Question 1:

The boundary between Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) and Discontinuous Conduction Mode
(DCM) in a DC-DC converter is the operating condition where the inductor current just touches zero
at the end of the switching cycle but doesn’t stay at zero for any significant duration.
In the chopper circuit shown in the figure below, the input dc voltage has a constant value, 𝑉𝑠 . The
output voltage, 𝑉𝑜 , is assumed to be ripple free. The switch, 𝑄, is operated with a switching time-period,
𝑇, and a duty ratio, 𝐷. What is the value of critical inductance, 𝐿𝑐 , at the boundary of continuous and
discontinuous conduction of the inductor current, 𝑖𝐿 .
𝑉𝑠 𝐷(1−𝐷)𝑇
(a) 𝐿𝑐 = 2𝐼𝑜
2 𝑉𝑜
(b) 𝐿𝑐 =
(1−𝐷)𝑇𝐼𝑜
𝑉𝑠 (1−𝐷2 )𝑇
(c) 𝐿𝑐 =
2𝐼𝑜
𝑉0 (𝑇−1)
(d) 𝐿𝑐 = 2𝐷𝑇𝐼𝑜

Solution: Correct option is (a)

The waveform of the inductor current, 𝑖𝐿 will be as shown below

When the switch 𝑄 is off, the voltage across the inductor is given as
∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = −𝐿𝑐 = −𝑉𝑜
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
Thus, we can write
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
𝐿𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜
∆𝑖𝐿
At the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction mode
∆𝑖𝐿
𝐼𝑜 =
2
The relationship between output and input voltage of a buck converter is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐷𝑉𝑠
Thus, the expression for 𝐿𝑐 is given as
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇 𝐷(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
𝐿𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠
∆𝑖𝐿 2𝐼𝑜
Question 2: Numerical type
A buck converter feeding a variable resistive load is shown in the figure below. The switching frequency
of the switch, 𝑄, is 100 kHz and the duty ratio of 0.6. The output voltage, 𝑉𝑜 , is 36 V. Assume that all the
components are ideal, and the output voltage is ripple free. The value of 𝑅 (in Ω) that will make the
inductor current, 𝑖𝐿 , just continuous is _________________.

Solution: Answer range (2500-2500)

The waveform of the inductor current, 𝑖𝐿 will be as shown below

When the switch 𝑄 is off, the voltage across the inductor is given as
∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = −𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
Thus, the inductor current ripple is given as
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 = 2𝐼𝑂
𝐿
Thus, the load current is given by
𝑉𝑜 (1 − 𝐷)𝑇
= 𝑉𝑜
𝑅 2𝐿
Thus, the value of the load resistance is given as
2𝐿 2𝐿𝑓
𝑅= = = 2500 Ω
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇 (1 − 𝐷)
Question 3: Numerical type
The figure shows two buck converters connected in parallel. The common input dc voltage for the
converters has a value of 100 V. The converters have inductors of identical value. The load resistance
is 1 Ω. The capacitor voltage has negligible ripple. Both converters operate in continuous conduction
mode. The switching frequency is 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and the switch control signals are as shown. The circuit
operates in steady state. Assuming that the converters share the load equally, the average value of the
current of switch 𝑆1 , 𝑖𝑠1 , (in Ampere) up to two decimal places _______________.

Solution: Answer range (12-13)

Two buck converters are connected in parallel. Thus, the output voltage, 𝑉𝑂 , is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐷𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0.5 × 100 = 50 𝑉
Thus, the load current can be calculated as
50
𝐼𝑜 = = 50 𝐴
1
Now, power balance equation is given by
100 × 𝑖𝑠1 + 100 × 𝑖𝑠2 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
Where, 𝑖𝑠2 is the average value of current flowing through switch 𝑆2 .
As the load is shared equally, we must have
𝑖𝑠1 = 𝑖𝑠2
Thus, 𝑖𝑠1 can be calculated as
2 × 100 × 𝑖𝑠1 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 50 × 50
𝑖𝑠1 = = = 12.5 𝐴
2 × 100 2 × 100
Question 4: Numerical type
A dc-to-dc converter shown in the figure is charging a battery bank, 𝐵2 , whose voltage is constant at
150 𝑉. 𝐵1 is another battery bank whose voltage is constant at 50 𝑉. The value of the inductor 𝐿 is
5mH and the ideal switch 𝑆 is operated with a switching frequency of 5 kHz with a duty ratio of 0.4.
Once the circuit has reached steady state and assuming the diode 𝐷 to be ideal, the power transferred
from 𝐵1 to 𝐵2 (in Watt) is ______________ (up to 2 decimal places).

