at the center of G.
equal to two right angles.
 The parallel postulate has been
proven.

SUBSTITUTES FOR EUCLID’S FIFTH

POSTULATE:
 (5) “That, if a straight line falling on
two straight lines make the
interior angles on the same side
less than two right angles, the
two straight lines, if produced
indefinitely, meet on that side on
which are the angles less than
the two right angles.
 The problem with using Euclid's five
axioms as the foundation for
Euclidean Geometry course is that
Euclid's system has number of a
CHAPTER 2: HILBERT’S AXIOMS flaws.
 Euclid attempted to describe all
Topics: meanings and failed to see the
1. Flaws in Euclid importance of ambiguous terms.
2. Axioms of Betweenness other assumptions were made based
3. Axioms of Congruence on preconceptions that were
4. Axioms of Continuity specified as postulates by Euclid.
5. Axioms of Parallelism Furthermore, many proofs depend on
diagrams and assumptions about
INTRODUCTION: diagrams.
 The Axiom set of Hilbert is an  In the analysis of Euclidean
example of what is known as Geometry, two distinct bit similar
Synthetic Geometry. axiomatic systems are used:
 Synthetic geometry (sometimes Synthetic Geometry and Metric
referred to as Axiomatic Geometry or Geometry. Focusing on Synthetic
even Pure Geometry) is a geometry Geometry, in his book "Gundlagen
without the use of coordinates. It der Geonetrie (Foundations of
relies on the axiomatic method for Geometry), published in 1899, David
proving all results from a few basic Ililbert (18-62-1943) published a list
properties initially called postulates, of axioms for Euclidean Geometry,
and at present called axioms. which are axioms for a Synthetic
 Betweenness and congruence are Geometry.
undefined words in synthetic
geometry: properties of congruence HILBERT'S AXIOMS
are given in the axioms: there are no OVERVIEW:
axioms for distance and angle  Quite a few of Euclid's proofs are
measurement. based on reasoning from diagrams.
 Axioms of Measure or Archimedes’ To make these proofs rigorous, a
Axiom, on the other hand, is related much larger system explicit axioms
to length measurement by providing is needed. Many such axiom systems
a method of comparing to arbitrary have been proposed. One of the
segments. most popular is the modified version
 The five postulates (axioms) are: of David Hilbert's System of Axioms.
(1) “To draw a straight line from any  Hilbert's system was not the first, but
point to any point.” his axioms are perhaps the most
(2) “To produce (extend) a finite intuitive and are certainly the closes
straight line continuously in a in spirit to Euclid.
straight line.”  During the first quarter of the 20th
(3) “To describe a circle with any century. Hilbert as considered the
center and a distance (radius).” leading mathematician of the world.
(4) “That all right angles are equal to He made outstanding, original
one another.” contributions to a wide range of
mathematical fields as well as to
 Physics. He is perhaps known as the justify a premise, leading to logical
foundations of Algebraic Number inconsistencies.
Theory, infinite-dimensional spaces
and mathematical logic. CHALLENGES IN EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY EXTENSIONS
HILBERT'S AXIOMS Difficulty in Expanding to Higher
 Ililbert has been quoted as saying: Dimensions
One must be able to say at all Extending Euclidean geometry to higher
times---instead of points, lines, and dimensions faces challenges and
planes---tables, chairs, and bee limitations, impacting its applicability.
mugs." Incompatibility with Modern Physics
 In other words, since no properties of Euclidean geometry's limitations in
points, lines, and planes may be representing curved spacetime and
used in a proof other than the relativistic effects pose challenges in
properties given by the axioms, we modern physics.
might as well call these undefined Inadequacy in Describing Real-world
terms by other names. Phenomena
 Hilbert's axioms are divided into five Euclidean geometry's limitations in
groups: describing non-Euclidean phenomena
o Axiom of incidence restrict its applicability to real-world
o Axiom of betweenness scenarios.
o Axiom of congruence
o Axiom of continuity 02 CHALLENGES TO THE CONCEPT OF
o Axiom of parallelism PARALLEL LINES IN EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY

NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRIES
FLAWS IN EUCLID'S AXIOMS Hyperbolic Geometry
01 Parallel Postulate Limitations Hyperbolic geometry challenges the
Euclid's fifth postulate regarding parallel concept of parallel lines by showing that
lines has limitations when applied to non- more than one line can pass through a
Euclidean geometries, leading to flaws in given point parallel to a given line.
the system.
02 Ambiguity in Definitions
Euclid's geometric definitions sometimes
lack precision, leading to ambiguities and Elliptic Geometry
inconsistencies in reasoning. Elliptic geometry challenges the concept of
03 Assumptions and Contradictions parallel lines by demonstrating that no
Euclid's reliance on unproven assumptions parallel lines exist, as all lines intersect.
and occasional contradictions within his Spherical Geometry
axioms undermine the rigour of his system. Spherical geometry challenges the concept
of parallel lines by revealing that all great
LOGICAL GAPS IN EUCLID'S circles (lines) on a sphere intersect.
PROPOSITIONS
Assumed Equality of Magnitudes RIEMANNIAN GEOMETRY
Euclid's propositions often assume the Curvature of Space
equality of magnitudes without proper Riemannian geometry challenges the
justification, leading to logical gaps. concept of parallel lines in the context of
Omitted Steps in Reasoning curved space, where the curvature affects
Certain proofs in Euclid's Elements omit the behavior of parallel lines.
crucial steps in the reasoning process, Geodesics
creating logical gaps and ambiguities. It introduces the concept of geodesics,
Implicit Circular Reasoning which are the closest thing to straight lines
Some of Euclid's proofs involve circular in curved space, challenging the traditional
reasoning, where the conclusion is used to notion of parallel lines.
Non-Euclidean Space Euclid's geometric system has limitations in
Riemannian geometry explores non- describing the non-Euclidean nature of
Euclidean spaces, where parallel lines physical space, posing challenges in
behave differently from the familiar practical applications.
Euclidean geometry. Impact on Mathematical Philosophy
The flaws in Euclid's axioms have spurred
MODERN APPLICATIONS discussions on the philosophy of
Relativity mathematics and the nature of geometric
The theory of relativity challenges the truth.
concept of parallel lines by demonstrating
how gravity and acclleration can bend and REVISIONS AND MODERN
warp spacetime, affecting the behavior of INTERPRETATIONS
parallel lines. Development of Hyperbolic Geometry
GPS Technology The flaws in Euclid'e geometry led to the
In GPS technology, challenges to the development of hyperbolic geometry,
concept of parallel lines arise due to the providing an alternative to the parallel
need to account for the curvature of the postulate.
Earth, affecting the accuracy of parallel line Riemannian Geometry and Differential
calculations. Geometry
Astronomy Modern interpretations have led to
In astronomy, challenges to the concept of Riemannlan geometry and differential
parallel lines occur when considering the goometry, expanding geometric concepts
curved nature of spacetime and the paths beyond Euclidean limitations.
of light rays from distant celestial objects. Application in Advanced Mathematics
The mvisions and moderm interpretations
03 CRITICISM OF THE FIFTH of Euclid's flaws have contributed to
POSTULATE IN EUCLID'S ELEMENTS advanced mathematical theories and
Flaws in Euclid's Fifth Postulate applications in diverse fields.
Non-Euclidean Geometry
Non-Euclidean geumetry explores (1)AXIOM OF BETWEENNESS
geometries where the Fifth postulate does  Points on line are not unrelated. We
not hold true, leading to alternative assume that there is a ternary
geometric systems. relation among points, named as
Challenging Parallel Lines Concept “point B is between point A and point
The fifth postulate's ambiguity has led to C,” abbreviated as: A * B * C
debates and challenges regarding the  Given distinct colinear points A, B, C,
nature of parallel lives and the possibility of D. We use
alternatives.  A * B * C * D to denote the following
simultaneous relations of
betweenness
Influence on Modern Physics  A * B * C, A * B * D, A * C * D, B *
The flaws in Euclid's fifth postulate have C * D (1)
influenced modern physics, perticularly in Betweenness Axiom 1 (Collinearity and
understanding the curvature of space-time Symmetrization). If A * B * C, then A, B, C
in the theory of relativity. are three distinct points all lying on the
same line, and C * B * A.
CRITIQUE OF EUCLID'S GEOMETRIC Betweenness Axiom 2 (Extension).
AXIOMS Given two distinct points B and D on a line
Inconsistencies in Definitions l. There exist points A, C, E lying on line l
Critics argue that Euclid's axioms contain such A * B * D, B * C * D, and B * D * E.
inconsistencies and ambiguises, loading to
challenges in defining fundamental
geometric concepts.
Limitations in Real-world Applications
Betweenness Axiom 3 (Uniqueness). said to be on the same side of l if A = B or
Let A, B, C be three distinct points on a line. the segment AB does not meet l. Two
Then one and only one of the three points points A, B not on a line l are said to be on
is between the other two. opposite sides of l if AB does not meet l.

