2025 FORESTRY

STUDY
RESOURCES

2025 NCF-ENVIROTHON
ALBERTA
2025
Forestry

Table of Contents
Page

Key Topic # 1 3

Key Topic # 2 31

Key Topic # 3 55

Key Topic # 4 68

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 NCF-Envirothon 2025 Alberta
Forestry Study Resources

Key Topic #1: Plant Biology and Growth

1. Explain the fundamentals of plant biology as they apply to trees and shrubs.
2. Explain the formation and function of different types of tissues found in trees and other
plants.
3. . Explain the chemical processes that take place within plants (including their
fundamental importance, basic chemical reaction equations, and impact on plant
survival) such as:
a. Photosynthesis
b. Respiration
c. Transpiration
d. Nutrient use
4. Identify the differences between the following: angiosperm, gymnosperm, deciduous,
coniferous, evergreen, hardwood, and softwood.

Study Resources

Located
Resource Title Source on Page
Know Your Tree Biology Judice, A. & Gordon, J., University of 4
Georgia, Warnell School of Forestry
and Natural Resources, 2020
Section 1.1: Tree Anatomy & Functions Trans-Canadian Research and 15
Environmental Education (TREE),
Teaching Module
Plant Growth and Development VanDerZanden, A.M., Oregon State 22
University, Extension Service, 2028 &
2024
Distinguishing Between Hardwood and Nix, S., Treehugger Sustainability for 27
Softwood Trees All, 2019
Angiosperms vs Gymnosperms Pankau, R., University of Illinois, 29
College of Agricultural, Consumer &
Environmental Sciences, 2021

3
 Publication WSFNR-20-61A

August 2020

Know Your Tree Biology

Abbie Judice and Jason Gordon,

University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources

Understanding tree biology is critical to providing appropriate tree health care. Many people know the basics of what
trees need to survive and thrive—water, sunlight, air, elements—but it is important to know how these factors interact in
a whole tree. This publication provides tree biology information for readers who are both new and experienced tree stew-
ards. We start with a brief description of cell growth in trees, followed by descriptions of tree anatomy and physiology.
We conclude with comments on the tree’s defense system and climate change impacts on tree biology. This information is
the basis for improving tree health care with suggestions for further reading at the end of the publication.

CELL GROWTH
Meristems are specific zones of new cell growth in trees. Cells reproduce in the meristem through division and differ-
entiation. Cell division is when one cell copies its genetic material and splits into two exactly alike “daughter” cells after
which the process begins again. Only one of the two daughter cells differentiate, developing a structure to fulfill a specific
function for the tree (Figure 1).
Meristematic zones are either longitudinally oriented or horizontally oriented. Longitudinally oriented meristems
are known as apical meristems. They are found in the shoot tips and root tips of trees and grow length-wise or elongate.
Horizontally oriented meristems grow wide and split down the length, thereby increasing the diameter of the tree during
each growing season. Sometimes called lateral or secondary meristems, these meristems are located along the exterior of
twigs, branchlets, branches, trunks, and roots, and result in increased thickness of these organs.

Summary of Cell Division and Differentiation

1. Cells divide with half devoted to further division and
half assigned specific functions needed for a tree to
survive.
2. Cells with the same function create tissues.
3. Tissues combine to create organs, such as buds, twigs,
leaves, and roots.
4. Organs combine to create the organism – the entire
tree (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Simplified diagram of cell division

and differentiation.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY: COMPONENT PARTS OF A TREE

Wood & Bark
Lateral meristems in a tree are called cam-
biums and include the vascular cambium and
cork cambium. Both cambiums grow laterally
and develop layers of different tissues (Figure 2).
The vascular cambium is responsible for de-
velopment of the inner tree and wood. This area
is responsible for transport of water, elements,
and sugars that allow a tree to survive and grow.
The vascular cambium grows in both interior
and exterior directions, creating a series of tissue
networks called xylem and phloem. Inside the
vascular cambium, xylem tissues are produced
in layers and primarily function as the water
transport for trees, delivering water from roots
to shoots along the length of the trunk and
branches. Xylem also assists in supporting the
weight of the tree, storing sugars, and defending
the tree against decay and disease. On the exte-
rior side of vascular cambium, a vascular tissue
called phloem develops in layers much like
xylem does in the interior. Like xylem, phloem
is responsible for transporting materials. Phloem
transports sugars (i.e., carbohydrates) from the
shoots to the roots—that is, from the tree crown
where leaves use sunlight to create sugars, down Figure 2: A simplified diagram of the layers and secondary
to branches, trunk, and roots for use or storage. meristems that make up tree wood and bark. Image modified
from Coder 2019.
Xylem is created in a higher quantity than
phloem, resulting in the majority of mass and
structure of the tree.
The cork cambium is responsible for development
of exterior bark layers of a tree, which protects a tree
from injury, moderates tree temperature, and mitigates
water loss. As trees cannot physically flee environmen-
tal threats, cork cambium is an essential part of their
defense system. Cork cambium also grows in both an
internal and external direction, much like the vascular
cambium. On the inside of cork cambium, thin layers
of tissue called phelloderm develop alongside aging
and inactive phloem. On the outside of cork cambi-
um, phellum tissue develops in layers, aging and dying
to create bark or periderm. Periderm is a tree’s first
line of defense system against pests, decay, and injury
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: New growth over a wound on a

juvenile maple tree.
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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Roots
Roots are especially important to a tree as they provide
necessary water and elements that provide life, and they
furnish structural support against wind and gravity. Root
survival and growth is guided by the availability of water,
gravity, oxygen, soil volume, as well as the tree’s response to
temperature extremes. The space where a tree lives is critical
to its long-term health because ninety percent of tree roots
are found in the top twelve inches of soil. Root systems
grow laterally out from a tree base, searching for water and
elements (Figure 4).
Root function can be classified by the size of each root
(Figure 5). The three to ten largest roots provide primary
structural support for a tree and are located closest to the
trunk. The area they encompass is termed “root plate.” The
next largest roots branching out from the root plate are
transport roots. They deliver sugars to developing root tips
for further growth and transport water and elements from
smaller roots back to the tree trunk and up to leaves. They
Figure 4: Roots systems grow laterally, with also provide the framework for the tree’s structural stability.
a majority of roots in the top twelve inches of Lastly, smallest in size but largest in quantity, are absorbing
soil. roots, which are necessary for water and element uptake in
a tree. Absorbing roots are less woody than transport and
structural roots. They form fan-like horizontal layers in
areas of sufficient soil resources.

