Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A

UNIT II - MODELLING OF EV’S

Introduction to Driver Assistance Systems – Active Stability Control, Ride Quality, Technologies for
Addressing Traffic Congestion, Emissions and Fuel Economy – Lateral Vehicle Dynamics: Kinematic
Models, Dynamic Bicycle Model, From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates – Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics:
Vehicle Model, Driveline Dynamics, Mean Value Engine Models.

Fundamental
Introduction to Driver Assistance Systems
Driver assistance systems (DAS) are technologies that help drivers by reducing the burden of driving
and increasing safety. They can include features like automatic emergency braking, lane departure warnings,
and adaptive cruise control.

Types of driver assistance systems

• Active ADAS
These systems take direct action to help the driver in critical situations. Examples include automatic
emergency braking, lane keeping assist, and adaptive cruise control.
• Passive ADAS
These systems provide information and alerts to the driver without directly intervening. Examples
include blind spot monitoring, lane departure warnings, and rearview cameras.

Active Stability Control

Active Stability Control (ASC) is a safety feature in vehicles that helps the driver maintain control of
the vehicle. It's also known as Electronic Stability Control (ESC), Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA), Vehicle
Dynamic Control (VDC), or Dynamic Stability Control (DSC).

Ride Quality
Ride quality refers to a vehicle's effectiveness in insulating the occupants from undulations in the road
surface such as bumps or corrugations. A vehicle with good ride quality provides comfort for the driver and
the passengers
Over time, technology has shifted the curve outward and so it is possible to offer vehicles that are
extremely comfortable and still handle very well or vehicles with excellent handling that are also reasonably
comfortable. One technical solution for offering both excellent comfort and reduced or eliminating body roll
is by using computer-controlled suspensions, such as hydraulic active suspension system (like Active Body
Control) or active anti-roll bars, but such systems are expensive because of their complexity.

Technologies for Addressing Traffic Congestion

• Traffic management systems
Use data from sensors and GPS devices to optimize traffic flow. These systems can also use portable
devices for temporary traffic control.
• Pedestrian traffic monitoring
When combined with vehicle traffic data, this technology can help reroute traffic to make better use of
the road network.
• Synchronized traffic lights
Use data from sensors and GPS devices to reduce delays and improve traffic flow. This can also help
save fuel and reduce emissions.
• Autonomous vehicles
While they don't reduce congestion directly, they can help manage traffic in a more advanced way.
• Internet of Things (IoT)
Smart devices with sensors embedded in GPS, cameras, or radars can help improve vehicle
performance, road safety, and efficiency.

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• Computational technologies
Small electronic devices with chips and antennas can sense the presence and movement of tagged
objects

Emissions and Fuel Economy

Fuel economy and emissions are related, with fuel efficiency affecting a vehicle's emissions. Fuel
economy is how far a vehicle can travel on a certain amount of fuel, while emissions are the amount of
pollutants a vehicle releases.

Lateral Vehicle Dynamics: Kinematic Models

In lateral vehicle dynamics, a kinematic model refers to a simplified mathematical representation of a
vehicle's side-to-side motion, focusing on the geometry of the vehicle's movement without considering the
forces acting on it, allowing for calculations of the vehicle's path and steering response based on steering angle
and vehicle parameters like wheelbase and track width, often using the "bicycle model" as a primary example.

Dynamic Bicycle Model

The objective is to control both longitudinal and lateral motions during hard braking and steering
maneuvers. Angular velocities of front and rear tires are added to the states in order to investigate directional
interactions between longitudinal and lateral tire forces. In addition to these five states, longitudinal and lateral
positions and yaw angle with respect to the fixed inertial coordinates are added to the dynamic equation in
order to refresh the vehicle position and orientation in the simulation scene. Thus, the bicycle model uses 5
Degrees of Freedom with 8 state equations.

From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates

To convert coordinates from a "Body Fixed" (local) coordinate system to a "Global" coordinate system,
you need to apply a transformation matrix that accounts for the object's current orientation (rotation) relative
to the global frame, essentially "mapping" the points from the body-fixed system to their corresponding
positions in the global space; this typically involves using a rotation matrix based on Euler angles (roll, pitch,
yaw) to describe the object's orientation.

Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics: Vehicle Model

A longitudinal vehicle dynamics model represents the forces acting on a vehicle in the direction of
travel, primarily focusing on its acceleration and deceleration behavior, including factors like engine torque,
braking force, aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, and tire forces, essentially describing how the vehicle
moves forward or backward along the road.

Driveline Dynamics
Driveline dynamics is the study of how a vehicle's engine and transmission work together to transfer power
to the wheels. It also includes how the vehicle's inertia and elasticity affect its performance.
• Engine performance: How the engine's angular velocity affects its maximum power
• Transmission performance: How the transmission type (manual or automatic) affects the vehicle's
acceleration
• Driveline efficiency: How the driveline's components work together to transfer power
• Gearbox and clutch dynamics: How the gearbox and clutch work together to allow the vehicle to move
at a minimum speed
• Mechanical resonances: How the driveline's inertia and elasticity cause mechanical resonances when
it's excited

Mean Value Engine Models

Mean value engine model (MVEM) is the basis of control design for advanced internal combustion
engines. The engine performance transient process usually takes a few cycles.

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 Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
UNIT II MODELLING OF EV’S
Introduction to Driver Assistance Systems – Active Stability Control, Ride Quality, Technologies for
Addressing Traffic Congestion, Emissions and Fuel Economy – Lateral Vehicle Dynamics: Kinematic Models,
Dynamic Bicycle Model, From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates – Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics: Vehicle
Model, Driveline Dynamics, Mean Value Engine Models.

INTRODUCTION TO DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS

On average, one person dies every minute somewhere in the world due to a car crash. In addition to
the emotional toll of car crashes, their actual costs in damages equaled 3% of the world GDP and totaled nearly
one trillion dollars in 2000. Data from the National Highway Safety Transportation Safety Association
(NHTSA) show that 6.335 million accidents (with 37,081 fatalities) occurred on US highways in 1998
(NHTSA, 1999). Data also indicates that, while a variety of factors contribute to accidents, human error
accounts for over 90% of all accidents (United States DOT Report, 1992).
A variety of driver assistance systems are being developed by automotive manufacturers to automate
mundane driving operations, reduce driver burden and thus reduce highway accidents. Examples of such
driver assistance systems under development include
a) collision avoidance systems which automatically detect slower moving preceding vehicles and
provide warning and brake assist to the driver
b) adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems which are enhanced cruise control systems and enable
preceding vehicles to be followed automatically at a safe distance
c) lane departure warning systems
d) lane keeping systems which automate steering on straight roads
e) vision enhancement/ night vision systems
f) driver condition monitoring systems which detect and provide warning for driver drowsiness,
as well as for obstacles and
pedestrians
g) safety event recorders and automatic collision and severity notification systems
These technologies will help reduce driver burden and make drivers less likely to be involved in accidents.
This can also help reduce the resultant traffic congestion that accidents tend to cause.

ACTIVE STABILITY CONTROL

Vehicle stability control systems that prevent vehicles from spinning, drifting out and rolling over have
been developed and recently commercialized by several automotive manufacturers. Stability control systems
that prevent vehicles from skidding and spinning out are often referred to as yaw stability control systems.
Stability control systems that prevent roll over are referred to as active roll stability control systems. An
integrated stability control system can incorporate both yaw stability and roll over stability control.

Fig 1.The functioning of a yaw stability control system

Figure 1 schematically shows the function of a yaw stability control system. In this figure, the lower
curve shows the trajectory that the vehicle would follow in response to a steering input from the driver if the
road were dry and had a high tire-road friction coefficient. In this case the high friction coefficient is able to
provide the lateral force required by the vehicle to negotiate the curved road. If the coefficient of friction were
small or if the vehicle speed were too high, then the vehicle would be unable to follow the nominal motion
required by the driver - it would instead travel on a trajectory of larger radius (smaller curvature), as shown in
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the upper curve of Figure 1. The function of the yaw control system is to restore the yaw velocity of the vehicle
as much as possible to the nominal motion expected by the driver. If the friction coefficient is very small, it
might not be possible to entirely achieve the nominal yaw rate motion that would be achieved by the driver
on a high friction coefficient road surface. In this case, the yaw control system would partially succeed by
making the
vehicle's yaw rate closer to the expected nominal yaw rate, as shown by the middle curve in Figure 1.
Examples of yaw stability control systems that have been commercialized on production vehicles
include the BMW DSC3 and the Mercedes ESP, which were introduced in 1995, the Cadillac Stabilitrak
system introduced in 1996 and the Chevrolet C5 Corvette Active Handling system in 1997.
While most of the commercialized systems are differential-braking based systems, there is
considerable ongoing research on two other types of yaw stability control systems: steer-by-wire and active
torque distribution control.
A yaw stability control system contributes to rollover stability just by helping keep the vehicle on its
intended path and thus preventing the need for erratic driver steering actions. There is also considerable work
being done directly on the development of active rollover prevention systems, especially for sport utility
vehicles (SUVs) and trucks. Some systems such as Freightliner's Roll Stability Advisor and Volvo's Roll
Stability Control systems utilize sensors on the vehicle to detect if a rollover is imminent and a corrective
action is required. If corrective action is required, differential braking is used both to slow the vehicle down
and to induce an understeer that contributes to reduction in the roll angle rate of the vehicle. Other types of
rollover prevention technologies include Active Stabilizer Bar systems developed by Delphi and BMW. In
this case the forces from a stabilizer bar in the suspension are adjusted to help reduce roll while cornering.