Definition 1 (Line, Segment, and Ray). Betweenness Axiom 4 (Plane

 The line determined by two distinct Separation).
points A and B is denoted by: AB  Let A, B, C be three distinct points
(line above) not on a line l.
 AB can also be used to denote the o If A, B are on the same sides
set of all points incident with the line of l and B, C are on the same
determined by the points A and B. side of l, then A, C are on the
 A Segment with endpoints A and B same side of l.
denoted by AB, is the set of points A, o If A, B are on opposite sides of
B, and all points between A and B. l, then A, C are on the same
 A Ray emanating from a point A to side of l.
another point B, denoted by r(A, B), o The relation of being on the
is the set of all points on AB and all same side of a fixed line l is an
points C such that A * B * C. equivalence relation on the
 An Open ray emanating from a side.
point A to another point B is the set  The relation of being on the same
r(A, B) = r (A, B)╲{A}. side of a fixed line l is an equivalence
relation on the set of points not on
Proposition 2.1. For any two distinct the line l, since it is reflexive,
points A and B, symmetric and transitive by
AB = r(A, B)  r(B, A), AB = r(A, B)  definition and Betweenness Axiom 4

 Proof: Note that AB ⊆ r(A, B)  r(B,

r(B, A)  Each equivalence class is called an
open half-plane bounded by l. For
A) by definition of segment and ray. each point P not on l, it is denited by:
 For each point P  r(A, B)  r(B, A), H(l, P)
we have P  r(A, B) and P  r(B, A).  The open half-plane that contains P.
 Suppose P  AB. By definition of ray, The setH(l, P): = h(l, P)  l is called a
we have A * B * P by P  r(A, B) and half-plane or (closed half-plane)
P * A * B by P  r(B,A). Then A, B, P bounded by l.
are three distinct collinear points by
Betweenness Axiom [Link] is Corollary 2.2. For each line l there are
contradictory to BA3 that there is exact two half-planes bounded by l.
only one poit of the three A, B, P iii. If A, B are on opposite sides of l and B,C
between the other two. are on the same side of l, then A, C are in

⊆ AB. For each P  AB, if P  AB, it is

 Proof: It is clear that r(A, B)  r(B, A) opposite side of l.
 Proof: Let A, B be two points on
clear that P  r (A, B)  r(B, A). opposite sides a line l. We have two
 Assume P  AB, then A, B, P are half-planes H(l, A) and H(l, B).
three distinct points by BA1, and  Given an arbitrary point C not on l. If
only one of them is between the A, C are on the same side of l, then
other two by BA 3. H(l, C) = H(l, A). If A, C are on the
 Since P is not between A and B, we opposite sides, then B, C are on the
have either A is between B and P or same side of l by BA 4ii, H(l, C) =
B is between A and P. In the formal H(l, B). Therefore there are at most
case, we have P  r(b, A); in the two half-planes bounded by l.
latter case, we have P r(A, B).  Given a point B on l and a point D
Hence P  r(A, B)  r(B, A). not on l. By BA 2 there exist points
A, C, E such that A * B * D, B * C * D,
Definition 2 (Same Side and Opposite and B * D * E. Then A, D are on the
Side). Two points A, B not on a line l are
 opposite sides of l. So, there are at

binary relation ≺ on a set X is called a strict

least two half-planes bounde by l. Definition 3 (Strict Total Order). A

 TO1: Irreflexivity: x ≮ x fo all x  X;

Proposition 2.3. (Linearity Rules). Let total order if

 TO2: Transitivity: If x ≺ y and y ≺ z,

A, B, C, D be distinct points on a line l.