Solution: Answer range (11-13)

When the switch, 𝑆, is on, the voltage across the inductor is given as
∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = 50 = 𝐿
𝐷𝑇
During this period, the inductor current rises from its minimum value 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 to its maximum value 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Thus, the ripple inductor current can be calculated as
50 50 1
∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝐷𝑇 = −3
× 0.4 × = 0.8 𝐴
𝐿 5 × 10 5 × 103
Let us calculate the time, 𝑡𝑓, for the inductor current to fall from 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 to 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 . The inductor current
starts falling when the switch 𝑆 is off. During this period, the voltage across the inductor is given as
∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = 50 − 150 = −100 = −𝐿
𝑡𝑓

Thus, 𝑡𝑓 can be calculated as

𝐿 × ∆𝑖𝐿
𝑡𝑓 = = 40 µ𝑠
100
The off period of the switch 𝑆 can be calculated as
1
𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = (1 − 𝐷) = 120 µ𝑠
𝑓𝑠𝑤
As 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 > 𝑡𝑓 , the inductor current is discontinuous as shown in the figure below. Thus, the average
value of the inductor current can be calculated as
1 1 1
𝐼𝐿 = × [ × 𝐷𝑇 × ∆𝑖𝐿 + × 𝑡𝑓 × ∆𝑖𝐿 ] = 0.24 𝐴
𝑇 2 2
Thus, the power transferred from 𝐵1 to 𝐵2 is
𝑃 = 𝐼𝐿 × 50 = 12 𝑊
Question 5:
In the dc-dc converter shown in the figure below, the switch, 𝑄, is switched at a frequency of 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
with a duty ratio of 0.6. All the components of the circuit are ideal and the initial current in the inductor
is 0 A. Energy stored in the inductor in mJ (rounded off to 2 decimal places) at the end of 10 complete
switching cycles is _____________.

Solution: Answer range (4.95-5.05)

The initial current of the inductor, 𝐼𝐿𝑂 = 0 𝐴.
In the on period of the first cycle the increase in inductor current, ∆𝑖𝐿1 , can be calculated as
50 50
∆𝑖𝐿1 = × 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = × 𝐷𝑇 = 0.3 𝐴
𝐿 𝐿
In the off period of the first cycle the decrease in inductor current, −∆𝑖𝐿2 , can be calculated as
50 50
−∆𝑖𝐿2 = − × 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = × (1 − 𝐷)𝑇 = −0.2 𝐴
𝐿 𝐿
Thus, we can conclude that in every cycle during the ON period of switch 𝑄 the inductor current
increases by 0.3 A and during the off period of switch the inductor current decreases by 0.2 A. Thus,
net increase in the inductor current at the end of each cycle is 0.1 A. Thus, at the end of 10 complete
switching cycles the inductor current increases by 10 × 0.1 𝐴 = 1 𝐴. As the initial inductor current
was 0 A. The inductor current at the end of 10 complete cycles is 1 A.
Thus, the energy stored in the inductor at the end of 10 complete cycles can be calculated as
1 1
𝐸= × 𝐿 × 𝑖𝐿2 = × 10 × 10−3 × 1 = 5 𝑚𝐽
2 2
Question 6
In a forward converter supplying a 10 V load from 100 V unregulated source, a bifilar wound
demagnetizing winding is used to reset the core flux. If the leakage inductance as seen from the
primary side is negligible, then what is the voltage stress (in Volts) on the primary switch 𝑄? [Assume
all the switches to be ideal.]________________.