RIDE QUALITY
The notion of using active actuators in the suspension of a vehicle to provide significantly improved
ride quality, better handling and improved traction has been pursued in various forms for a long time by
research engineers. Fully active suspension systems have been implemented on Formula One racing cars, for
example, the suspension system developed by Lotus Engineering. For the more regular passenger car market,
semi active suspensions are now available on some production vehicles in the market. Delphi's semi-active
MagneRide system first debuted in 2002 on the Cadillac Seville STS and is now available as an option on all
Corvette models. The MagneRide system utilizes a magnetorheological fluid based shock absorber whose
damping and stiffness properties can be varied rapidly in real-time. A semi-active feedback control system
varies the shock absorber properties to provide enhanced ride quality and reduce the handling ride quality
trade-off.
Most semi-active and active suspension systems in the market have been designed to provide improved
handling by reducing roll during cornering. Active stabilizer bar systems have been developed, for example,
by BMW and Delphi and are designed to reduce roll during cornering without any deterioration in the ride
quality experienced during normal travel.
The RoadMaster system is a different type of active suspension system designed to specifically balance
heavy static loads. It is available as an after-market option for trucks, vans and SUVs. It consists of two
variable rated coil springs that fit onto the rear leaf springs and balance static forces, thus enabling vehicles to
carry maximum loads without bottoming through.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADDRESSING TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Traffic congestion is growing in urban areas of every size and is expected to double in the next ten
years. Over 5 billion hours are spent annually waiting on freeways. Building adequate highways and streets
to stop congestion from growing further is prohibitively expensive. A review of 68 urban areas conducted in
1999 by the Texas Transportation Institute concluded that 1800 new lane miles of freeway and 2500 new lane
miles of streets would have to be added to keep congestion from growing between 1998 and 1999. This level
of construction appears unlikely to happen for the foreseeable future. Data shows that the traffic volume
capacity added every year by construction lags the annual increase in traffic volume demanded, thus making
traffic congestion increasingly worse. The promotion of public transit systems has been difficult and
ineffective. Constructing a public transit system of sufficient density so as to provide point to point access for
all people remains very difficult in the USA. Personal transportation vehicles will therefore continue to be the
transportation mode of choice even when traffic jams seem to compromise the apparent freedom of motion of
automobiles.
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While the traffic congestion issue is not being directly addressed by automotive manufacturers, there
is significant vehicle-related research being conducted in various universities with the objective of alleviating
highway congestion. Examples include the development of automated highway systems, the development of
"traffic friendly" adaptive cruise control systems and the development of tilt controlled narrow commuter
vehicles.

Automated highway systems

A significant amount of research has been conducted at California PATH on the development of
automated highway systems. In an automated highway system (AHS), vehicles are fully automated and travel
together in tightly packed platoons. A traffic capacity that is up to three times the capacity on today's manually
driven highways can be obtained.
Vehicles have to be specially instrumented before they can travel on anAHS. However, once
instrumented, such vehicles can travel both on regular roads as well as on an AHS. A driver with an
instrumented vehicle can take a local road from home, reach an automated highway that bypasses congested
downtown highway traffic, travel on the automated highway, travel on a subsequent regular highway and reach
the final destination, all without leaving hislher vehicle. Thus an AHS provides point to point personal
transportation suitable for the low density population in the United States.
The design of vehicle control systems for AHS is an interesting and challenging problem. Longitudinal
control of vehicles for travel in platoons on an AHS is discussed in great detail in Chapter 7 of this book.
Lateral control of vehicles

"Traffic-friendly" adaptive cruise control

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems have been developed by automotive manufacturers and are an
extension of the standard cruise control system. ACC systems use radar to automatically detect preceding
vehicles traveling in the same lane on the highway. In the case of a slower moving preceding vehicle, an ACC
system automatically switches from speed control to spacing control and follows the preceding vehicle at a
safe distance using automated throttle control. Figure 2 shows a schematic of an adaptive cruise control
system.

Fig 2. Adaptive cruise control

ACC systems are already available on production vehicles and can operate on today's highways. They
are being developed by automotive manufacturers as a driver assistance tool that improves driver convenience
and also contributes to safety. However, as the penetration of ACC vehicles as a percentage of total vehicles
on the road increases, ACC vehicles can also significantly influence the traffic flow on a highway.
The influence of adaptive cruise control systems on highway traffic is being studied by several research
groups with the objective of designing ACC systems to promote smoother and higher traffic flow. Important
issues being addressed in the research include
a) the influence of inter-vehicle spacing policies and control
b) algorithms on traffic flow stability
c) the development of ACC algorithms to maximize traffic flow
d) capacity while ensuring safe operation
e) the advantages of using roadside infrastructure and communication
f) systems to help improve ACC operation.
g) design of ACC systems is the focus of detailed

Narrow tilt-controlled commuter vehicles

A different type of research activity being pursued is the development of special types of vehicles to
promote better highway traffic. A research project at the University of Minnesota focuses on the development
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of a prototype commuter vehicle that is significantly narrower than a regular passenger sedan and requires the
use of only a half-width lane on the highway. Adoption of such narrow vehicles for commuter travel could
lead to significantly improved highway utilization.
A major challenge is to ensure that the vehicle is as easy to drive and as safe as a regular passenger
sedan, in spite of being narrow. This leads to some key requirements:
The vehicle should be relatively tall in spite of being narrow. This leads to better visibility for the
driver. Otherwise, in a short narrow vehicle where the vehicle height is less than the track width, the driver
would ride at the height of the wheels of the many sport utility vehicles around him/her.
Since tall vehicles tend to tilt and overturn, the development of technology to assist the driver in
balancing the vehicle and improving its ease of use is important.
An additional critical requirement for small vehicles is that they need significant innovations in design so as
to provide improved crashworthiness, in addition to providing weather proof interiors.
A prototype commuter vehicle has been developed at the University of Minnesota with an automatic
tilt control system which ensures that the vehicle has tilt stability in spite of its narrow track. The control
system on the vehicle is designed to automatically estimate the radius of the path in which the driver intends
the vehicle to travel and then tilt the vehicle appropriately to ensure stable tilt dynamics. Stability is maintained
both while traveling straight as well as while negotiating a curve or while changing lanes. Technology is also
being developed for a skid prevention system based on measurements of wheel slip and slip angle from new
sensors embedded in the tires of the narrow vehicle.
The control design task for tilt control on a narrow vehicle is challenging because no single type of
system can be satisfactorily used over the entire range of operating speeds. While steer-by-wire systems can
be used at high speeds and direct tilt actuators can be used at medium speeds, a tilt brake system has to be
used at very low speeds. Details on the tilt control system for the commuter vehicle developed at the University
of Minnesota can be found in Kidane, et. al., 2005, Rajamani, et. al., 2003 and Gohl, et. al., 2004.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

The term Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is often encountered in literature on vehicle control
systems. This term is used to describe a collection of concepts, devices, and services that combine control,
sensing and communication technologies to improve the safety, mobility, efficiency, and environmental impact
of vehicle highway systems. The importance of ITS lies in its potential to produce a paradigm shift (a new
way of thinking) in transportation technology away from individual vehicles and reliance on building more
roadways toward development of vehicles, roadways and other infrastructure which are able to cooperate
effectively and efficiently in an intelligent manner.

