MINING

❖ Mineral
• Is a naturally occurring substance that is found at or near the earth’s
surface or underground
• A mineral appears either in solid state e.g. gold coal silver, liquid state
e.g. crude oil or in gaseous state e.g. natural gas

➢ Mining
• Is the extraction of a naturally occurring substance from the earth’s
surface or underground
• Their exploitation is influenced by the nature of their occurrence
• They are accessed using surface and underground methods
• In Zimbabwe , small and large scale mining operations are done

➢ HOW MINING RIGHTS ARE ACQUIRED IN ZIMBABWE

• Buying a prospecting licence from the mines office in the province one
wishes to register the block
• Locate the site of the mineral using maps and other forms of technology
e.g. GIS
• Verification of the site by the prospector is done in order to
make sure that the block is exists and to avoid giving the same block to
several miners. This causes conflicts
• If the land belongs to the state, inform the district administration officer
in order to formalise the block and to avoid conflicts
• The prospector agent physically pegs the area by marking the deposit
with a discovery peg
• Posting discouraging and registration notices is done on the ground in
order to alert other prospects
• Before posting these notices, the agent is required to inform or seek
consent from the land owner if the land is privately owned
Submission of application ids done to the ministry of mines and mining
development offices. It should include the following
-Environmental Impact Assessment license
-Prospecting license
-prospecting notice
-Discovery notice
 -Map in triplicate
• Issuing a certificate of registration is done upon the payment of the
gazetted fee

❖ REASONS WHY IT IS DIFFICULT TO REGISTER MINES IN

ZIMBABWE
• High levels of corruption
• Lack of education
• High costs of registration fees
• Registration process is long and strenuous
• Poor implementation of laws/ fragmented laws
• Political interference
• Too many procedures are involved in registering
and obtaining claims

➢ FACTORS INFLUENCING MINING

❖ GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS

• This determines mining methods as well as the cost of mining
operations
• Shallow and horizontal seams are mined using cheaper open cast and
strip methods etc
❖ PHYSICAL ACCESSIBILITY
• Construction of transport networks and mineral processing infrastructure is
difficult in areas of rugged terrain and steep slopes
❖ TECHNOLOGY
• Level of technology determines the scale of operations as well as efficiency
in the recovery of minerals
• Improvements in technology has allowed the exploitation of deep mineral
seams
❖ LABOUR SUPPLY
• Mining requires all forms of labour

❖ CLIMATE
• Exploitation of minerals in humid climates with a high incidence of
environmental diseases and pests is difficult
• Open cast mining is difficult when the climate is humid as a result of
flooding of pits
• Small scale mining operations are limited during the rainy season
❖ SIZE OF THE DEPOSIT AND QUALITY/GRADE OF THE ORE
• Size of the mineral determines the life cycle of a mining operations
• Large deposits means a long life span and few deposits are exhausted within
a short period of time
❖ DEMAND AND PRICES ON THE WORLD MARKET
• Prices of minerals fluctuate on the world market
• If prices are fluctuating at a low level, this reduces the viability of a mining
operations
❖ AVAILABILITY OF CAPITAL
• Initially, large sums of capital are needed to buy land on which
development is to be done, and to set up mining infrastructure
 ❖ GOVRNMENT POLICY
Governments encourage the exploitation of local resources in order to create
employment and to develop the country’s economy
SMALL SCALE/ ARTISANAL MINING IN ZIMBABWE
• Also called gold panners or alluvial miners
• Most of these miners are unregistered and they operate
informally/illegally
• They extract minerals such as gold, diamonds chrome
• They are supported by the government since they contribute to country’s
economy
• The government is encouraging registration of these mines
REASONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF SMALL SCALE MINING
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
• They generate foreign currency
• They create employment opportunities
• They increase the supply of gold to Fidelity Printers which leads to
increased foreign currency earnings in. Fidelity is the main buyer of gold
in Zimbabwe
• Generation of income and wealth for the panners
• Generation of revenue for the government through taxes
• Promote better living standards
• Provide market for the informal traders
• Utilise or extract idle resources