Figure 5: Simplified diagram of root function by size.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Shoots and Buds

Buds are found on branches and twigs and are the
elongation growth points of tree crowns. Crowns capture
sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2) to make energy (de-
rived from carbohydrates). The crown also releases water
vapor, a process which powers the movement of water
from roots to shoots. Buds allow for growth, expansion,
and adjustment of tree crowns. Buds may also include
reproductive organs like flowers.
Buds are classified according to two different locations
on the tree. They occur at the tip of a twig or along the
side of a twig. Buds at twig tips are called terminal or
apical buds (Figure 6) and regulate the growth of other
buds on the same twig using growth regulators (described
below). Side buds are found independently along a twig
or where a leaf is attached to the twig, an area called the
Figure 6: Terminal bud on a maple tree.
node. Buds along a twig are called axillary or lateral buds
(Figure 7) and are typically dormant the first year in
deciduous trees until the terminal bud is removed or until
it is signaled to create new shoot development (typically
caused by unusual weather or a stress factor).
Lateral buds can be preventitious or adventitious.
Preventitious buds are formed within a growing season
and continue to grow within the tree without creating any
new shoot development until signaled by a lateral bud
or growth regulator. An adventitious bud forms sponta-
neously at the time when it is needed, usually because of a
tree wound or attack, and creates shoots within the same
growing season it was formed. Adventitious buds are an
evolutionary adaption to improve a tree’s likelihood of
survival when experiencing stress.

Figure 7: Lateral buds on a maple tree.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Twigs, Branches, and Trunk

A shoot is considered a “twig” in its first year of growth, a
“branchlet” in its second and third year, and a “branch” starting
in its fourth year.
Some significant parts of twigs include (Figure 8):
• lenticels - small porous areas in twig or bark for gas
exchange
• nodes - areas where leaves and a corresponding bud
arise on a twig
• internodes - the area between two nodes
• leaf scar – a visible area of leaf detachment on a twig
• terminal bud scale – a scar area on the twig signaling
the difference between the last growth period and the
current growth period, usually appearing as multiple
ring-like scars that are closely compacted

Each tree branch is autonomous— a branch creates enough

energy (carbohydrates) through photosynthesis to sustain itself
entirely. Any extra energy produced is stored in the branch
itself or sent to the trunk or roots for further use or storage.
Branches are connected to trunks with reinforced strength
(Figure 9). Overlapping xylem tissues forming a zig-zag pattern
create a compact connection that ensures stability and hold.
Figure 8: Young branches on a maple tree.
The branch bark ridge, which is a line of raised bark because
underlying tissues have weaved together, is where the top of
a branch and trunk join (known as the area of confluence).
Lack of a branch bark ridge is a sign of a weak connection. If a
branch grows too upright and is therefore too close to a trunk,
it may not grow the proper connection. Instead, the branch
and stem grow included bark – bark that does not have tissues
woven together – and is therefore susceptible to breaking.
In part, the special strength between a trunk and its branch-
es results from the branch collar, which is where the trunk
surrounds the branch base to provide extra support. The area
of thickness signaling the trunk transitioning to the branch
is called a trunk flange. The branch collar should be avoided
when pruning to not affect the overall health of the trunk.

Figure 9: Strong branch attachment with

connected xylem tissues.
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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Leaves
Leaves are a tree’s primary source of energy production
and play an important role in water uptake in the roots.
Leaves require a certain amount of sunlight, water, elements,
and carbon dioxide to function properly. They are highly
adaptable to their surroundings, depending on tree species,
and their functions vary across seasons.
Leaves are deciduous, evergreen, or in-between. Decidu-
ous trees (for example, most oaks) lose their leaves annually
and are controlled by growth regulators to signal when to
function, breakdown, and drop. Evergreen tree leaves (for
example, pine needles) last for multiple years. They do not
drop based on seasonal changes in weather and continue to
absorb light throughout the year. Some trees are semi-ever-
green, meaning they keep their leaves past a single growing
season, but not over multiple years.
Figure 10.: The underside of a maple leaf with
Leaves use sunlight to energize water and break apart
veins for transportation of water and elements.
carbon dioxide cells, creating carbon chains in a process
called photosynthesis (described below). These carbon chains
are the primary energy source used throughout a tree for
structural growth, energy storage, and more. Leaves are also
involved in water uptake through a process called transpira-
tion (described below). An initial pull of water from inside a leaf into the atmosphere creates
tension throughout the tree that continues to pull a connected stream of water through xylem
tissues from the branches, trunk, and ultimately the absorbing roots (Figure 10).
Leaves are specially built to interact with water and sunlight. Small pores on the under-
side of leaves called stomata open and close based on light and environmental conditions to
control water loss. Likewise, the cuticle (outer waxy surface layer of leaves) also helps to keep
water inside a leaf. Chlorophyll (a green pigment used for photosynthesis) captures sunlight
energy needed to build carbon chains, while absorbing harmful levels of sunlight to protect
itself.

Flowers, Fruits and Cones

The reproductive units of trees vary based upon genetics
and species adaptation. All reproductive units develop with-
in tree buds (meristematic zones), but function differently.
Flowers may use seeds or pollen in reproduction processes.
Fruits and cones use seeds to disseminate potential offspring
(Figure 11). Many of these tree reproductive mechanisms
rely on the tree’s environment to distribute genetic materials,
including animals, wind, water, and other environmental
features (Figure 12).