EMISSIONS AND FUEL ECONOMY

US, European and Japanese Emission Standards continue to require significant reductions in
automotive emissions, as shown in Figure 3. The 2005 level for hydrocarbon (HC) emissions is less than 2%
of the 1970 allowance. By 2005, carbon monoxide (CO) will only be 10% of the 1970 level, while the
permitted level for oxides of nitrogen (NOx) will be down to 7% of the 1970 level. Trucks have also
experienced ever-tightening emissions requirements, with emphasis placed on emissions of particulate matter
(soot). Fuel economy goes hand in hand with emission reductions, and the pressure to steadily improve fuel
economy also continues.
To meet the ever-tightening emissions standards, auto manufacturers and researchers are developing a
number of advanced electromechanical feedback control systems. Closed-loop control of fuel injection,
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), internal EGR, camless electronically controlled engine valves and
development of advanced emissions sensors are being pursued to address SI engine emissions. Variable
geometry turbocharged diesel engines, electronically controlled turbo power assist systems and closed-loop
control of exhaust gas recirculation play a key role in technologies being developed to address diesel engine
emissions. Dynamic modeling and use of advanced control algorithms play a key role in the development of
these emission control systems.
Emissions standards in California also require a certain percentage of vehicles sold by each automotive
manufacturer to be zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) and ultra low emission vehicles (ULEVs). This has pushed
the development of electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). Since battery technologies limit
the potential of pure EVs, HEVs have the edge for satisfying the customer, by providing a vehicle that can
perform within the ZEV constraints, while providing the range and performance of a conventional vehicle.
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Fig 3. European, Japanese and US emission requirements

Hybrid electric vehicles

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) includes both a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) and
an electric motor in an effort to combine the advantages of both systems. It aims to obtain significantly
extended range compared to an electric vehicle, while mitigating the effect of emissions and improving fuel
economy compared to a conventional ICE powertrain. The powertrain in a HEV can be a parallel or a series
hybrid powertrain. In a typical parallel hybrid, the gas engine and the electric motor both connect to the
transmission independently. As a result, in a parallel hybrid, both the electric motor and the gas engine can
provide propulsion power. By contrast, in a series hybrid, the gasoline engine turns a generator, and the
generator can either charge the batteries or power an electric motor that drives the transmission. Thus, the
gasoline engine never directly powers the vehicle.
Several hybrid cars are now available in the United States, including the Honda Civic Hybrid, the
Honda Insight and the Toyota Prius. Both the Honda Insight and the Toyota Prius have parallel hybrid
powertrains, although in the case of the Prius the electric motor is used with a unique power split device that
adds some of the benefits of a series hybrid.

Fuel cell vehicles

There is significant research being conducted around the globe for the development of fuel cell vehicles.
Basically a fuel cell vehicle (FCV) has a fuel cell stack fueled by hydrogen which serves as the major source
of electric power for the vehicle. Electric power is produced by a electrochemical reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen, with water vapor being the only emission from the reaction. The simplest configuration in a FCV
involves supplying hydrogen directly from a hydrogen tank in which hydrogen is stored as a compressed gas
or a cryogenic liquid. To avoid the difficulties of hydrogen storage and infrastructure, a fuel processor using
methanol or gasoline as a fuel can be incorporated to produce a hydrogen-rich gas stream on board. To
compensate for the slow start-up and transient responses of the fuel processor, and to take advantage of
regenerative power at braking, a battery may be used at additional cost, weight and complexity. Several
prototype fuel cell powered cars and buses are available in North America, Japan And Europe with and without
fuel processors.
An FCV with fuel processor on board still requires several major technical advances for practical
vehicle applications. Component and subsystem level technologies for FCV development have been
demonstrated.

LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS: KINEMATIC MODELS, DYNAMIC BICYCLE MODEL

Under certain assumptions described below, a kinematic model for the lateral motion of a vehicle can
be developed. Such a model provides a mathematical description of the vehicle motion without considering
the forces that affect the motion. The equations of motion are based purely on geometric relationships
governing the system. Kinematics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the movement of objects without
reference to the forces which cause motion.

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Consider a bicycle model of the vehicle as shown in Figure 4. In the bicycle model, the two left and
right front wheels are represented by one single wheel at point A. Similarly, the rear wheels are represented
by one central rear wheel at point B. The steering angles for the front and rear wheels are represented by δf
and δr respectively. The model is derived assuming both front and rear wheels can be steered. For front-wheel-
only steering, the rear steering angle δr. can be set to zero. The center of gravity (c.g.) of the vehicle is at point
C. The distances of points A and B from the c.g. of the vehicle are lf and lr, respectively. The wheelbase of the
vehicle is L = lf + lr

Fig. 4. Bicycle model of the vehicle

The vehicle is assumed to have planar motion. Three coordinates are required to describe the motion
of the vehicle: X , Y and ψ . (X, Y) are inertial coordinates of the location of the c.g. of the vehicle while ψ
describes the orientation of the vehicle. The velocity at the c.g. of the vehicle is denoted by V and makes an
angle β with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. The angle β is called the slip angle of the vehicle.

Assumptions
The major assumption used in the development of the kinematic model is that the velocity vectors at points A
and B are in the direction of the orientation of the front and rear wheels respectively. In other words, the
velocity vector at the front wheel makes an angle δf with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. Likewise, the
velocity vector at the rear wheel makes an angle δr, with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. This is equivalent
to assuming that the "slip angles" at both wheels are zero. This is a reasonable assumption for low speed
motion of the vehicle (for example, for speeds less than 5 mls). At low speeds, the lateral force generated by
the tires is small.
In order to drive on any circular road of radius R , the total lateral force from both tires is

𝑚𝑉 2
(2.1)
𝑅
which varies quadratically with the speed V and is small at low speeds. When the lateral forces are small, as
explained later in section 2.4, it is indeed very reasonable to assume that the velocity vector at each wheel is
in the direction of the wheel.
The point 0 is the instantaneous rolling center for the vehicle. The point 0 is defined by the intersection
of lines A0 and BO which are drawn perpendicular to the orientation of the two rolling wheels.
The radius of the vehicle's path R is defined by the length of the line OC which connects the center of
gravity C to the instantaneous rolling center 0 . The velocity at the c.g. is perpendicular to the line OC. The
direction of the velocity at the c.g. with respect to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle is called the slip angle
of the vehicle β .
The angle ψ is called the heading angle of the vehicle. The course angle for the vehicle is γ = ψ + β.
Apply the sine rule to triangle OCA.

(2.2)
Apply the sine rule to triangle OCB.

(2.3)
From Eq. (2.1)
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(2.4)

From Eq. (2.2)

(2.5)

Multiply both sides of the equation 2.3 by we get

(2.6)

Multiply both sides of Eq. (2.4) by We get

(2.7)

Adding Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6)

(2.8)

If we assume that the radius of the vehicle path changes slowly due to low vehicle speed, then the rate of
change of orientation of the vehicle (i.e. ψ) must be equal to the angular velocity of the vehicle. Since the
angular v velocity of the vehicle is V/R , it follows that
Ψ=V/R
Using Eq. (2.8), Eq. (2.7) can be re-written as

(2.9)

The overall equations of motion are therefore given by

(2.10)

(2.11)

(2.12)

In this model there are three inputs: δf , δr and V . The velocity V is an external variable and can be assumed
to be a time varying function or can be obtained from a longitudinal vehicle model.
The slip angle β can be obtained by multiplying Eq. (2.5) by lr and subtracting it from Eq. (2.6) multiplied by
lf.

(2.13)

Fig 4. Ackerman turning geometry

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Let lw , be the track width of the vehicle and δ0 and δi be the outer and inner steering angles respectively. Let
the wheelbase L = lf + lr be small compared to the radius R . If the slip angle β is small, then Eq. (2.12) can be
approximated by

Or

(2.14)

Since the radius at the inner and outer wheels are different, we have

(2.15)

(2.16)
The average front wheel steering angle is approximately given by

(2.17)
The difference between δ0 and δi are

(2.18)
Thus, the difference in the steering angles of the two front wheels is proportional to the square of the
average steering angle. Such a differential steer can be obtained from a trapezoidal tie rod arrangement, as
shown in Figure 5. As can be seen from the figure, for both left and right turns, the inner wheel always turns
a larger steering angle.

Figure 5. Differential steer from a trapezoidal tie-rod arrangement

BICYCLE MODEL OF LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS

At higher vehicle speeds, the assumption that the velocity at each wheel is in the direction of the wheel
can no longer be made. In this case, instead of a kinematic model, a dynamic model for lateral vehicle motion
must be developed.
A "bicycle" model of the vehicle with two degrees of freedom is considered, as shown in Figure 6. The
two degrees of freedom are represented by the vehicle lateral position y and the vehicle yaw angle ψ.
The vehicle lateral position is measured along the lateral axis of the vehicle to the point 0 which is the
center of rotation of the vehicle. The vehicle yaw angle ψ is measured with respect to the global X axis. The
longitudinal velocity of the vehicle at the c.g. is denoted by Vx.