ENVIRNMENTAL/PHYSICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH

PANNING
• Soil erosion due to the removal of the overburden
• Siltation and sedimentation of rivers leading to shortage of water and
occurrence of floods
• Environmental degradation due to the random digging of pits and
trenches
• Deforestation promotes soil erosion and destroys the aesthetic value of
the environment
• Destruction of marine ecosystems as a result of siltation of reservoirs
• Water pollution by chemicals such as mercury and cyanide that destroy
marine ecosystems e.g. How Mine disaster
• Land pollution by spoil heaps of the overburden
• Air pollution caused by dust particles from spoil heaps
• Noise pollution during blasting
• Poor sanitation causes water pollution and water borne diseases
• Land scarification due to open pits
• Open pits and trenches trap people and livestock
Promote the growth of informal settlements made of plastics and grass
which are an eyesore
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PANING
• Leakage of gold since some of it is sold to the parallel market
• Foreign currency leakages due to illegal exports of gold
• Destruction of infrastructure e.g. digging of tunnels along main
Bulawayo-Harare railway line which disrupts train services, damages
buildings e.g. Eiffel Flats primary school in Kadoma and destruction of
roads e.g. Boterekwa road in Shurugwi
• Gold paners invade forest plantations in the eastern highlands of
Zimbabwe thereby destroying valuable timber
• Reduced water supplies for agriculture and urban settlements due to
pollution and siltation of reservoirs
• Destruction of farmlands
• Reduction in the tourism potential of some areas e.g. Mzingwane and
Inyankuni dams in Matabeleland south
SOCIAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PANING
• Increase in anti-social activities e.g. prostitution, drug abuse
• Exploitation of labour through minimum wages , long working hours and
presence of irregular working hours
• Lack of protective clothing which exposes miners to accidents and
diseases
• Most of the work is done manually and the risk of accidents is very high
• Loss of life due to the collapsing and flooding of tunnels
• Promotes crime and theft
• Increase in spreading of diseases e.g. HIV?AIDS, STIs
• Drunkenness and other forms of disorderly behaviour are common
• Conflicts usually leads to loss of life
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF PANING

MEASURE REASON FOR THE FAILURE

legislation corruption
Use of fines and penalties Fines are too low to discourage
perpetrators
Frequent police patrols Use of bribes, shortage of labour
Licensing of miners Use of fragmented laws, corruption
Use of quota systems Poor monitoring, shortage of labour
Education and training of miners in Illiteracy, ignorance, lack of knowledge
environmental friendly methods of
mining
Afforestation and reforestation Lack of cooperation, trees take time to
programmes mature
Reclamation of mined areas poor implementation of environmental
laws