Figure 11: The seed capsules of a mature maple

tree, called samaras.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Summary of Tree Parts and Functions

Wood and Bark

– Protect the tree from harm
– Transport carbohydrates and water
– Grow in girth to support weight of tree
Roots
– Elongate in search of best growing conditions
– Provide structural support
– Absorb water
– Uptake essential elements
Shoots and Buds
– Sense and optimize resource allocation
– Adjust for appropriate light capturing environment
– Regulate growth of new twigs and shoots
Twigs, Branches, and Trunk
– Transport water, sugars and essential elements
– Support, stabilize, and govern biomechanics
and heat distribution
– Moderate internal water and temperature
Leaves
– Capture light to create energy
– Absorb carbon dioxide to make sugars
– Release water vapor to cool tree and transport
Flowers/Fruits/Cones
– Develop and protect reproductive organs
– Enhance reproductive success Figure 12: A growing tree requires water, sunlight,
essential elements, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, TRANSPIRATION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSLOCATION

Carbon chains formed in leaves
during photosynthesis become carbo-
hydrates, which can either be used im-
mediately in the area they were created
or stored as starch for later use. They
can also be combined into transport
sugars (sucrose) for delivery to other
non-energy-producing parts of the tree,
such as the trunk or roots. Starches will
eventually be used in combination with
specific elements to form some other
structural or functional compound
(such as amino acids, lignin, or fats that
the tree needs to survive). The condi-
tions for ideal photosynthesis rely on
appropriate amounts and intensity of
sunlight as well as water for the transpi-
ration process (Figure 13).
Another process, respiration, is
the breaking up and release of energy
created during photosynthesis for use
in tree biological functions. Unlike
photosynthesis, respiration does not
happen in any particular area of a tree.
The process happens everywhere in the
cells. Respiration requires a carbohy-
drate component and oxygen, and
releases water and carbon dioxide once
complete. Respiration breaks the bonds Figure 13: A simplified diagram of the five physiological processes in a tree –
of carbon chains and releases units of photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, translocation, and absorption.
usable energy. Oxygen is used to pair
with the broken carbon and hydrogen
elements from carbon chains and release them back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and water. Respiration can
happen without oxygen, but only for short periods.
Transpiration creates an upward pull of water within trees, from the roots to leaves. Water vapor is released from the
wet interior of a leaf into the dry atmosphere via stomata. As water vapor escapes, carbon dioxide is also allowed into
the leaves in small quantities, fueling photosynthesis. When stomata are closed (for example, at night) the transpira-
tion pull remaining is strong enough to continue until the stomata open again. Water vapor released through leaves
also functions to cool off the tree during the day and is part of the cooling effect of shade. Factors affecting the rate of
transpiration include humidity, temperature, and water availability.
Absorption is the uptake of water in roots. Although the movement of water from roots to shoots is powered by the
transpirational tension created from leaf water loss, roots have an additional system to keep water moving into a tree to
feed transpirational pull. Similar to water vapor moving from the wet inner-leaf environment to a dryer atmosphere,
roots rely on mass flow to bring water into the roots. Mass flow consists of water moving from high concentrations
(from the soil) to lower concentrations (into the roots). A tree’s mineral concentration within the roots also assists in
this pull.
Translocation is the movement of transport sugars created by leaves to other areas of the tree via phloem. Following
the tree’s pattern of moving resources from areas of high concentration to low concentration, carbohydrate components
move from source to sink; that is, from where they are created to where they are needed. Translocation itself requires
energy to function and growth regulators to map out the patterns of transport.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

GROWTH REGULATORS
Growth regulators coordinate and control tree processes, most notably growth and dormancy. They relay
messages from roots to shoots and back, giving updates on availability of critical materials like carbohydrates
and nitrogen. Primary growth regulators include auxins, cytokinins, abscisic acid (ABA), and gibberellin.
Auxin is primarily produced in shoot tips and flows downward to root tips. Auxin is responsible for develop-
mental functions like cell growth and expansion. Cytokinins are produced at root tips and send their regulation
messages to the shoot tips via the xylem water transport system. Cytokinin is responsible for cell division and
shoot initiation. Auxin and cytokinins exist in a delicate balance in trees. Small changes in the ratio between the
two will signal tree adjustments. Using these growth regulators, roots can communicate to the tree crown when
it is lacking water or elements and signal for less growth. Likewise, tree crowns can communicate to the root
system that carbohydrate production is low and signal for lower root expansion rates.
ABA is a growth regulator produced during photosynthesis. As it builds up over the active photosynthetic
season, it eventually acts as a barrier to auxin growth regulators and signals leaf senescence, or leaf drop. Gib-
berellin is a growth regulator responsible for sending short, intermediate messages within a tree. It is involved in
initiating flowering and branch development.

TREE DEFENSE (CODIT)

Trees are limited by their inability to change location or to heal injuries. Instead, trees use a compartmen-
talization technique, paired with chemical defenses, to recover after injury or decay (decay is caused by fungus).
The model for Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees (CODIT) is described by the creation of four walls to
seal off further tissue loss within a tree once wounded (Figure 14). It is important to note that trees do not heal
or regenerate cells once an affected area is contained. The
compartmentalized area remains empty for the remainder
of a tree’s life.
Wall 1 resists vertical spread of decay after injury by
plugging the top and bottom xylem transport tissues.
Wall 2 resists inner spread of a fungus by creating a
chemical defense in the next level of annual rings towards
the tree core. Wall 3 resists transverse spread through
activation of chemical defenses in existing cells extending
radially on either side of a wound. These three phases
of compartmentalization occur within the first year of a
triggered wound or decay and are collectively called the
reaction zones.