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Fig 6. Lateral vehicle dynamics

The influence of road bank angle will be considered later. Ignoring road
bank angle for now and applying Newton's second law for motion along the
y axis (Guldner, et. al., 1996),
(2.19)

is the inertial acceleration of the vehicle at the c.g. in the direction of the y axis and Fyf and
Fyr are the lateral tire forces of the front and rear wheels respectively. Two terms contribute to ay: the
acceleration jj which is due to motion along the y axis and the centripetal acceleration Vxψ . Hence
(2.20)
Substituting from Eq. (2.20) into Eq. (2.19), the equation for the lateral translational motion of the vehicle is
obtained as
(2.21)
Moment balance about the z axis yields the equation for the yaw dynamics as
(2.22)
where l f and lr are the distances of the front tire and the rear tire respectively from the c.g. of the vehicle.
The next step is to model the lateral tire forces Fyf and Fyr that act on the vehicle. Experimental results show
that the lateral tire force of a tire is proportional to the "slip-angle" for small slip-angles. The slip angle of a
tire is defined as the angle between the orientation of the tire and the orientation of the velocity vector of the
wheel (see Figure 7). In Figure 7, the slip angle of the front wheel is
(2.23)
where θVf is the angle that the velocity vector makes with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and δ is the front
wheel steering angle. The rear slip angle is similarly given by
(2.24)

FROM BODY FIXED TO GLOBAL COORDINATES

The dynamic model described above is based on body fixed coordinates. It is suitable for control system
design, since a lane keeping controller must utilize body fixed measurements of position error with respect to
road. To obtain a global picture of the trajectory traversed by the vehicle, however, the time history of the
body-fixed coordinates must be converted into trajectories in inertial space.

Figure 7. From body fixed to global coordinates

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As shown in Figure 7, the lateral distance between the c.g. of the vehicle and the road centerline is el . The
position of the vehicle in global coordinates is therefore given by
(2.25)
(2.26)
where ( Xdes , Ydes) are the global coordinates of the point on the road centerline which lies on a line along the
lateral axis of the vehicle.

(2.27)

(2.28)

(2.29)

LONGITUDINAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS: VEHICLE MODEL

Longitudinal Vehicle Model
In practical terms, a vehicle not only travels on a level road but also up and down the slope of a roadway as
well as around corners. In order to model this motion, the description of the roadway can be simplified by
considering a straight roadway with two-dimensional movement.
This two dimensional model will focus on vehicle performance, including acceleration, speed, and
gradeability, as well as braking performance.
Figure 2.1 shows the forces acting on a vehicle as it travels at a given speed along a roadway with a
specific grade. Fundamental principles of mechanical systems can be used to express the relationship between
the vehicle acceleration and the forces acting on the vehicle body as:
ma = Ft – Fw − Fg Fr (1)
where m is the vehicle mass, a is the acceleration of the vehicle. Ft is the total tractive force acting upon the
vehicle body, Fw is the aerodynamic drag force, Fg is the grading resistance force, and Fr is the rolling resistance
force.

Fig. 8. Forces acting on a vehicle

Longitudinal Resistance
Aerodynamic Drag
As air travels over the body of the vehicle, it generates normal pressure and shear stress on the vehicle’s
body. The external aerodynamic resistance is comprised of two components, shape drag and skin friction. The
shape drag arises from high-pressure areas in front of the vehicle and low-pressure areas behind the vehicle
that are created as the vehicle propels itself through the air. These high-and low-pressure zones act against the
motion of the vehicle, while the skin friction is due to the shear stress in the boundary layer on the surface of
the body of the vehicle. In comparison, shape drag is much larger in magnitude than skin friction and
constitutes more than 90% of the total external aerodynamic drag of a vehicle. Aerodynamic drag is a function
of effective vehicle frontal area, A, and the aerodynamic drag coefficient, Cd, which are highly dependent on
the design of the vehicle body:
1
𝐹𝑤 = 2 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 (𝑉 + 𝑉𝑚 )2 (2)
where ρ is the air density, V is the vehicle longitudinal speed, and Vw is the wind speed.

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Grading Resistance
As a vehicle travels up or down an incline, gravity acting on the vehicle produces a force which is
always directed downward, as shown in Figure 2. This force opposes the forward motion during grade
climbing and aids in the forward motion during grade descending. In typical vehicle performance models,
only uphill operation is considered as it resists the total tractive force. The equation for this force is a function
of the road angle θ, vehicle mass m, and the gravitational acceleration g:
Fg = mg sin θ (3)

For a relatively small angle of θ, tan θ = sin θ. Using this approximation, the grade resistance can be
approximated by mg tan θ, or mgG, where G is the slope of the grade.

Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance force is a result of the hysteresis of the tyre at the contact patch as it rolls along the
roadway. In a stationary tyre, the normal force due to the road balances the force due to the weight of the
vehicle through the contact patch which is in line with the center of the tyre. When the tyre rolls, as a result
of tyre distortion or hysteresis, the normal pressure in the leading half of the contact patch is higher than that
in the trailing half. The normal force due to the road is shifted from the center of the tyre in the direction of
motion. This shift produces a moment that exerts a retarding torque on the wheel. The rolling resistance force
is the force due to the moment, which opposes the motion of the wheel, and always assists in braking or
retarding the motion of the vehicle. The equation for this force is a function of the normal load Fz and the
rolling resistance coefficient fr, which is derived by dividing the distance the normal force due to the road is
shifted by the effective radius of the tyre rd.
Fr = Fzfr cos(θ) (4)

Total Tractive Force

Equation (1) shows the factors affecting vehicle performance with a particular interest in the overall
tractive force of the vehicle.

ma = − Ft – Fw − Fg – Fr ⇒ ma = (Ftf + Ftr) – (Fw + Fg + Frf + Frr) (5)

By rearranging Equation 2.1 we arrive at an equation that expresses longitudinal vehicle motion as a
combination of total tractive effort minus the resistance. In order to determine the total tractive effort, the
normal forces, Fzf and Fzr, need to be determined. The front and rear tyre contact points should satisfy the
equilibrium equations for moments:

∑ 𝑀𝑟 = 0 , ∑ 𝑀𝑓 = 0 (6)
Therefore,
Fzf(lf = lr) + Fwhw + (mgsin(θ)h) + (mah) – (mg cos (θ)lr) = 0 (7)
and
Fzr(lf + lr) - Fwhw - (mgsin(θ)h) + (mah) – (mg cos (θ)lf) = 0 (8)

where Fzf and Fzr are the normal forces on the front and rear tyres, lf and lr are the distances between
the front and rear axles and vehicle center of gravity, respectively. hw is the height for effective aerodynamic
drag force and h is the height of vehicle center of gravity. For simplicity, usually hw is assumed to be equal to
h. Equations 2.7 and 2.8 can be rearranged to solve for the normal forces on the front and rear tyres:

−𝐹𝑤 ℎ−(𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)ℎ) + (𝑚𝑎ℎ) – (𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃)𝑙𝑟)

𝐹𝑧𝑓 = (9)
𝑙𝑓 +𝑙𝑟
𝐹𝑤 ℎ+(𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)ℎ)+ (𝑚𝑎ℎ)+ (𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃)𝑙𝑟)
𝐹𝑧𝑓 = (10)
𝑙𝑓 +𝑙𝑟
The total tractive force can be expressed as the tractive forces acting on each tyre:
Ft = Fxf + Fxr (11)

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where Fxf and Fxr are the longitudinal forces on the front and rear tyres, respectively. The friction
generated between the tyre–road contact patch creates the longitudinal force. Therefore, the longitudinal force
generated on each tyre can be represented as a function of the tyre friction coefficient and the normal force:

Fxf = fFzf, Fxr = rFzr (12)

where Fxf and Fzr are the normal forces on the front and rear tyres given by Equations (9) and (10) and
μf and μr are the friction coefficients on the front and rear tyres, respectively.

DRIVELINE DYNAMICS
The longitudinal motion equation for the vehicle is of the type

where Fxf and Fxr are the longitudinal tire forces. The longitudinal tire forces on the driving wheels are the
primary forces that help the vehicle move forward. These forces depend on the difference between the
rotational wheel velocity reffωw and the vehicle longitudinal velocity x . The wheel rotational velocity ωw, is
highly influenced by the driveline dynamics of the vehicle. The major components of a driveline are shown
in Figure 4-8 below. The flow of power and the direction of loads on the components is
shown in Figure 4-9.