a. A * B * C, A * C * D ⇒ A * B * C * D
Then,
then x ≺ z
b. B * C * D, A * B * D ⇒ A * B * C * D  TO3: Competeness: either x ≺ y or
c. A * B * C, B * C * D ⇒ A * B * C * D y ≺ x but not both for all x, y  X
Proof: a. Pick a point E outside l and make with x  y.
line EC; see Figure 2.
relation ≺ defined on X by x ≺ y if x
 For strict total order on X, the

= y or ≺ y is called a total

write x ≺ y and x ≺ y as y > x and y

[Link] an order relation, we also

 Then C is the unique intersection of l  x, respectively. The set X with a

and EC. The points A, B must be on total order is said to be totally
the same sine of line EC. (Otherwise ordered.
AB meets EC at C; we then have A *  A strict partial order is a strict total
C * B, which contradicts A * B * C.). order or strict linear order if, in
Since A * C * D, then A, D are on addition, we have the following

 TO4: Trichotomy: a ≺ b, a = b, or a
opposite sides of EC. Hence, B, D are property:
on opposite side of EC by Corollary
2.2,i.e. BD meets EC at C. WE then
 Here, b ≮ a means of course, that it
> b for every a and b in A.
obtain B * C * D.
 Draw line EB; the point B is the is not the case that a <, and a > b is
unique intersection of ; and EB; see alternative notation for b > a. To
Figure 2. Since A * B * C, them A, C distinguish an ordinaru partial order
are on opposite sides of EB., we from a strict one, an ordinary partial
must have C, D on the same side of order is sometimes called a weak
EB. (Otherwise B would be between partial order.
C and D, contradicting to B * C * D.)
Thus, A, D are on opposite sides of Proposition 2,4 (Strict Total Order of
EB by Corollaey 2.2. i.e. AD meets Line). For each line l with two distinct
EB at B between A and D. We then
order on l such that A ≺ B and if C * D * E,
points A, B, there exists a unique total
obtain A * B * D
b. is similar to (a) by reversing the the either C ≺ D ≺ E or E ≺ D ≺ C but
order.
Proof: Define A ≺B. For each point P of l
not both.
c. Note that A, B, C are distinct and
B, C, D are distinct.
1. P ≺ A and P ≺B if P * A * B.
ither than A, B, we define
 Pick a point E outside l and draw the
2.A ≺ P and P ≺ B if A * P * B.
line EC. Since B * C * D, then B, D
3.A ≺ P and B ≺ P if A * B * P.
are on opposite side of EC by
definition.
A and other than B, we define P ≺ Q if one
For any two distinct points P, Q other than
 Likewise, A * B * C implies that A, B
are on the same side of EC.
of the following holds:
(Otherwise, A, B are on opposite
1. P * Q * A * B
sides of EC, i.e., AB meet EC at C; so,
2. P * A * Q * B
A * C * B, contradicting to A * B * C.
3. P * A * B * Q
It follows from Corolllary 2.2. that A,
4. A * P * Q * B
D are on opposite sides of EC. Hence
5. A * P B * Q
AD meets EC at C between A and D,

We clain that ≺ is a Strict Total Order on

6. A * B * P * Q
i.e. A * C * D.

l.
It is clear that ≺ satisfies irreflexive and
completeness. For transitivity, let P ≺ Q proposition 2.3. By definition P ≺ R.
* P * R and A * B * R, then A * B * P * R by

and Q ≺ R, we claim P ≺ R.
Definition: A partial order  on a Domain

≺ R by definition of ≺. If {P, Q, R}  = Ø,
If {P, Q, R}  {A, B}  Ø, we clearly have P A is a total order allso called a linear order
if it also has the following property:
we verify the six cases: for every a and b in A, either a  b or
b  a.
CASE 1: P * Q * A * B
1.1. Q * R * A * B: Since P * Q * A and Q * R Proposition 2..5(Line Separation). Let
* A, then P * Q * R * A by Proposition 2.3(b). A, B, O be three distinct points such that A
* O * B. Then
* B by proposition 2.3(c). Hence P ≺ R by
Since P * R * A and R * A * B, then P * R *A
r(O, A)  r(O, B), r(O, A)  r(O, B) =
definition. AB. If P  AB, then either P  r(O, A) or P 
1.2. Q * A * R * B: Since P * Q * A and Q * A r(O, B). Then rays r(O, A) and r(O, B) are
* R, then P * Q * A * R by proposition 2.3(c). said to be opposite each other.