Figure 14: A simplified depiction of CODIT

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

Wall 4 is the final coverage of the wound and is formed with

living cambium on the exterior of the tree. This final “growing
over” of the affected area protects the tree from outward vulner-
ability to decay (Figure 15). Wall 4 takes more time to develop
than Walls 1-3 and generally occurs a year after the wound has
occurred. This wall is called the barrier zone.
Of the four walls in CODIT, Walls 1-3 are most likely to fail,
allowing for the interior spread of decay. Wall 4 is chemically
strong, but weak structurally and can be susceptible to breakage or
cracks.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON TREE BIOLOGY

The impacts of climate change on tree biology are complex and
continue to be examined by scientists. A changing climate will af-
fect the structure and function of trees in a variety of ways. Chang- Figure 15: CODIT in action, sealing off a
es in temperature, precipitation, weather, and carbon dioxide levels pruned limb to protect from decay.
will cause a number of direct and indirect reactions in just five to
ten decades. Warming temperatures lengthen the growing season
for many trees but will also change the geographic distribution
pattern of many species. Changes in precipitation will challenge
drought and flood tolerance of many species and disturb habitat
suitability for those tree species that cannot handle the stresses.
Too much warmth paired with a reduction in water availability
will undoubtably effect tree health and development. Increases in
carbon dioxide levels pose changes to species geographic distribu-
tion, dominance, and biodiversity. Increases in carbon dioxide will
drive faster growth in some species, but other changes in environ-
mental conditions, such as drought, will mitigate that potential.
Indirectly, climate change may increase occurrences of many
tree disturbances, including pest outbreaks, invasive species,
wildfires, severe storms, and more. The negative impacts of climate
change greatly compromise a tree’s ability to provide ecosystem
services, as species adaptation only occurs over the course of thou-
sands of years. Taking into consideration rapid increased in land
development, air pollution, and other human impacts, proactive
management of trees remains a priority to retain urban and natural
forest benefits for future generations.

CONCLUSION Figure 16.: A juvenile stem on a growing maple tree.

This article provided an introduction to tree biology. Under-
standing tree biology – including anatomy and physiology – is key
to taking better care of trees. In turn, healthy trees provide critical
benefits to people and other animals. Proper tree health care will
only increase in importance as urbanization increases and climates
change globally.

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KNOW YOUR TREE BIOLOGY

References
Coder, K. D. (2017). Whole Tree Interactions: Advanced Tree Biology (Part 3), Publication WSFNR-17-14.
Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources. Retrieved August 2020 from https://www.warnell.uga.
edu/outreach/publications/individual/whole-tree-interactions-advanced-tree-biology-manual-part-3

Coder, K. D. (2017). Tree Respiration Process: Advanced Tree Biology Manual (Part 2), Publication
WSFNR-17-13. Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources. Retrieved August 2020 from https://
www.warnell.uga.edu/outreach/publications/individual/tree-respiration-process-advanced-tree-biology-
manual-part-2

Coder, K. D. (2017). Tree Photosynthesis: Advanced Tree Biology Manual (Part 1), Publication
WSFNR-17-12. Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources. Retrieved August 2020 from https://
www.warnell.uga.edu/outreach/publications/individual/tree-photosynthesis-advanced-tree-biology-
manual-part-1

Coder, K. D. (2019). (Personal Communication) Urban Tree Management I Lecture. Warnell School of
Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia. Athens, GA.

Coder, K. D. (2019). Tree Anatomy: Leaf Shape and form, Publication WSFNR-19-31. Warnell School of
Forestry & Natural Resources. Retrieved August 2020 from https://www.warnell.uga.edu/outreach/
publications/individual/tree-anatomy-leaf-shape-form.

Ennos, R. (2016). Trees: A Complete Guide to their Biology and Structure. Cornell University Press.

Hirons, A. D., & Thomas, P. A. (2018). Applied Tree Biology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Stafford, H., Larry, E., McPherson, E. G., Nowak, D. J., & Westphal, L. M. (2013, March). Urban Forests and
Climate Change. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Climate Change Resource Center.
www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/urbanforests/.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2017). Climate Impacts on Forests. Retrieved November 2019 from
https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-forests_.html.

The University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources offers educational programs,
assistance, and materials to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, age, gender, or disability.

The University of Georgia is committed to principles of equal opportunity and affirmative action.

11
Section 1.1: Tree Anatomy & Functions
What Makes Up a Tree?
Trees are the largest plants on the planet. They provide us with oxygen, help stabilize the soil,
and give life to the world’s wildlife. Trees are key members of the ecosystem and they are an
excellent source of information about the environment. Through the TREE Program, you will get
to investigate and find out what stories’ trees have to share, specifically looking at trembling
aspen trees. For now, we start by looking at what trees are composed of. They can be divided
into three main parts: the roots, the trunk, and the canopy.
• Roots - Refers to all the tree parts below ground although roots can occasionally be
above ground. Roots spread throughout the ground to anchor the tree in place and to
gather water and nutrients. Roots also serve to store food for the tree throughout the
winter. With some species, such as trembling aspen, trees reproduce through their
roots, creating what are known as clone trees.
• Trunk - Refers to the large column(s) of wood above ground but below the canopy. The
trunk supports and elevates the canopy, as well as transports water and nutrients
throughout the tree.
• Canopy - Refers to the leaves and branches of the tree. The canopy positions the leaves
in full view of the sun, allowing for photosynthesis, transpiration, and hormone
production in the tree.

What Makes Up Tree Roots on the Cellular Level?

Tree roots are not only the anchor for the tree but
essential in providing the tree with life. They soak up
the necessary nutrients and water from the soil,
feeding the growth cycle of the tree. Tree roots are
composed of a complex and intertwined network of
cells with two main types of structures: root hairs and
lateral roots.
Root hairs are a small outgrowth stemming off the
lateral roots. Root hairs are continually being created and typically last 2-3 weeks before they
die off and their nutrients are taken up by the roots. Root hairs provide a lot of surface area to
absorb water and nutrients into the root. Lateral roots are the other main root structure and

15
are much bigger than the root hairs. The lateral roots contain larger amounts of tissue, called
vascular tissue, to transport nutrients and water throughout the tree.