Fig 9. Components of a front-wheel drive vehicle powertrain

Power
Load
Figure 10. Power flow and loads in vehicle drivetrain

Torque converter
The torque converter is a type of fluid coupling that connects the engine to the transmission. If the engine is
turning slowly, such as when the car is idling at a stoplight, the amount of torque passed through the torque
converter is very small, so keeping the car still requires only a light pressure on the brake pedal.
In addition to allowing the car come to a complete stop without stalling the engine, the torque converter
gives the car more torque when it accelerates out of a stop. Modern torque converters can multiply the torque
of the engine by two to three times. This effect only happens when the engine is turning much faster than the
transmission. At higher speeds, the transmission catches up to the engine, eventually moving at almost the
same speed. Ideally, though, the transmission should move at exactly the same speed as the engine, because
the difference in speed wastes power. To counter this effect, many cars have a torque converter with a lockup
clutch. When the two halves of the torque converter get up to speed, this clutch locks them together,
eliminating the slippage and improving efficiency.
The torque converter is typically unlocked as soon as the driver removes his/ her foot from the
accelerator pedal and steps on the brakes. This allows the engine to keep running even if the driver brakes to
slow the wheels down.
The major components of the torque converter are a pump, a turbine and the transmission fluid. The
fins that make up the pump of the torque converter are attached to the flywheel of the engine. The pump
therefore turns at the same speed as the engine. The turbine is connected to the transmission and causes the
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transmission to spin at the same speed as the turbine, this basically moves the car. The coupling between the
turbine and the pump is through the transmission fluid. Torque is transmitted from the pump to the turbine of
the torque converter.
Torque converter modeling (both physically based and input-output data based) has been studied by
various researchers is desirable for control because of its simplicity. It has a reasonable agreement with
experimental data for a fairly wide range of operating conditions. This model is a quadratic regression fit of
the data from a simple experiment, which involves measuring only the input and output speeds and torques of
the torque converter.

MEAN VALUE ENGINE MODELS

The maximum tractive effort of the vehicle is proportional to the slip ratio of the tyre, which represents
the difference between the angular tyre speed and the vehicle speed. During acceleration, the slip ratio of the
front and rear tyres can be expressed as:
𝑟 𝜔𝑟−𝑉 𝑟𝑤𝑓 𝜔𝑓−𝑉
𝜎𝑟 = 𝑤𝑟 , 𝜎𝑓 = (13)
𝑟 𝜔 𝑤𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜔 𝑤𝑓 𝑓
where rwf and rwr are the radii of the front and rear tyres, and ωf and ωr represent their angular speed.
Slip-friction coefficient characteristics of a tyre have a nonlinear relationship and depend on the road surface
conditions, as shown in Figure 2. The Pacejka Tyre Model is widely used to define these characteristics:
µf/r = Dsin(Catan(Bσf/r – E(Bσf/r – a tan(Bσf/r)))) (14)
where μf/r and σf/r are the friction coefficient and slip ratio of the front or rear tyre. B, C, D, and E are
tyre coefficients and their values depend on the road surface conditions.

Fig. 3. Typical tyre slip ratio–friction coefficient characteristics.

The sum of the torques on each wheel determines the rate of change of wheel speeds:
𝑑𝜔𝑓 𝑑𝜔
𝐽𝑓 𝑑𝑡 =𝑇𝑒𝑓 − 𝑇𝑟𝑓 , 𝐽𝑓 𝑑𝑡𝑟=𝑇𝑒𝑟 − 𝑇𝑟𝑟 (15)
where Jf and Jr are the inertias, Tef and Ter are the traction torques delivered from the drivetrain, Trf and Trr are
the reaction torques due to the tractive force of the front and rear tyres, respectively. The reaction and friction
torques on the front and rear tyres can be defined as:
𝑇𝑟𝑓 = 𝑟𝑤𝑓 𝐹𝑥𝑓 , 𝑇𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑤𝑟 𝐹𝑥𝑟 (16)

where ωf and ωr are the angular speed, and Cf and Cr are the friction coefficients of the front and rear
tyres, respectively. The traction torques on the tyres, Tef and Ter are provided from the powertrain. If the
vehicle is rear wheel or front wheel driven, the nondriven wheel provides no traction torque. Therefore, for
nondriven wheels, Equation 15 can be expressed as:
𝑑𝜔𝑟
𝐽𝑟 = 𝑟𝑤𝑟 𝐹𝑥𝑟 (17)
𝑑𝑡

In conventional vehicles, the source of the traction torque is the internal combustion engine and the
output power of the engine is supplied to the tyres through the clutch, the transmission,
and the differential. Therefore, the traction torque applied for either a front or a rear wheel drive vehicle can
be expressed as:
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Tp = Teniti0Ƞp (18)

where Ten is the torque from the engine, it is the gear ratio of the transmission, i0 is the gear ratio of
the differential, and ηp is the total efficiency of the powertrain.

Vehicle Performance
Performance characteristics of a road vehicle refer to its capability to both accelerate and decelerate,
and negotiate grades in a straight-line motion. These characteristics are different depending on the vehicle’s
type and size. Mass of the vehicle is of great importance to vehicle performance. By researching not only
vehicle electrification, but lightweight materials as well, all aspects of vehicle performance would be
improved, including fuel economy. The tractive and braking effort developed by the tyres and the resisting
forces acting on the vehicle determine the performance potential of the vehicle. Typically, overall vehicle
performance is also concerned with cornering ability, but as this is mainly a function of suspension geometry
and vehicle design.

Maximum Speed of a Vehicle

The maximum speed of a vehicle is the highest constant cruising speed that the vehicle can achieve at
full power on a level road. The maximum speed of a vehicle is calculated with full torque from the traction
source on a flat road when the tractive force and the resistive force are at equilibrium.
Since the vehicle acceleration and road gradient are zero at this point, the equilibrium can be
represented as:

Ft = Fw+Fr (19)

Considering that the wheel speed is also constant, the tractive force can be expressed in terms of the torque
applied to the wheels:
𝑇𝑝
Ft= 𝑟 (20)
𝑑
where Tp can be expressed as in Equation 18.

The aerodynamic drag force Fw and the rolling resistance force Fr have been derived in Equations 2 and 4,
respectively.
Combining Equations 2.19, 2.20, 2.2, 2.4, and 2.18 yields:

𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 1
= 𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 + 2 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉 2 (21)
𝑟𝑑

2(((𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 )/𝑟𝑑− 𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟

V=√ (22)
𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑

Gradeability
The gradeability of a vehicle is the maximum gradient on which the vehicle can start climbing from
stand-still with all the wheels of the vehicle on the gradient at the time of start.
As a vehicle drives on a road with a small grade and constant speed, the tractive effort and resistance
equilibrium can be written as an extension of Equations 19 and 21 to include gradeability for small angles, as
calculated in Equation 3.
Ft = F w + Fr + Fg (23)
𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 1
= 𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 + 2 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉 2 +mgG (24)
𝑟𝑑
1
((𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 )/𝑟𝑟− 𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 − 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉 2
G= 2
(25)
𝑚𝑔

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2.5.3 Acceleration Performance

When high-performance vehicles are compared to one another, one of the first statistics to be reviewed
is the acceleration performance. It is most often referred to as a vehicle’s 0–60 mph time.
Referring to Equation 1, the acceleration of the vehicle on level ground can be written as:
𝐹𝑡 −𝐹𝑟 −𝐹𝑤
𝑎 = 𝑚𝛿 (26)
where δ is the mass factor which takes into account the mass moments of inertia of the rotating
components involved during a change of acceleration.
Combining Equations 26, 20, 2, 4, and 18 yields:
1
((𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 )/𝑟𝑑 −𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 − 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉 2
𝑎= 2
(27)
𝑚𝛿
By integrating Equations 28 and 29 from zero to potentially 60 mph, the predicted acceleration time
and distance for a vehicle can be calculated:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑡 = 𝑚𝛿 ∫𝑉 2 1 2
dV (28)
1 ((𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 )/𝑟𝑑 −𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 − 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉
2

𝑉 1
𝑆 = 𝑚𝛿 ∫𝑉 2 1 dV (29)
1 ((𝑇𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖0 𝜂𝑝 )/𝑟𝑑 −𝑚𝑔𝑓𝑟 − 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑 𝑉 2
2

The torque of the engine during acceleration is not constant which makes these equations very difficult
to solve analytically, thus numerical methods are typically used. These methods are outside the scope of this
chapter.