LARGE SCALE MINING OPERATIONS IN ZIMBABWE

❖ Distribution of minerals in Zimbabwe

• Most of the minerals are concentrated along the metamorphic rocks along
the Great Dyke due to the exposure of minerals by magma intrusion
• MINES AND MINERALS IN ZIMBABWE
MINERAL MINE
Platinum Unki, Zimplats near Chegutu
Diamond Murowa, Chiyadzwa, River Ranch
Asbestos Zvishavane, Mashava
Copper Mhangura
Chrome Shurugwi, Mutorashanga
Coal Hwange,Gokwe,SE Lowveld
Gold Mazowe
valley,Mvuma,Kadoma,Shamva,Bindura
Iron Ore Buchwa, Ripple Creek, Beacon Tor
Limestone Chinhoyi,Coleen Bawn,Mel mine
Manganese Dan mine
Nickel Bindura
Tin Kamativi
Phosphate Dorowa
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERAL
❖ COAL
• Black in colour, both organic and chemical
• Is a combustible substance
• Used as fuel and has a high energy output
• Consists of mainly carbon
 ❖ IRON ORE
• Red in colour (fe3+) and also green in colour (fe2+)
• Magnetic
• Rusts in damp air
• Malleable (is moulded into sheets) and strong
• Melting point is 1530ºC
❖ DIAMOND
• Extremely hard, precious stone or gem excelling in brilliancy and
beautiful play of prismatic colours
• Difficult to scratch or wear out
• A very high melting point (3500ºC) and boiling point is (4800ºC)
• Is a poor conductor of heat
❖ GOLD
• Is a metallic element
• Is yellow in colour
• Is one of the heaviest substances
• Is soft, very malleable and ductile
• Is unaltered by heat and moisture and most corrosive agents
• Is quite rare and looks attractive
• Melting point is 1064ºC
LARGE SCALE MINING OPERATIONS IN ZIMBABWE
IMPORTANCE OF CARRYING OUT AN EIA IN MINING / HOW
EIA REDUCES ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN MINING
• It identifies the implications of the mining activities (positive and
negative)
• Helps to develop a management plan in order to mitigate any negative
effects of the mine on the environment
• It is legally binding so it must be fully implemented
• Many mines have been opened thereby utilising idle resources
• It has promoted the development of the once depressed regions
• Miner are reclaiming back the land e.g. Hwange. It is done during the
process and after the exhaustion of minerals
• Mines are now setting aside funds for reclamation programs
CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING THE EIA
• Lack of funds to enforce EIA
• High levels of corruption and bribe
 • Limited arresting powers
• Political interference
• Fragmented policies make it difficult for EMA to fully enforce EIA since
some prospecting licences are sometimes issued without carrying out the
EIA
• Some companies offer closure of some mines which is a threat to the
government
• Some mines fail to reclaim land as written in their EIA due to resistance
THE MINERALS MARKETING CORPORATION OF ZIMBABWE
ACT (MMCZ)
❖ THE ROLE / IMPORTANCE / OBJECTIVES OF MMCZ
Was established to ensure that Zimbabwe receives the highest possible
returns from the export of its minerals
• Buys and sells minerals to foreign buyers
• Contracts large companies to search for minerals and open up processing
plants near mines
• Controls stock piling of minerals, maximises opportunities under hand
and minimises dishonest dealings such as transfer pricing, under
invoicing and related problems
• Monitors international mineral markets, trends and technological changes
• Centrally coordinates all marketing intelligence
• Acts as a sole marketing and selling agents of all minerals produced in
Zimbabwe
• Is responsible for the purchasing and acquisition of any minerals for its
own account and the selling of such minerals
• Encourages local beneficiation and utilisation of any mineral
• Advices the minister on all the matters connected with the marketing of
minerals
STAGES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT /LIFE CYCLE
OF A MINE
There are five stages involved in the development of a mine namely :
❖ PROSPECTING
• Refers to the search for the minerals or other valuable minerals
• It involves the location of the mineral ores using maps, literature and old
mines
• Geophysics is the science of detecting anomalies using physical
EXPLORATION
• Refers to the accurate determination of the size and value of a mineral
deposit
• It involves sampling of the ores through chemical ,metallurgical ,x –rays
and other evaluation techniques that are meant to enhance the
investigator’s knowledge of the mineral deposits
DEVELOPMENT
• Refers to the work of opening up a mineral deposit for exploitation
• Involves the actual mining of the mineral ore
• It involves the acquisition of mining rights, filing of an EIA statement,
technology assessment and permit
EXPLOITATION
• Refers to the large scale production of the mineral ore
RECLAMATION
• Is the process of closing a mine ,revegetating and restoring water and
land values
IMPORTANCE OF MINING TO THE COUNTRY’S ECONOMY
• Growth of industries
• Employment creation
• Development of multi-ethnic communities/plural societies
• Improvement in people’s living standards
• Generation of income through payment of taxes
• Development of human resources
• Provision of facilities such as water, electricity and sewer
• Foreign currency earnings
• Development of infrastructure e.g. roads, railway lines that benefit other
sectors of the economy
• Provision of social services e.g. schools, hospitals and recreation
• Growth of towns and cities e.g. Kwekwe, Kadoma, Hwange and Mashava
PROBLEMS BEING FACED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY IN ZIMBABWE