When roots are cross sectioned, we can see that they have five main types of cells: the
epidermis, the exodermis, the cortex, the endodermis, and the vascular tissue (as shown in the
Figure). The term tissue in this context refers to when cells are bundled together.

Types of Tree Root Tissue

• Epidermis - The epidermis is the outermost tissue that is a physical barrier providing
protection, insulation, as well as moisture and gas control. The epidermis also absorbs
some nutrients and water. As the epidermis wears away and dies off, it is continually
replaced by cells from the exodermis.
• Exodermis - The exodermis tissue is right underneath the epidermis and it replaces
epidermis tissue as it wears away and dies off. This is very similar to how the inner bark
replenishes the outer bark on the trunk which is explained in upcoming sections.
• Cortex - The cortex is a layer of cells that lies directly below the exodermis. The cortex
transfers nutrients from the root hairs to the vascular tissue and is used for energy
storage. The cortex separates the exodermis from the endodermis.
• Endodermis - The endodermis is the innermost layer of the cells with thicker cell walls.
Some of these cells are coated in a water-repellent substance called suberin, which
helps keep the endodermis watertight. The endodermis serves to regulate water and
nutrient movement between the soil and the vascular tissue.
• Pericycle - The pericycle is composed of tissue that lies just inside the endodermis. The
pericycle serves as internal support and protection for the root and it also forms new
lateral roots by dividing rapidly in a specific location.
• Vascular Tissue - Vascular tissue is a bundle of cells that transport water and nutrients
from the roots to the rest of the tree.

How do Trees Drink and Gather Nutrients?

Trees drink by increasing the concentration of salts in their roots such that their roots have a
higher salt concentration than the surrounding soil. When this happens, water flows into the
roots to cause the root's salt concentration to be in equilibrium (be the same) with the soil's
16
salt concentration. This process is known as osmosis. As the tree drinks, any minerals and
nutrients that are dissolved in the water will flow into the roots as well. The roots separate
these nutrients and minerals through cells called sieve cells and the nutrients and minerals then
make their way up to the trunk to start feeding the rest of the plant.

What are the Main Parts of a Tree Trunk?

Much like the variety of shapes and sizes seen with
humans, tree trunks vary from one species to the next.
However, there are parts that are common to all trees
and these are the bark, the vascular cambium layer, the
sapwood, the heartwood, and the pith (as shown in
Figure 2).
The bark of a tree serves as a physical barrier for
protection, insulation, and moisture control. Bark is
separated into outer and inner bark.
• Outer bark is composed of dead cells, commonly referred to as cork. Outer bark is
covered with fine oxygen-breathing pores called lenticels.
• Inner bark is composed of cells that transport sap and nutrients throughout the tree. As
these cells age, they become outer bark.
The vascular cambium layer is a thin layer of cells with no specific task yet. This is where
majority of the trees outward growth occurs. These cells continually divide with a varying rate
throughout the year, creating phloem cells on the bark side and xylem cells on the inside.
• Phloem cells transport sap and other nutrients throughout the tree. These cells become
phellem cells as they mature and die off.
• Xylem cells transport water and minerals throughout the tree. These cells become the
sapwood as they mature and die off.
Sapwood is composed of the xylem cells created by the layer surrounding it, the vascular
cambium layer. Sapwood is responsible for water transport and storage through the tree’s daily
water cycle. As these cells mature and die off, they harden and become more rot resistant,
turning into heartwood.

17
Heartwood is a layer of wood composed of dead xylem cells and fiber bundles. Heartwood has
a darker appearance than sapwood. Over time, the cells harden and become stronger, enabling
the heartwood to be structural support for the tree.
The pith is the center most portion of the tree and is composed of soft spongy parenchyma
cells (explained below). The pith is surrounded by a ring of xylem cells, which is then
surrounded by a ring of phloem cells. This allows the pith to store and transport water and
nutrients throughout the tree.

What Makes up a Tree Trunk on the Cellular Level?

As noted in the previous section, there are many different parts that make of a tree trunk.
Within each of these parts, there are many different and uniquely specialized cells. The four
main cells are xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and fiber bundles.
• Xylem Cells - These cells are responsible for
transporting water and minerals up from the
roots throughout the tree. These cells combine
together to form hollow tubes called vessel
elements. It is important to note that xylem
cells only transport water up (see Figure 3).
• Phloem Cells - These trunk cells are
responsible for transporting sap, which contains
sugars and other nutrients, up and down
throughout the tree. Phloem cells combine
together to form hollow tubes called sieve
tubes. These tubes are separated into smaller sections by sieve plates which allow for
the bidirectional flow of nutrients. It is important to note that the phloem can transport
nutrients up and down (see Figure 3).
• Parenchyma Cells - Parenchyma cells provide support and nutrients to phloem and
xylem cells and make up the bulk of plant cells.
• Fiber Bundles - Fibers are long, slender cells that typically occur in bundles. These cells
are mostly composed of cellulose, a tough material that makes up the cells walls and
provides cell with structural support.

18
How do Trees Grow?
Trees expand and increase their size through the vascular cambium layer in their trunk. This
layer continually divides at different rates throughout the year into phloem and xylem cells. The
xylem cells are created on the inside of the tree and they are responsible for sapwood and
heartwood growth. The phloem cells are created on the bark side of the tree and will quickly
convert itself into the cork-like wood that we commonly associate as bark.

How do Tree Rings Form?

Tree rings form every year as the tree is living and growing. These rings will be different sizes
depending on the factors experienced during the growing season. These factors include:
temperature, pests, diseases, access to water, nutrients, sunlight, and more. When the
conditions are just right for the tree, the vascular cambium layer (refer back to Figure 2) will
rapidly divide and create sapwood and bark at a set rate. This initial rapid growth creates lightly
coloured, less dense wood called early wood. However, depending on the trees' environmental
conditions, the growth rate of the rings could change.
As the season progresses towards winter, trees spend less energy on growth and more energy
creating an energy store for the winter. This later slow growth creates the darkly coloured,
more dense wood called late wood. As winter occurs, a tree experiences little to no growth but
once spring comes around, the ring formation cycle repeats. This cycle is what gives trees the
alternating light and dark circular patterns we see and are what we call tree rings (see Figure
below).