Braking Performance and Distribution

Conventional brakes, disc or drum, are the single most important safety device on any vehicle. By
transferring kinetic energy into thermal energy through friction between a rotating surface and a stationary
brake pad, the vehicle speed is decreased, but that thermal energy is typically wasted in conventional vehicles.
With the introduction of vehicle electrification, through regenerative braking with electric motors, the kinetic
energy can be recovered into stored electrical energy and it can be reused rather than being wasted. This can
greatly increase the overall efficiency of the vehicle.
Careful attention should be paid to the brake balance of the vehicle when designing a powertrain with
regenerative braking capability. In high-performance vehicles, up to 80% of the braking force may be on the
front axle, which creates a much larger potential to recapture energy at the front wheels when compared with
a rear wheel setup.
Proper brake balance during the braking cycle is extremely important as the vehicle will not achieve
the maximum braking deceleration unless all four tyres are brought to the peak friction level
simultaneously. Improper brake balance will cause either the front or rear wheels to lock up
prematurely and these stationary wheels will lose cornering traction. Proper brake balance is a function of the
loads on the wheels, which is in turn a function of the deceleration.

Braking Force
The braking force Fb, due to the brake system, which is developed on the interface between the road and the
tyre, is the primary braking force. When the braking force is below the tyre–road adhesion limit, the braking
force is given by:
𝑇 −∑ 𝐼𝛼
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑟 𝑎𝑛 (30)

where Tb is the applied brake torque, I is the rotating inertia connected with the wheel being decelerated, αan
is the corresponding angular deceleration, and r is the rolling radius of the tyre.

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Fig. 3. Vehicle braking forces on a level road.

Once the braking force reaches the limit of tyre–road adhesion, it cannot increase any further. In
addition to the braking force, the rolling resistance of tyres, aerodynamic resistance, grade resistance, and
powertrain resistance, as discussed previously, also affect vehicle motion during braking. For the purpose of
this vehicle model, it is assumed that these are minor losses and can be neglected.

Braking Characteristics of a Two-Axle Vehicle

When a vehicle is under braking or deceleration, an inertial reaction force is developed that is similar
to the centrifugal force. Figure 2.3 shows the braking forces acting on a vehicle on a level road.
The braking force is directly proportional to the normal load acting on the tyre, which is proportional
to the tyre–road adhesion. Similar to when total tractive force was calculated, the front and rear tyre contact
points should once again satisfy the equilibrium equations for moments:
𝑚𝑔 ℎ𝑎 𝑚𝑔 ℎ𝑎
𝐹𝑧𝑓 = (𝑙 +𝑙 ) (𝑙𝑟 + 𝑔 ), Fzr = (𝑙 +𝑙 ) (𝑙𝑟 + 𝑔 ) (31)
𝑓 𝑟 𝑓 𝑟
The maximum braking force that the tyre–road adhesion will support can be determined by multiplying
the normal force at the front and rear wheels by the coefficient of road adhesion, μ, as expressed in Equation
12.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Title : Modelling and Design of Electric Vehicles Title: Question bank
Subject Code : EEH004 Unit : II
Year/Semester: III/VI Type: 100% Theory

UNIT II - MODELLING OF EV’S

Introduction to Driver Assistance Systems – Active Stability Control, Ride Quality, Technologies for
Addressing Traffic Congestion, Emissions and Fuel Economy – Lateral Vehicle Dynamics: Kinematic
Models, Dynamic Bicycle Model, From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates – Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics:
Vehicle Model, Driveline Dynamics, Mean Value Engine Models.
PART A
Introduction to Driver Assistance Systems
1. What is a driver assistance system? Mention its function. K2
2. List the various Driver Assistance System developed by manufacturers. K2
Active Stability Control
3. State the objective of vehicle stability control. K1
4. Write a brief note on the function of a yaw stability control system. K1
5. Give four examples of yaw stability control systems that have been commercialized on K2
production vehicles.
Ride Quality
6. State the necessity of using actuators in suspension of vehicles. K1
7. Give some examples of vehicles incorporated with improvement in ride quality. K2
Technologies for Addressing Traffic Congestion
8. Write a short note on traffic congestion. Show how it can be minimized by vehicle K2
manufacturers.
9. What are automated highway systems? K1
10. Comment on Traffic friendly adaptive cruise control. K1
11. What are the research objectives of Adaptive Cruise Control? K2
12. How can narrow tilt-controlled commuter vehicles reduce traffic congestion? K2
13. What are Intelligent Transportation Systems? K1
Emissions and Fuel Economy
14. Give the data of emission levels of various gases due to conventional vehicles. K1
15. List the recent advancements in vehicles to meet the emission standards. K2
16. What are hybrid Electric vehicles? K1
17. Write a note on Fuel cell vehicles. K1
Lateral Vehicle Dynamics: Kinematic Models
18. Define kinematics in vehicle dynamics. K1
19. What are the assumptions in deriving the lateral vehicle dynamics of kinematic model? K1
20. Write a note on difference in steering angles. K2
21. Draw the differential steer from a trapezoidal tie-rod arrangement. K2
Dynamic Bicycle Model - From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates
22. State the necessity for dynamic bicycle model. K2
23. Write a short note on the representation of the bicycle Model. K2
Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics: Vehicle Model
24. State the necessity of longitudinal Vehicle Model. K1
25. Define aerodynamic drag. K1
26. What is rolling resistance? K1
Driveline Dynamics
27. Draw the diagram of power flow and loads in vehicle drivetrain. K2
28. What is a torque converter? K1

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Mean Value Engine Models
29. Write a note on vehicle performance. K2
30. What is acceleration performance? K1

PART B
1. Explain the concept of Driver Assistance System. Write a detailed note on the types and recent K3
innovations.
2. Discuss the salient features of fuel economy and emission control. K3
3. Derive the necessary expressions for longitudinal vehicle dynamics: vehicle model. K3
4. With neat sketches write a detailed note on driveline dynamics of EVs. K3
5. Discuss the concept of mean value engine model for EVs. Derive the necessary expressions. K3
6. How does ADAS system support the safety of EVs? Why is it important in modern EVs? K4
7. Show with suitable case studies that EVs are more economical than conventional vehicles. K4
8. Do a case study and draft a report on the modern methods of designing EVs. Show how the K4
technology has transformed the manufacturing process.

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Unit II Solved
6. How does ADAS system support the safety of EVs? Why is it important in modern EVs?
Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) can be defined as digital technologies that help drivers
in routine navigation and parking without fully automating the entire process but instead leveraging
computer networks to enable more data-driven and safer driving experiences.

Fig. Outline of ADAS Working

Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) are technical elements that improve car safety. According
to LogisFleet, when correctly built, these devices leverage a human-machine interface to increase the driver’s
potential to adapt to road hazards. These devices improve safety and response times to possible threats through
early warning and automated systems.
Some of these systems are integrated into automobiles as standard parts, while manufacturers can add
aftermarket elements and even entire systems afterward to customize the vehicle for the operator. Nearly all
automobile collisions are caused by human error. One may prevent this by employing modern driver aid
technologies (ADAS).
Nowadays, most automobiles come equipped with standard safety features. Lane departure warning
systems or blind-spot warning systems, which use microcontrollers, sensors, and surveillance systems to send
signals of reflected items ahead, to the side, and the back of the car, could be familiar to you. Technological
advancements and the proliferation of automation measures have contributed significantly to the popularity
of car safety mechanisms. The following are a few examples of available systems:
• Adaptive cruise control (ACC)
• Anti-lock braking systems
• Forward collision alert
• High beam protection system
• Lane departure alert
• Traffic lights traction control recognition
These ADAS features rely on either a single front camera or a front stereovision camera. On occasion,
camera data is supplemented with information from other devices, such as light detection and ranging
(LIDAR) or radio detection and range (RADAR).

Working of ADAS
ADAS employs camera-based sensors to assist the driver in becoming more alert to the driving
environment. Automobiles are the foundation of the future of mobile-connected devices, with significant
progress in driverless vehicles. SoCs, or systems-on-a-chip, is a collection of chips used to implement
autonomous application solutions. These chips link sensors to actuators via interfaces and high-performance
electronic control units (ECUs).
Many late-model automobiles have ADAS integrated into their initial design, upgraded when
automakers launch new vehicle models and features. The systems make use of a variety of data inputs to offer
beneficial security mechanisms. Automobile imaging is a collection of high-quality sensor systems that match
and surpass the capacities of the naked eye. This is in terms of 360-degree coverage, 3D object resolution,
good visibility in harsh weather and lighting circumstances, and real-time data, which is one of these data
sources.