on l. If A, B  r(O, -), i.e., A ≺ O, B ≺

 Proof: Let A, B be two distinct points
* B by proposition 2.3(c). Hence, P ≺ R by
Since P * A * R and A * R * B, then P * A * R

have either A ≺ P ≺ B or B ≺ P ≺ A.
definition. O, then for all P between A and B, we

In either case we have P ≺ O by

1.3. Q * A * B * R: Since P * A * B and A * B

By definition, P ≺ R.
* R then P * A * B * R by proposition 2.3(c).
transitiity. So AB is contained in e(O,
-)).
CASE 2: P * Q * A * B  Clearly, AB does not meet (since O is
2.1. A * Q * R * B: Since P * A * B and A * R the unique intersection of l and m).
Hence, A, B are on the same side of
By definition, P ≺ R.
* B, then P * A * R * B by Proposition 2.3(b).

 Likewise, if A, B  r(O, +), i.e., O ≺ A,

m bu defintion.

O ≺ B, then A, B are on the same

2.2. A * Q * B * R: Since P * A * B and A * R

By definition, P ≺ R. side of m. If A ≺ O ≺ B or B ≺ O ≺ A,
* B, then P * A * B * R by proposition 2.3(c).

then in either case AB meets m at O

CASE 3: P * A * B * Q between A and B; so A, B are on

 Proof: Let ≺ be the strict total order

3.1. A * B * Q * R: Since P * A * B and A opposite sides of by definition.

2.3(c). By definition P ≺ R. on the line l such that A ≺ B. By

* B * R, then P * A * B * R by proposition

definition of the total order ≺, the

CASE 4: A * P * Q * B ray r(O, A), r(O, B), and the segment

 r(O, A) = {P  l : P ≺ O}, r(O, B) = P

4.1. A * Q * R * B: Since A * P * Q and A * Q AB, we have

 l : O ≺ P}.
* R, then A * P * Q * R by Proposition 2.3(a).

 AB = {P  l: A ≺ P ≺ B}.
Since P * Q * B and Q * R * B, then P * Q * R
* B by proposition 2.3(b). We then have A *

proposition 2..3(c). By definition P ≺ R.

P * R and P * R * B. This A * P * R * B by  Then r(O, A)  r(O, B) = {O} and r(O,

ordering property of ≺.
A)  r(O, B) = AB by the total
4.2. A * Q * B * R: Since A * P * B and A * B

By definition P ≺ R.
* R, then A * P * B * R by proposition 2.3(a).
Corollary 2.6 (Line Separation): Let l, m

O. Let ≺ be a strict total order on l. Then

be two distinct lines intersecting at a point
CASE 5: A * P * B * Q
5.1. A * B * Q * R: Since A * P * B and A * B the two sets r(O, -):= {P  l: P ≺ O}, r{O,
+}: = {P  l : O ≺ P} are on opposite sides
By definition P ≺ R.
* R, then A * P * B * R by Proposition 2.3(a).
of m. We also call then on opposite sides
of O on l.
CASE 6: A * B * P * Q
on l. If A, B  r(O, –) , i.e., A ≺ O, B ≺
 Proof: Let A, B be two distinct points
6.1. A * B * Q * R: Since B * P * Q * R, then
B * P * Q * R by proposition 2.3(a). Since B
 have either A ≺ P ≺ B or B ≺ P ≺ A.
O, then for all P between A and B, we  It is convenient to consider a closed

In either case, we have P ≺O by

half-plane as a Flat Angle.

transitivity. So AB is contained in r(O,

–). Clearly, AB does not meet m
(since O is the unique intersection of
l and M. Hence, A, B ar on the same

 Likewise, if A, B  r(O, +), i.e., O ≺

side of m.