19
What Makes up a Tree Leaf on the Cellular Level?
The last main part of a tree are the leaves, which make up the canopy. As the roots are
important for soaking in water and nutrients, leaves are important for soaking in sunlight, the
other essential ingredient in giving plants life. In order to trap the sunlight and convert it so the
tree can use it, tree leaves are composed of many specialized cells. The four main types of cells
found in a leaf are the epidermis cells, mesophyll cells, stomata, and vascular bundles. These
cells aid in photosynthesis, hormone production, and help move water to the outside of the leaf
to be evaporated.
• Epidermis - The epidermis is the outer layer of cells that provides a physical barrier for
protection and insulation for the leaf. The epidermis acts like a skin and is coated in a
wax-like substance called cuticle, that helps prevent unwanted water loss. See Figure 5
for a visual representation.
• Mesophyll - These cells are composed of parenchyma cells in long tube-like
arrangements. Mesophyll is split in two layers, the palisade mesophyll and the spongy
mesophyll, and these cells make up the middle section of a leaf (see Figure 5).

• Palisade Mesophyll - Palisade mesophyll is composed of tightly packed parenchyma

tissue that contain large amounts of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are small organelles
filled with the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is responsible for
photosynthesis, where energy from sunlight is converted to sugars. Since the
chloroplasts need sunlight, the palisade mesophyll occupies the top inside portion of the
leaves.

20
 • Spongy Mesophyll - Spongy mesophyll is composed of loosely packed parenchyma
tissue and occupies the bottom inside portion of the leaves. By packing the spongy
mesophyll loosely, gases have plenty of room to move between the chloroplasts and the
stomata allowing the chloroplasts access to fresh carbon dioxide.
• Stoma - As shown in Figure 5, stoma are little natural openings in the epidermis that
allow for regulated gas exchange between the tree and the atmosphere. Specialized
cells, called guard cells, open and close the stomata (a collection of stoma) when the
leaf needs more carbon dioxide or when the tree needs to transpire.
• Vascular Bundle - A vascular bundle is a bundle of xylem and phloem cells that are
essentially the veins and arteries of the leaves. Vascular bundles supply nutrients and
water to the leaves for photosynthesis and transpiration. They also transport the sugars
of photosynthesis to the rest of the tree.

Trees breathe by opening the guard cells around the stomata on the underside of their leaves.
With the stoma open, gases from within the leaves can exchange with the air outside through
diffusion until the gas concentrations have reached equilibrium or a balance.

What is Transpiration and Capillary Action?

Transpiration is the evaporation of water out of a tree. When the tree
transpires, water is moved from the roots and up the stem using the
properties of water cohesion and adhesion. With cohesion, water
molecules are being attracted to themselves. With adhesion, water
molecules are being attracted to other surfaces.
As one water molecule lifts itself up slightly to adhere to the inside of a
small tube, or in a plant's case, the stem and leaves, water molecules
below lift themselves up to cohere to the initial water molecule. This
process is referred to as capillary action and for a model of this
process, see Figure 6.
References
Everett, T. H., Weber, L., and Berlyn, G. P. (2019). Tree plant. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree/Tree-structure-and-growth
The Royal Parks. (2019). Why are trees so important? Retrieved from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/the-
regents-park/things-to-see-and-do/gardens-and-landscapes/tree-map/why-trees-are-important
U.S. Forest Service. (n.d.). Anatomy of a tree. Retrieved from https://www.fs.fed.us/learn/trees/anatomy-of-tree

21
Plant growth and development
Ann Marie VanDerZanden
Published January 2008, Reviewed 2024

Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration are

the three major functions that drive plant growth
and development (Figure 1). All three are essential
to a plant's survival. How well a plant is able to
regulate these functions greatly affects its ability to
compete and reproduce.

Photosynthesis

One of the major differences between plants and

animals is plants' ability to manufacture their own
food. This process is called photosynthesis, which
literally means "to put together with light." To
produce food, a plant requires energy from the
sun, carbon dioxide from the air and water from
the soil. During photosynthesis, it splits carbon
dioxide into carbon and oxygen, adds water and
forms carbohydrates (starches and sugars). Oxygen is a byproduct.

The formula for photosynthesis can be written as

follows:

Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight = Sugar + Oxygen or

6 CO2 + 6 H20 + Energy => C6H1206 + 6 02

After producing carbohydrates, a plant either uses them as energy, stores them or builds them
into complex energy compounds such as oils and proteins. All of these food products are called
photosynthates. The plant uses them when light is limited, or transports them to its roots or
developing fruits.

22
Photosynthesis occurs only in the mesophyll layers of plant leaves and, in some instances, in
mesophyll cells in the stem. Mesophyll cells are sandwiched between the leaf's upper and
lower epidermis and contain numerous chloroplasts, where photosynthesis takes place.
Chloroplasts are incredibly small. One square millimeter, about the size of a period on a page,
would contain 400,000 chloroplasts.

Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes leaves green, is found in the chloroplasts. It is responsible
for trapping light energy from the sun. Often chloroplasts are arranged perpendicular to
incoming sun rays so they can absorb maximum sunlight. If any of the ingredients for
photosynthesis — light, water and carbon dioxide — is lacking, photosynthesis stops. If any
factor is absent for a long period of time, a plant will die. Each of these factors is described
below.

Light

Photosynthesis depends on the availability of light. Generally, as sunlight intensity increases, so

does photosynthesis. However, for each plant species, there is a maximum level of light
intensity above which photosynthesis does not increase. Many garden crops, such as tomatoes,
respond best to maximum sunlight. Tomato production decreases drastically as light intensity
drops. Only a few tomato varieties produce any fruit under minimal sunlight conditions.