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ADAS technology has been created through possible early warning automated alarm systems to boost
security and response time. Because human error causes most road accidents, these technologies have been
designed to automate and improve driving processes to address human mistakes and related driving behaviors.
The purpose of these safety systems is to enhance road safety and reduce injuries by reducing the frequency
of traffic accidents overall.
These apps and technologies are used by self-driving vehicles to achieve a 360-degree vision, both
close (in the vehicle’s immediate surroundings) and distant. This means that hardware designers employ
increasingly sophisticated process nodes to fulfill ever-increasing performance standards while
simultaneously decreasing power and footprint requirements.
One can collect more inputs from sources other than the core vehicle platform, such as other cars
(V2V) or vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2X) like managed Wi-Fi. In the coming generations, ADAS will continue
to use V2V and V2X data to connect to wireless networks to deliver more safety and financial value.
Annotation services for ADAS assist vision systems surrounding the vehicle, seeing it inside a safe bubble
against driver error, road obstructions, other cars, and pedestrians, and making use of these visual processing
talents. To identify driver sleepiness, lane departure warning, collision avoidance, and protective measures to
avert accidents and improve the driving experience, ADAS feeds recognition and tracking information to
onboard safety systems.
ADAS also includes propulsion capabilities such as adaptive cruise control that adjusts a vehicle’s
speed to maintain a safe distance from the car in front. In some situations, like interstate travel or stop-and-go
traffic, more powerful ADAS capabilities can manage steering and propulsion without a driver’s manual
intervention. These systems are generally referred to as Level 2+ active safety systems and include some of
the most comprehensive features presently available.

Types of ADAS
Advanced driver-assistance systems can be of two types:
1. Passive ADAS systems
In a passive ADAS system, the computer alerts the driver to a dangerous circumstance despite the number or
kind of sensors deployed. The motorist must take steps to avoid an accident caused by this circumstance.
Typical warning systems include sirens, flashing lights, and, in some cases, tactile input, such as a steering
wheel that vibrates to alert the driver that the zone they are entering is already taken by another car (blind spot
detection). The driver receives critical information that allows him to make the best judgments on the road.
Passive ADAS provides real-time data about the driving environment and alerts about possible risks via a
human-machine interface (HMI).

2. Active ADAS systems

The car takes active steps in these ADAS systems. To avoid worst-case scenarios, the vehicle can take action
on its own. Automatic emergency braking (AEB) detects an impending accident and applies the brakes without
the driver’s assistance. Functional features include adaptive cruise control (ACC), lane-keeping assist (LKA),
lane centering (LC), and traffic jam assist.

Importance of ADAS
Advanced driver assistance technologies (ADAS) are passive and active safety mechanisms that eliminate
human mistakes when driving various types of automobiles. ADAS systems employ innovative technology to
aid drivers while operating and enhance driver performance. ADAS utilizes a range of sensor technologies to
monitor the environment around the vehicle, then relays data to the driver or takes appropriate action. Their
role in a connected Internet of Things (IoT) includes the following:

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7. Show with suitable case studies that EVs are more economical than conventional vehicles.
According to data from Cox Automotive (parent company of Kelley Blue Book), the average price
paid for a new EV has fallen significantly—in September 2023, it came down by $14,300 over the prior year.
This amounted to a cost of just $2,800 more than the average paid for a new gas-powered vehicle. And with
the EV market growing rapidly, the price margin is expected to shrink even more in the coming years as
manufacturers produce more affordable models and improve battery technology, the most expensive part of
an EV.
You can mitigate some of that cost by making use of tax incentives, which can shave thousands off an
EV’s price tag. The federal EV tax credit offers up to $7,500 for new EVs and, for the first time, $4,000 for
used EVs, too, for eligible buyers and EVs. In addition, new rules from U.S. Department of the Treasury will
soon allow participating auto dealers to provide the tax credit directly to consumers at the point of sale, making
savings more immediate. One asterisk: Automakers must now meet new EV manufacturing requirements in
order for their vehicles to qualify for those federal incentives, which will likely temporarily impact the
availability of eligible EVs while supply chains catch up. Many states offer their own tax incentives, too, so
take the time to search for what’s available for the model you’re interested in buying.
Be sure to also consider adding an EV charger to your home. Charging from a standard 120-volt outlet for
eight hours overnight will add about 32 miles of range, which is typically plenty for daily driving needs. If
you want to charge faster to be able to make frequent and/or longer trips, installing a Level 2, 240-volt outlet
and charger in your garage can allow you to add more than 250 miles overnight. That installation will typically
cost you about $2,000, but some states and local utility companies offer incentives to offset it, as does the
Inflation Reduction Act.

Cost of electricity vs. gasoline

Here’s where EV owners win out. Going electric means you get to skip pricey trips to the pump, which
is one of the biggest draws for making the switch. A 2018 study by the University of Michigan’s Transportation
Research Institute found that the average cost to fuel an electric car was $485 a year, compared to $1,117 for
a gas-powered vehicle. A 2020 Consumer Reports study similarly showed that EV drivers tend to spend about
60 percent less each year on fuel costs compared to drivers of gas-powered cars. And in 2023, the nonpartisan
policy firm Energy Innovation released a report showing that these savings benefit drivers across the United
States: Every EV model in every state is cheaper to fill than a gas-powered vehicle. These savings are largely
based on the fact that current EVs are 2.6 to 4.8 times more efficient at traveling a mile compared to a gasoline
internal combustion engine, according to real world data collected by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
But these savings calculations aren’t the same for everyone. Here’s where it can get a little complicated.
For starters, EVs can vary in efficiency—that is, how far they can go on the same amount of electricity.
For an EV, efficiency is measured by how many kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity it consumes per 100
miles—similar to a gas-powered car’s miles-per-gallon stat. (A lower kWh/100 miles rate is better.) The 2023
Hyundai Ioniq 6 is a standout in terms of efficiency, with 24 kWh/100 miles, but the more budget-friendly
2023 Chevrolet Bolt EUV is comparable, with a 29 kWh/100 miles rating. So make sure to consider this factor
when comparison shopping—and check out the DOE's handy fuel-savings calculator that will give you a more
tailored estimate on how much you can save based on the specific vehicle you're considering.
Charging your car at home will cause your electricity bill to rise, but by how much will depend on
factors like when you charge it and where you live. Electricity costs, like gas prices, can vary significantly by
region. Many electric utilities offer lower electricity rates for charging during off-peak hours versus peak, so
you'll want to take advantage of this when charging your EV, and many EVs can be programmed to
automatically charge during those hours when rates are low. Taking these charging costs into account, a 2020
study broke down the lifetime fuel costs of battery-powered EVs versus internal combustion engine cars state
by state. EV owners in Washington State, for example, can save as much as $14,480 over the life of their
vehicle—the highest margin in the country. On the other end of the spectrum is Hawaii, where going electric
could ultimately cost $2,494 more over 15 years.
To get a rough estimate of your own charging costs, multiply an EV’s kilowatt-hour (kWh/100)
mileage rate by your electricity rate (measured in cents per kWh), which you can find on your monthly bill.
This will give you the electricity costs per 100 miles driven. After figuring in the number of miles you typically
drive in a month, you’ll be able to see how much your electric bill may go up. Keep in mind that charging
your car overnight, when electricity demand and prices drop, can save you 30 percent on that charge.

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Also note that public charging stations tend to be more expensive than charging at home. If you rely
exclusively on these stations—which do offer faster, higher-voltage charging—your fueling costs could
significantly increase.

Maintenance costs for electric vs. gas cars

Without spark plugs to replace or oil to change, electric vehicles have a clear leg up on maintenance
costs. EVs also have the unique feature of “regenerative” braking—recovering the energy normally lost to
braking—which saves on brake pad replacements. Electric cars do still require some basic maintenance, of
course, like service checks and tire rotations. But in general, electric vehicles typically cost half as much to
maintain and repair as gas-powered cars.

Lifetime costs for electric vs. gas cars

Now, to calculate that all-important number: whether an electric car will be cheaper over the life of the
vehicle. You can figure out your savings estimate by adding together the up-front costs of your specific model
(minus tax rebates) and then ongoing costs. (The DOE has created a calculator to help with this task.) You’ll
need to account for your model’s efficiency, how much you plan to drive, regional electricity costs, charging
habits, and maintenance costs per year. Then compare those to the gas-powered alternative. Note that the
average amount of time that a driver keeps a new vehicle is seven years, the metric that authors of a 2024
study from Atlas Public Policy, conducted on behalf of NRDC, used when investigating how expenses would
stack up for owners of gas cars versus EVs. Weighing the total cost of ownership for five of the most popular
internal combustion models across different vehicle classes (i.e., a compact sedan up to a pickup truck) and
comparing each to a similarly sized electric version of the same type, the study found that owning an EV
would always be cheaper. On the high end, net savings ranged from $7,000 to $11,000.
Another popular model to consider when shopping for a green and budget-friendly car is a plug-in
hybrid. These vehicles operate partly on gasoline and partly on electricity from the grid. A plug-in hybrid with
an all-electric range of 50 miles could enable you to drive mainly on electricity.