A , O ≺ B, then A, B are on the same

side of m. If A ≺ O ≺ B or B ≺ O ≺ A, Proposition 2.8 (Between-Cross
then in either case AB meets m at O Lemma). Given an AOB and a point P
between A and B; so A, B are on on AB. Then P belongs to AOB if and
opposite side of m by definition. only if A * P * B.
Proof: “”: The point P belows to AOB.
THEORM 2.7 (Pasch’s Theorem). Let A, By defiition, P, B are on the same side of
B, C be distinct points of not collinear. Then OA. Suppose P * A * B. Then P, BP, B are
only one aof the three holds: opposite sides of OA, since PB meets OA at
1. l meets AC at a point between A A between P and B. This is a contradiction.
and C; Likewise, A * B * P leads to a similar
2. l meets BC at a point between B contradiction. Then, we mast have A * P * B
and C; by trichotomy of betweenness.
3. l meets both AC and BC at a point “”: We have A * P * B. Note that line AB
C. meets line OB at t he unique point B. then
Intutively, thsi theorem says that if a line AP does not meet OB. So, A, P are ont he
“goes into” a triangle through one side same side of OB. Likewise, points B, P are
then it must “come out” through another on the same side of OB. Hence, by
side. definition, P belongs to AOB.

Proposition 2.9: Let P be a point in

AOB. Then
a. The open ray r(O, P) is disjoint from
AOB.
b. The opposite ray to r(O, P) is disjoint
from AOB. See fthe left of Figure 5.
 Proof: The point A, B are on the
opposite siddes of the line l. If C is on
l, then l does not meet AC between A
and C, otherwise l = AC; and l does
not meet BC between B and C.
 If C is not on l, then either A, C are
on the same side of l, or B, C are on
the same side of l. This, l meets BC
at a point between B and C and is
disjoint from AC. In the latter case, l
meets AC at a point between A and
C, and is disjoint from BC.

 Definition 4 (Interiror of Angle).

Given points A, O B not collinear. The
interiror of an angle AOB, denoted
AOB, is the set of points P such that
P, A are on the same side of line OB,
and P, B are on the same side of line
OA, in other words
 AOB := H(OB, A)  H(OA, B)
 Definition 5 (Between Rays). A ray r(O,
P) is between two non-opposite rays r(O, A)
and r(O, B) if P is in the interior of AOB
(indeoendent of the choice of P on the ray
r(O, P)).
Proposition 2.10 (Crossbar Theorem).
If a ray r(O, P) is between two rays r(O, A)
and r(O, B), then r (O, P) intersects AB at C
between A and B. See the right of Figure 5.
The interior of AOB is a disoint union of
inetriors AOP, BOP, and open ray r(O, P).

Definition 6 (Interior of Triangle). The

c. If B * O * B’, then A belongs to POB’. interior of a triangle ∆ABC is the
intersection of interiors of its three angles,
denoted ∆ABC. The boundary of ∆ABC is
the union of three side, i.e.,∂ ∆ABC: = AB 
AC  BC
We also use ∆ABC to denote the union of
the interior and the boundary of ∆ABC.

Proposition 2.11. Given a triangle ∆ ABC

and O  ∆ABC. Let l = AB, m = AC, n = BC.
Then
a. ∆ABC = H(l, O)  H(m, O)  H(n,
O).
b. Any ray r(O, P) meets the
boundary of ∆ABC) at a unique point Q.

Case 1. OP = OA. Then Q = A if A * P *

O; Q = D if A * O * P. See the left of
Figure 6.
Case 2. OP  OA. The line OA separates 2. If AB  CD, then CD  AB.
the triangle ∆ABD and ∆ACD. Since OP Proof: 1. It follows from the latter part of
meets AD at O between A and D, then OP CA1.
meets the bounary of ∆ABD at a unique 2. Let CD  AB’, where B’ is apoint on
point E and the boundary of ∆ACD a a the ray r(A, B). Then AB  AB’ by
unique point F. Moreover, E  AB  BD and transitivity. Hence B’ = B by CA1.
F  AC  CD. If r(O, P) = r(O, E), the Q = E. We than have CD  AB.
If r(O, P) = r(O, F) then Q = F