Water

Water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. It is taken up into the plant by the roots
and moved upward through the xylem.

Carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis also requires carbon dioxide (CO2), which

enters a plant through its stomata (Figure 2). In most plants,
photosynthesis fluctuates throughout the day as stomata
open and close. Typically, they open in the morning, close
down at midday, reopen in late afternoon and shut down for
good in the evening.

23
 Carbon dioxide is plentiful in the air, so it is not a limiting
factor in plant growth. However, it is consumed rapidly
during photosynthesis and is replenished very slowly in the
atmosphere. Tightly sealed greenhouses may not allow
enough outside air to enter and thus may lack adequate
carbon dioxide for plant growth. Carbon dioxide generators are used in commercial
greenhouses for crops such as roses, carnations and tomatoes. In smaller home greenhouses,
dry ice is an effective source of carbon dioxide.

Temperature

Although not a direct component in photosynthesis, temperature is important. Photosynthesis

occurs at its highest rate between 65° and 85°F and decreases at higher or lower temperatures.

Respiration

Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are of value to a plant when they are converted to
energy. This energy is used for cell growth and building new tissues. The chemical process by
which sugars and starches are converted to energy is called oxidation and is similar to the
burning of wood or coal to produce heat. Controlled oxidation in a living cell is called
respiration. It is shown by this equation:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 => 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

This equation is essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a building process,

while respiration is a breaking-down process.

Photosynthesis and Respiration.

24
Unlike photosynthesis, respiration does not depend on light, so it occurs at night as well as
during the day. Respiration occurs in all life forms and in all cells.

Transpiration

When a leaf's guard cells shrink, its stomata open and water is lost. This process is called
transpiration. In turn, more water is pulled through the plant from the roots. The rate of
transpiration is directly related to whether stomata are open or closed. Stomata account for
only 1% of a leaf's surface but 90% of the water transpired.

Transpiration is a necessary process and uses about 90% of

the water that enters a plant's roots. The other 10% is used
in chemical reactions and in plant tissues. Transpiration is
responsible for several things:

• Transporting minerals from the soil throughout the plant.

• Cooling the plant through evaporation.

• Moving sugars and plant chemicals.

• Maintaining turgor pressure.

The amount and rate of water loss depends on factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind
or air movement. Transpiration often is greatest in hot, dry (low relative humidity), windy
weather.

A balancing act

In order for a plant to grow and develop properly, it must balance photosynthesis, respiration
and transpiration. Left to their own devices, plants do a good job of managing this intricate
balance. If a plant photosynthesizes at a high rate, but its respiration rate is not high enough to
break down the photosynthates produced, photosynthesis will either slow down or stop.

On the other hand, if respiration is much more rapid than photosynthesis, the plant won't have
adequate photosynthates to produce energy for growth. Hence, growth either will slow down
or stop altogether.

When stomata are open, transpiration occurs, sometimes at a very high rate. A corn plant may
transpire 50 gallons of water per season, but a large tree may move 100 gallons per day!

25
 Plants have problems if they lose too much water, so stomata close
during hot, dry periods when transpiration is highest. However,
CO2, which is needed for photosynthesis, also enters the plant
through open stomata. Thus, if stomata stay closed a long time to
stop water loss, not enough CO2 will enter for photosynthesis. As a
result, photosynthesis and respiration will slow down, in turn reducing plant growth.

Many herb plants produce lots of high-energy oils, which help them survive in the dry
landscapes where they evolved. These oils help them survive extended periods of stomatal
closure.

26
Distinguishing Between Hardwood and Softwood Trees
By Steve Nix | Updated May 06, 2019

The terms hardwood and softwood are widely used in the construction industry and among
woodworkers to distinguish between species with wood regarded as hard and durable and
those that are considered soft and easily shaped. And while this is generally true, it is not an
absolute rule.

Distinctions Between Hardwood and Softwood

In reality, the technical distinction has to do with the reproductive biology of the species.
Informally, trees categorized as hardwoods are usually deciduous — meaning they lose their
leaves in the autumn. Softwoods are conifers, which have needles rather than traditional
leaves and retain them through the winter. And while generally speaking the average
hardwood is a good deal harder and more durable than the average softwood, there are
examples of deciduous hardwoods that are much softer than the hardest softwoods. An
example is balsa, a hardwood that is quite soft when compared to the wood from yew trees,
which is quite durable and hard.

Really, though, the technical distinction between hardwoods and softwoods has to do with
their methods for reproducing. Let's look at hardwoods and softwoods one at a time.

Hardwood Trees and Their Wood

• Definition and Taxonomy: Hardwoods are woody-fleshed plant species that are
angiosperms (the seeds are enclosed in ovary structures). This might be a fruit, such as
an apple, or a hard shell, such as an acorn or hickory nut. These plants also are not
monocots (the seeds have more than one rudimentary leaf as they sprout). The woody
stems in hardwoods have vascular tubes that transport water through the wood; these

27
 appear as pores when wood is viewed under magnification in cross-section. These same
pores create a wood grain pattern, which increases the wood's density and workability.
• Uses: Timber from hardwood species is most commonly used in furniture, flooring,
wood moldings, and fine veneers.
• Common species examples: Oak, maple, birch, walnut, beech, hickory, mahogany,
balsa, teak, and alder.
• Density: Hardwoods are generally denser and heavier than softwoods.
• Cost: Varies widely, but typically more expensive than softwoods.
• Growth rate: Varies, but all grow more slowly than softwoods, a major reason why they
are more expensive.
• Leaf structure: Most hardwoods have broad, flat leaves that shed over a period of time
in the fall.