8. Do a case study and draft a report on the modern methods of designing EVs. Show how the technology
has transformed the manufacturing process.
Design, components and manufacturing processes
Although the development of the EV was vigorously pursued by researchers and manufacturers in the
early twentieth century, interest was stalled due to cheaper cost, mass-produced gasoline-powered vehicles.
Research waned from 1920 until the early 1960s when environmental issues of pollution and the fear of
depleting natural resources created the need for a more environmentally friendly method of personal
transportation.

EV design
Today’s EVs are very different from ICE (internal combustion engine) gasoline-powered vehicles. The
new breed of EVs has benefited from a series of failed attempts to design and build electric vehicles using
traditional methods of production used by manufacturers for decades.
There are numerous differences in how EVs are manufactured when compared to ICE vehicles. The focus
used to be on protecting the engine, but this focus has now shifted to protecting the batteries in manufacturing
an EV. Automotive designers and engineers are completely rethinking the design of EVs, as well as creating
new production and assembly methods to build them. They are now designing an EV from the ground up with
heavy consideration to aerodynamics, weight and other energy efficiencies.
• The single biggest modification of the car is the underbody. While this structure has been very similar
in the past, with EVs there is no engine and there are no exhaust systems needed. There is an
aerodynamically designed full belly pan under the EV that contains trays where the battery pack is
placed. With more and more variations and shapes of battery packs available for different models, the
challenge is to be able to make these variations on one Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). Since
all EV battery cells are quite heavy, flexible robotic lines are necessary.
• In addition, FMS production lines must accommodate many new robotically performed joining
methods. In many instances spot welding is being replaced by an increased use of self-piercing rivets,
gluing, sealing, flow drilling, and laser welding — and are specifically chosen depending on the tray
used for each particular type of battery cell.
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• The EV’s inner structure is called a “space frame” and is made of strong, lightweight aluminum —
and for additional weight-savings, the wheels are also made of aluminum instead of steel. Using
manufacturers molds, these aluminum parts are poured at a foundry. In addition, the steering wheel
and seat frames are made of magnesium, a strong, lightweight metal. Even the body panels are made
of lightweight aluminum, or an impact-resistant composite plastic. Both materials are recyclable,
providing long-term disposal advantages.
• In an effort to reduce weight, the structural frame, seat frames, wheels and body are designed for high-
strength, safety — and the lightest possible weight. New configurations have been developed that
provide support for the components and protection of the vehicle occupants with minimal mass and
use of high-tech materials, including aluminum, magnesium and advanced composite plastics.
• The windshield is solar glass that keeps the interior from overheating in the sun and frost from forming
in winter. Materials that provide thermal conservation reduce the energy drain that heating and air
conditioning impose on the batteries.
• Some features did have to be eliminated or changed while leaving all the comforts drivers find
desirable and adding new considerations as well. One feature that was removed because of space
restrictions was the spare tire. This was possible because the EV tires contain a sealant to repair any
leaks automatically. In addition, the tires are rubber and designed to inflate to higher pressures, so the
car rolls with less resistance to conserve energy.
• An added safety consideration was a pedestrian warning system, because EVs run so quietly that
pedestrians may not hear them approach. Driver activated flashing lights and beeps warn pedestrians
that the car is approaching. This system works automatically when the car is put in reverse as well.

EV battery
An electric vehicle battery (EVB) is the standard designation for batteries used to power electric motors
of all types of EVs. In most cases, these are rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that are specifically designed
for a high ampere-hour (or kilowatthour) capacity. Rechargeable batteries of lithiumion technology are plastic
housings that contain metal anodes and cathodes. Lithium-ion batteries use polymer electrolyte instead of a
liquid electrolyte. High conductivity semisolid (gel) polymers form this electrolyte.
Lithium-ion EV batteries are deep-cycle batteries designed to give power over sustained periods of time.
Smaller and lighter, the lithium-ion batteries are desirable because they reduce the weight of the vehicle and
therefore improve its performance.

Traction system
EVs have electric motors, also referred to as the traction or propulsion system — and have metal and
plastic parts that never need lubrication. The system converts electrical energy from the battery and transmits
it to the drive train.
EVs can be designed with two-wheel or all-wheel propulsion, using either two or four electric motors
respectively. Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motors are being used in these traction or
propulsion systems for EVs. AC motors are currently more popular, because they do not use brushes and
require less maintenance.

EV controller
EV motors also include a sophisticated electronics controller. This controller houses the electronics package
that operates between the batteries and the electric motor to control the vehicle speed and acceleration, much
like a carburetor does in a gasoline-powered vehicle. These on-board computer systems not only start the car,
but also operates doors, windows, air conditioning, tire-pressure monitoring system, entertainment system,
and many other features common to all cars.

EV brakes
Any type of brake can be used on EVs, but regenerative braking systems are preferred in electric vehicles.
Regenerative braking is a process by which the motor is used as a generator to recharge the batteries when the
vehicle is slowing down. These braking systems recapture some of the energy lost during braking and channel
it back to the battery system.
During regenerative braking, some of the kinetic energy normally absorbed by the brakes and turned into heat
is converted to electricity by the controller — and is used to re-charge the batteries. Regenerative braking not
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only increases the range of an electric vehicle by 5 to 10%, but it also has proven to decrease brake wear and
reduce maintenance cost.

EV chargers
Two types of chargers are needed. A full-size charger for installation in a garage is needed to recharge EVs
overnight, as well as a portable recharger. Portable chargers are quickly becoming standard equipment from
many manufacturers. These chargers are kept in the trunk so the EVs’ batteries can be partially or completely
recharged during a long trip or in an emergency like a power outage. In a future issue we will further detail
the types of EV charging stations such as Level 1, Level 2 and Wireless.

Manufacturing process
Automotive engineers, as well as manufacturing professionals, have given the EV manufacturing process as
much design consideration as the overall design of the vehicle itself. To illustrate how EV manufacturing can
be successfully accomplished we’ve taken a brief look at how Tesla builds its EVs using many high-tech
robotic approaches.
Tesla’s goal to sell 20 million vehicles by 2030 will undoubtedly be realized. With EV sales projected to hit
300 million by 2030, Tesla and other manufacturers will be working at a break-neck pace to meet consumer
demand.

Body assembly
The body assembly process begins with coils of aluminum of different gauges, which are uncoiled into a
blanking machine that flattens the metal into blanks. The blanks are then fed into an enormous stamping press.
At this stage, large custom-made dies form the body panels, which are then transported to the body center.
This is where the EV begins to be assembled — starting with the underbody, which is the main floor system
of the EV where the batteries are seated. The body sides are then added to provide internal reinforcement as
well as the outer skin. Inside the framing is where the body sides, the underbody and the front end of the
vehicle are all married together.

Paint shop
A Kuka robot places the body onto a conveyor that transports it to the paint shop where multiple pretreatment
primer base coats are applied. Specially designed paint robots work in an extremely clean environment to
produce a beautifully painted body, ready for general assembly. At this point, each EV moves through the
factory autonomously powered by its propulsion system and batteries. Since the EV has no internal
combustion engine there is no potential danger of exhaust fumes as it travels to the general assembly area.

General assembly
The Tesla EV is assembled from inside out. Automation is used to the fullest — as the same robot that installs
the seats, then changes tools to position the windshield, apply adhesive and seat it on the vehicle. In total,
about 1,000 robots perform very diverse tasks in the production of the Model 3. Since robots are extremely
good at repeatability and accuracy of motion needed, employees are utilized in more flexible situations where
human intelligence is required.

Quality control
Every part used in the operation of the EV has been tested during the many assembly steps at the production
line. After the battery pack and propulsion unit have been installed, the car can be driven inside the plant. This
shows that the EV is working several steps before it is completed. Due to the individual quality checks at each
stage of assembly, the only major quality control requirements are a comprehensive set of tests and inspections.

Limited byproducts or waste

There are limited byproducts from the manufacture of electric cars — and waste in the assembly factory is
minimal to nonexistent. Parts, components and subassemblies are made elsewhere and delivered to the
assembly plants. Trimmings and other waste are recaptured during manufacturing and most are recyclable.