• Disinvestment by the TNC’s after independence resulted in some mine

closures e.g. Kamativi and Mhangura mines
• This occurred because the TNC’s were unwilling to work with the local
government
• Exhaustion of minerals has resulted in the closure of some mines
• Shortage of foreign currency which is needed to import essential raw
materials and spare parts. This is due to limited capacity of the central
bank to provide foreign currency
• Frequent accidents occur at work as a result of unstable ground which
causes rock falls, collapsing of shafts or gas. The Hwange mine disaster
of 1972 is a good example where lives of more than 400 miners were lost
• Use of outdated equipment reduces the efficiency and viability of the
mines. This is caused by shortage of foreign currency to import modern
machinery
• Reduced profit margins due to the requirements by ZESA to pay
electricity to pay electricity bills in foreign currency for major exporting
companies. This increases operational costs
• High costs of upgrading technology reduces the viability and profitability
of the mining operation
• Brain drain i.e. the outmigration of highly skilled labour due to poor
working conditions and remuneration packages
• Theft of gold and other precious stones. This deprives the mines and the
government of their revenue and foreign currency
• Fluctuating mineral prices on the world market reduces profit margins.
This is caused by competition with other producers and pressure from
environmental lobby groups. This is affecting the extraction of minerals
such as asbestos. The developed countries are unwilling to purchase
asbestos from Zimbabwe
• Economic sanctions that affect the marketing of minerals such ass chrome
and asbestos
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
Environmental / Physical problems associated with mining
• Land degradation
• Land pollution by spoil heaps and mine dumps. This occurs due to the
removal of the overburden and production of slag during mineral
processing
• Deforestation for the establishment of mining infrastructure and
processing plants. This creates background
• Soil erosion leading to the siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs. This
reduces the water holding capacity of the reservoirs resulting in shortage
of water and flooding
• Water pollution as a result of seepage from mine dumps. Mineral
processing also involves the use of toxic chemicals leading to loss of
marine organisms
• Air pollution caused by dust particles rising from mine dumps
• Underground blasting triggers the occurrence of earthquakes
• Noise pollution during blasting
• Mine dumps trigger the occurrence of landslides leading to loss of life
• Land scarification due to open pits
• Sight pollution caused by mine dumps and spoil heaps
• SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS CAUSED BY MINING
• Development of ghost settlements due to the closure of mines
• Derelict/abandoned buildings are an eyesore
• Mine closures have resulted in loss of employment and viable means of
livelihood for many former mine workers especially foreigners
• Mine closures have resulted in the development of informal settlements
as former miners have become destitute
• There is physical decay of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines
• Displacement of human settlements in areas minerals are found e.g.
Chiyadzwa and Murowa. This upsets the indigenous lives of the affected
people
• Political strife occurs in these areas as people fight for minerals e.g.
Chiyadzwa
• Possibility of increased violence and crimes as people form gangs and
fight over territories especially in the informal sector. This has happened
in areas such as Chiyadzwa as Shurugwi
• Increase in antisocial activities e.g. prostitution, drug abuse

POSITIVE/BENEFITS NEGATIVES/COSTS
ECONOMIC -Employment creation -Repatriation of profits
-Foreign currency earnings -Little reinvestment in
Generation of revenue the host nation
through taxes -Unemployment due to
-Development of ancillary closure of mines
industries through linkages - -Promotes local inflation
Attraction of investment -Promotes regional
leading to the development of inequalities (areas with
different areas minerals are more
-Improved national GDP - developed than those
Promotes growth of without)
agriculture industry - -Exploitation of labour
Availability of goods through minimum
wages
-Overexploitation of
resources is promoted