Solution: Answer range (200-200)

As the demagnetizing winding is a bifilar wound winding it has the same number of turns as the
primary winding.
To find the voltage stress across the switch 𝑄 we need to find the voltage across the switch when the
switch is off and the core flux is being reset. The circuit therefore becomes as shown below

As switch 𝑄 is off and the diode 𝐷1 is on, therefore

𝑣1 = 100 𝑉
Based on the dot polarity we can write
𝑣2 = −𝑣1 = −100 𝑉
Thus, the voltage across the switch 𝑄 is
𝑣𝑄 = 100 − 𝑣2 = 200 𝑉
Question 7:
A forward converter operates from an input voltage of 100V and supplies 50W load. The power
semiconductor switch is operating at 20kHz and 50% duty cycle. The magnetizing inductance (𝐿𝑚 ) of
the forward converter is 5 𝑚𝐻. A diode and a resistor is used across the primary winding for free-
wheeling action. The resistor in the free-wheeling circuit has a value of 100 Ω. The wattage rating of
the resistor should be greater than what value?

Solution: Answer range (12-13)

When the switch 𝑄 is turned off, the diode 𝐷3 is turned on and the energy in the magnetizing
inductance is dissipated in the resistance 100 Ω. The magnetizing inductance stores energy during the
on period of the switch. During the on period of the switch 𝑄 the voltage across the magnetizing
inductance can be written as
𝐼𝑚,𝑝𝑘 𝐼𝑚,𝑝𝑘
𝑣𝐿 = 100 = 𝐿𝑚 = 𝐿𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑇
Where, 𝐼𝑚,𝑝𝑘 is the peak value of the magnetizing current flowing through the magnetizing inductance
𝐿𝑚 .
100 × 𝐷 × 𝑇
𝐼𝑚,𝑝𝑘 = = 0.5 𝐴
𝐿𝑚
Thus, the energy stored in the magnetizing inductance can now be calculated as
1
𝐸= × 𝐿𝑚 × 𝐼𝑚,𝑝𝑘 2 = 0.625 𝑚𝐽
2
Thus, the power that needs to be dissipated per cycle can be calculated as
𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠 = 𝐸 × 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 12.5 𝑊
Question 8:
For a circuit realization of DC-DC converters which of the following rules are to be followed:
1. Current source should not be open circuited
2. Voltage source should not be short circuited
3. Inductor currents should not be interrupted
4. Capacitor voltages should not be shorted

(a) Only 1 and 2

(b) Only 3 and 4
(c) Only 1,2 and 4
(d) All are true

Solution: Correct option is (d)

Question 9:
A dc-to-dc chopper supplied from a fixed DC voltage source feeds a fixed resistive-inductive load. The
chopper operates at 1kHz and 50% duty cycle. Without changing the value of the average DC current
through the load, if it is desired to reduce the ripple of the load current, the control action needed will
be
(a) Increase the chopper frequency keeping the duty cycle constant
(b) Increase the chopper frequency and duty cycle in equal ratio
(c) Decrease only the chopper frequency
(d) Decrease only the duty cycle

Solution: Correct option is (a)

The average load current can be expressed as
𝐷𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑜 =
𝑅
So, if we want to keep the load current constant the duty ratio, 𝐷, must be kept constant.
The expression for current ripple can be derived from transient analysis as
𝑉𝑖𝑛
∆𝑖𝐿 ≈
4𝑓𝐿
Thus, by increasing frequency current ripple can be reduced.
Question 10:
In the buck converter circuit shown in the figure below the input DC voltage has a constant value 𝑉𝑠 .
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is assumed to be ripple free. The switch 𝑆 is operated with a switching time
period T and duty ratio D. What is the value of D at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous
conduction of inductor current 𝑖𝐿 .

𝑉𝑠
(a) 𝐷 = 1 −
𝑉𝑜
2𝐿
(b) 𝐷 = 𝑅𝑇
2𝐿
(c) 𝐷 = 1 − 𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇
(d) 𝐷 = 𝐿

Solution: Correct option is (c)

The waveform of the inductor current, 𝑖𝐿 will be as shown below

When the switch 𝑄 is off, the voltage across the inductor is given as
∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = −𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
Thus, the inductor current ripple is given as
(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 = 2𝐼𝑂
𝐿
Thus, the load current is given by
𝑉𝑜 (1 − 𝐷)𝑇
= 𝑉𝑜
𝑅 2𝐿
Thus, we have
2𝐿
𝐷 =1−
𝑅𝑇