Congruence Axiom 3 (Segment

Addition): If A * B * C, A’ * B’ * C’ and
AB  A’B’, BC  B’C’, the AC  A’C’.
AXIOMS OF SEGMENT CONGRUENCE
AXIOMS OF SEGMENT CONGRUENCE:
Segments are unrelated. We assume
that there is a binary relation bewteen
segments named as “segment AB is
congruent to segment CD.”
abbreviated as
AB  CD This axiom replaces the second common
Congruence Axiom 1. Given two distinct notion, since it says that if congruent
points A< B and a ray r emanating from a segments are “added” to congruent
poin A’. There exactly one point B’ on r segments, the sums are congruent. Here,
such that B’  A’ and AB  A’B’. Moreover, “adding” mean juxtaposing segments along
if r = r (A, B), then B’ = B; if r = r(B, A), the same line.
then B’ = A.
Proposition 3.1.
1. AB  AB, AB  BA
2. If AB  CD, then CD  AB.
Proof: 1. It follows from the latter part of
CA1.
2. Let CD  AB’, where B’ is apoint on the
Intutively speaking, this axiom says you ray r(A, B). Then AB  AB’ by transitivity.
can “move” the segment so that it lies on Hence B’ = B by CA1. We than have CD 
the ray r with A superimpsed on A’, and B AB.
superimposed on B’.
Congruence Axiom 3 (Segment
Congruence Axiom 2. If AB  CD and Addition): If A * B * C, A’ * B’ * C’ and
CD  EF, the AB  EF. Moreover , AB  A’B’, BC  B’C’, the AC  A’C’.
every segement is congruent to itself.
This axiom replaces Euclid’s first common Porposition 3.2: (Segment
notion, since it says that segments Subtraction). Given A * B * C, A’ * B’ *
congruent to the same segments are C’ . If AB  A’B’ and AC  A’C’, then BC
congruent to each other.  B’C’.
It also replaces the fourth common notion, Proof: Let BC  B’P, where P is a point on
since it says that segments that coincide the ray r(A’, B’). Then AC  A’P by CA2.
are congruent. Since AC  A’C”, then A’P  A’C’ by CA2.
Thus, P = C’ by CA1. So, BC  B’C’.
Proposition 3.1.
1. AB  AB, AB  BA
Proposition 3.3 (Betweenness Congruence Axiom 4.
Preserving by Congrunece of
Segments): Given AC  A’C’ and A * B * C. Proposition 3.4 (Congruence of Lines):
Then three exists a unique point B’ For any two line l and l’, there exists a one-
between A’ and C’ such that AB  A’B’ and to-one correspondence f : l’ such that AB 
BC  B’C’. f(A) f(B) for disntict points A, B  l and if A *
Proof: Let AB  A’B’, where B’ us the B * C then
unique point on the ray r(A’C’). Let BC  f(A) * f(B) * f(C).
B’P, where P is the unique point such that
A’ * B’ * P. Since AB  A’B’ and BC  B’P, Definition 7 (Linear Order Segments):
then AC  A’P by CA3. Since AC A’C’, then For segments AB, CD, if there exists a point
P = C’ by CO2. So. A’ * B’ * C’. E between C and D such that AB  CE, we
write AB < CD or CD > AB.
Proposition 3.4 (Congruence of Lines):
For any two line l and l’, there exists a one- Theorem 3.5 (Strict Total Order of
to-one correspondence f : l’ such that AB  Segments): For two segments AB and CD,
f(A) f(B) for disntict points A, B  l and if A * one and only one of the three hods. AB <
B * C then CD, AB  CD, AB > CD (trichotomy).
f(A) * f(B) * f(C). Moreover,
a. If AB  CD and CD < EF , then AB
< EF.
b. If AB < CD and CD  EF, then AB
< EF.
c. If AB < CD and CD < EF, then AB
< EF.

Definition 7 (Linear Order Segments):

For segments AB, CD, if there exists a point
E between C and D such that AB  CE, we
write AB < CD or CD > AB.

Theorem 3.5 (Strict Total Order of

Segments): For two segments AB and CD,
one and only one of the three hods. AB <
CD, AB  CD, AB > CD (trichotomy).
Moreover,
a. If AB  CD and CD < EF , then AB
< EF.
b. If AB < CD and CD  EF, then AB
< EF.
c. If AB < CD and CD < EF, then AB
< EF.