SOCIAL -Infrastructure development -Increase in poverty due

e.g. roads, bridges to retrenchment
-Provision of social services -Exploitation of workers
or amenities e.g. schools, through minimum
hospitals wages
-Provision of facilities e.g. -Development of ghost
electricity, water, sewage, towns
development of towns e.g. -Promotion of social
Zvishavane decadence e.g.
-Transfer of technology prostitution, drug abuse -
through training Promotes spreading of
-Culture enrichment through diseases e.g.
development of plural tuberculosis, HIV and
societies AIDS
-Better living standards -Overworking
through wages and salaries
 -land reclamation through -noise, land, site, air
ENVIRONME- afforestation increases plant pollution -deforstation
NMENTAL species and basal cover - -Soil erosion
promotes use of idle resources -Land scarification
-promotes opening up of -Flooding
remote areas -Land degradation
-Destruction of
ecosystems
-loss of agricultural land
-causes greenhouse
effect and global
warming
-promotes occurrence of
acid rain
-migration of wildlife
and birds

COAL MINING IN ZIMBABWE

MINING METHODS

• Two methods are used to extract coal at Hwange namely open cast and
vertical shaft
OPEN CAST METHOD
• It is used to extract minerals that occur at or near the surface to a depth of
about 100
• Draglines /graders are used to remove the overburden in order to expose
the massive rock to the surface
• Overburden is the unwanted material that lies above the mineral seam

ADVANTAGES OF OPEN CAST METHOD

• It is relatively cheap
• It is used to exploit mineral seams that are shallow
DISADVANTAGES

• Deforestation leads to loss of animal food, habitat, food and carbon sink
• Soil erosion from mine dumps and spoil heaps lead to siltation and
sedimentation of rivers
• Air pollution due tip dust from the overburden and mine dumps
• Water pollution from seepage from the mine dumps
• Land scarification due to open pits
• People and livestock are trapped by open pits leading to loss of lives
Overburden and mine dumps lead to land and sight pollution
VERTICAL SHAFT MINING
• Inclined and vertical shafts are used to access minerals that occur deep
underground
• Tunnels that are more than 100m deep are sunk into the ground to reach
the mineral seam

ADVANTAGES OF SHAFT MINING

• Causes less deforestation
• Used to extract minerals that occur deep underground
DISADVANTAGES OF SHAFT MINING
 • Underground shafts lead to the occurrence of earthquakes and earth
tremors
• It is expensive
• Gas explosions lead to loss of lives
• Collapsing of tunnels or cave-inns lead to injury to people and loss of life
• Flooding leads to loss of life due to failure of drainage facilities Poor
ventilation leads to suffocation of miners

Adit mining/drift mining

It is used to extract mineral from horizontal seams or gently sloping seams on
the sides of hills sides.
Inclined shaft mining.
It is used to extract minerals which the seams are diagonal or slanting
 VALUE ADDITION OF MINERALS
Refers to the processing of minerals into semi-finished and finished
products in a bid to improve the quality or value e.g. diamonds into
modelling rings
BENEFICIATION OF MINERALS
Refers to any process that improves (benefits) the economic value of the
mineral ore by removing impurities or wastes
This results in a higher grade product e.g. gravity separation in gold, iron
ore smelting and chromium processing
BENEFICIATION /PROCESSING OF CRUDE OIL
• Crude oil is a black, thick sticky substance which is useless until
processed
The processing takes place in the fractionating tower
• It is called fractional distillation
-Fraction means part of the whole item
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
➢ Takes place in the fractionating tower or column
➢ Crude oil form the wells is intensely heated in the ovens or crude oil
tanks
➢ This is done in order to produce crude oil vapour
➢ The vapour enters the fractionating tower where condensation takes place
➢ The fractionating tower is hot at the bottom and gets cooler towards the
top
➢ The different components that make up crude oil have different boiling
point temperature
➢ As crude oil vapour rises up the tower, residue condenses and is collected
at the base of the tower
➢ It is followed by bitumen paint , tar, heavy oils, lubricating oil, diesel oil,
kerosene and jet aircraft fuel and motor fuel is collected at last
➢ Gases are collected at the top of the tower
➢ They are further processed to produce by-products such as paint,
detergents, fertilizers, plastics, polythene, nylon and polyester
BENIFICIATION OF DIAMONDS

• Refers to the transformation in the value of diamonds at each stage

• The diamond is transformed into a better product with a better economic
value
• Diamond which is mined at Chiyadzwa, River Ranch and Murowa is
processed into different products
• The processes that are involved in the beneficiation of diamonds are
summarised below
 PROCESSING OF DIAMONDS MINING
• Diamond is mined using shaft method at Murowa and Chiyadzwa mines
• The diamond is cleaned to remove wastes
• It is transported to the next plant
ASSAYING-DIAMOND SORTING

• Sorting is the separation of diamonds into categories

• It takes place at several stages of diamond processing which include
Rough diamond producers sort the diamond into categories in order to
distribute them to their clients
This is done according to shapes, size,(weight in carats),quality and colour
Cutters sort diamonds according to the criteria of their work
This involves cutting, boiling and cleaning away of the waste created by
the production process
The diamonds are sorted for marketing purposes according to sizes,
colour, perfection and quality of the cut
Advanced stage, which is the preparation of a mix, combines several
categories of sorted diamonds in order to create a more marketable
package
CUTTING
• It is the practise of changing a diamond from a rough stone into a faceted
gem
• It requires specialised knowledge, tools, equipment and techniques due to
its extreme difficulty
• Equipment manufactured from diamonds is used to cut diamonds
POLISHING
It is done using diamond bladed edges or discs that are lined with
diamond dust
The five stages involved in diamond cutting and polishing include
PLANNING

• Is the process where the cutter figures out the best possible shapes of the
diamond in order to minimise wastes and maximise the yield of the rough
stone
• Computer software is used to formulate 3D models that show the cutter
the best ways to optimise the rough
ADVANTAGES OF MINERAL PROCESSING AND BENEFICIATION
• Mineral processing improves the economic value of the ore
• It allows the economic extraction of the mineral ore
 -the extraction of low grade mineral deposits is made possible since waste
is / gangue is removed to produce an ore that is useful
• Mineral processing reduces the amount of the ore
-it minimises energy required , transport cost, reagent and other
consumption for farther processing
-it involves the removal of maximum amount of wastes with minimum
losses of valuable minerals
• Production of extensive volume of material is enhanced
-involves the retreatment of large volume of mined ore which enables the
production of a large cargo of concentrate
• Allows the extraction of metals form metallic ore
-usually it comes in form of molten metal
• Minimises losses of minerals in the extractive metallurgy tails
-refers to high extraction efficiency which reduces losses
• Mineral operations are cheap
-the processes require less capital as compared to mineral extraction
• Mineral processing operations are friendly to the environment -most of
the physical processes of mineral processing are friendly to environment
e.g. crushing, grinding, agitation, screening, gravity separation, magnetic
separation and electrostatic separation
• Allows the treatment of old mines tailings products
-valuable minerals are also recovered
• Production of quality industrial raw materials
-it produces a final useful product to industrial applications without
farther treatments
• Creates more employment opportunities
Increases the business’s profit margins
• Mitigates the imbalance of trade
• Increases the host nation’s GDN
• Increases the country’s GDP
• Increases the host nation’s export proceeds
• Increases local economic contributions of minerals
• Reduces socio-economic inequality
• Increases the host nation’s tax base
• Reduces import bills as some local demands are met using local
production
• It brings in more foreign currency
• Leads to industrialisation
DISADVANTAGES OF MINERAL PROCESSING AND BENEFICIATION
• It is costly to implement since it requires huge sums of capital
• Purchasing of equipment used in the beneficiation/ value addition
processes requires foreign currency which is mostly in short supply
• Huge training costs for the new employees
• Disrupts current well tested systems e.g. instead of exporting just raw
materials , these diamonds are now cut and polished
• Require establishment of new infrastructure
• Increases electricity demands
SUATAINABLE USE OF MINERALS

• Means conservation and /or preservation of mineral stocks putting into

consideration the fact that resources run out
• It is also the exploitation of minerals to benefit the present and future
generations
• It includes the possibility of finding substituting alternatives e.g. synthetic
optic fibre for copper products
• Involves recycling of materials and mine dumps
• Use of quota systems
• Use of licences
• Frequent police patrols
• Legislation
• education