Softwood Trees and Their Wood

• Definition and Taxonomy: Softwoods, on the other hand, are gymnosperms (conifers)
with "naked" seeds not contained by a fruit or nut. Pines, firs, and spruces, which grow
seeds in cones, fall into this category. In conifers, seeds are released into the wind once
they mature. This spreads the plant's seed over a wide area, which gives an early
advantage over many hardwood species.
• Softwoods do not have pores but instead have linear tubes called tracheids that provide
nutrients for growth. These tracheids do the same thing as hardwood pores — they
transport water and produce sap that protects from pest invasion and provides the
essential elements for tree growth.
• Uses: Softwoods are most often used in dimension lumber for construction framing,
pulpwood for paper, and sheet goods, including particleboard, plywood, and fiberboard.
• Species examples: Cedar, Douglas fir, juniper, pine, redwood, spruce, and yew.
• Density: Softwoods are typically lighter in weight and less dense than hardwoods.
• Cost: Most species are considerably less expensive than hardwoods, making them the
clear favorite for any structural application where the wood will not be seen.
• Growth rate: Softwoods are fast-growing as compared to most hardwoods, one reason
why they are less expensive.
• Leaf structure: With rare exceptions, softwoods are conifers with needle-like "leaves"
that remain on the tree year-round, though they are gradually shed as they age. In most
cases, a softwood conifer completes a changeover of all its needles every two years.

28
Angiosperms vs Gymnosperms
Ryan Pankau | January 23, 2021

Gymnosperms, like this Colorado blue spruce, are a group of

nonflowering plants that emerged several hundred million
years before flowering plants (angiosperms) entered the
evolutionary history of the plant kingdom.
The plant kingdom has not always had the diversity we know
today. It has taken hundreds of millions of years of evolution
to bring about the diverse, complex group of flowering plants
known as angiosperms. And for many millions of years prior to
the emergence of angiosperms, the plant kingdom consisted of
primarily of gymnosperms.
Today, these two branches of the plant family tree represent
the primary dividing factor among land plants, with
angiosperms much more abundant than their earlier kin, the
gymnosperms. So, what are the major differences between angiosperms and gymnosperms
and what factors lead to the incredible success of the angiosperms?
To step back even further in time, prior to emergence of the gymnosperms, plant life on earth
began in the oceans. Recent research suggests that the first plant life to inhabit land dates back
to almost 500 million years ago. These early terrestrial plants were nonvascular, meaning they
did not have a vascular system of conductive tissue (think of the circulatory system in humans)
to circulate water and nutrients among cells. Mosses, hornworts, liverworts and some kinds of
algae are modern day nonvascular plants and representatives of early plant life on land
The development of a vascular system was a major step forward for the plant kingdom,
occurring around 430 million years ago. Next came reproduction from seeds, which was yet
another huge step forward at around 350 million years ago that ultimately lead to the
emergence of the first gymnosperms in the fossil record around 319 million years ago.
Somewhere around 240-205 million years ago, the gymnosperms began to dominate the
landscape on earth. Their conquest was fueled by the development of both seeds and pollen,
which were major innovations in plant reproduction. Pollen grains could travel great distances
to spread plant genes and seeds provided a protective coat around embryos. Seeds also built in
a higher resistance to drought, allowing germination when conditions were optimal. These
factors pushed gymnosperms to expand into much drier terrestrial environments.
Around 150 million years ago, the angiosperms emerged in the fossil record. They are most
commonly known for the development of a more specialized seed that forms inside the ovary
of a flower, surrounded by a protective fruit. With the development of flowers, the
angiosperms began to incorporate and attract other life in their reproductive process.

29
Pollinating insects became major players in the evolutionary history of angiosperms assisting
them in and explosion of diversity around 100 million years ago.
Today, angiosperms dominate the plant world with an estimated 300,000-500,000 species,
compared to a mere 1,000 species of gymnosperms. The angiosperms include all the fruits and
vegetables we eat, all of our native, deciduous trees and shrubs, as well as so many other plants
that we encounter on a daily basis. Beyond the development of flowers and fruits, they also
established more advance methods to transport water and sugars within their vascular tissue as
well as other improvements in physiology that gave them an advantage over gymnosperms.
The biggest difference between gymnosperm and angiosperms lies in their seeds.
Gymnosperm seeds are typically formed in unisexual cones and are known as “naked” seeds
since they lack the protective cover angiosperms provide their seeds. In angiosperms,
individual flowers can be unisexual, with separate male and female flower structures, or
bisexual with both male and female parts on the same flower. While both groups use pollen in
reproduction, angiosperms have developed an incredible diversity of strategies for pollen
dispersal and, in combination with their insect friends from the animal kingdom, have went on
to expand into the most diverse group of plants on earth.

Photo Caption: Gymnosperms, like this Colorado blue spruce, are a group of nonflowering plants that emerged
several hundred million years before flowering plants (angiosperms) entered the evolutionary history of the plant
kingdom.

30
 NCF-Envirothon 2025 Alberta
Forestry Study Resources

Key Topic #2: Forest Ecology and Plant Communities

5. Identify different forest eco-zones in Alberta and their key characteristics and indicator
plants.
6. Describe the importance of downed logs and coarse woody debris to the ecosystem.
7. Identify and explain both abiotic and biotic components that contribute to a healthy
forested ecosystem.
8. Describe successional change in an Alberta forested stand over time, including changes
in species composition, shade tolerance, and vertical positions within the canopy.
9. Explain the role of forests and other plant communities in watershed health.

Study Resources

Located
Resource Title Source on Page
Canada’s EcoZones: Taiga Plains, Taiga Shield, Bernhardt, T., Canadian Biodiversity 32
Boreal Plains, Prairies, Montane Cordillera, Website
Deadwood Habitat in Canadian Boreal Kopra, K. & Fyles, J., Sustainable 43
Forests, excerpts Forest Management Netward, SFMN
Research Notes Series 13, 2005
Coarse Woody Debris - why is it essential in Sullivan, Adrianna, Cape Breton 46
our forests? Privateland Partnership, 2017
Focus on Forest Health Government of Alberta, 2013 47
Healthy Forests for Clean Water North Carolina Forest Services, 2020- 51
2025

31
Canada’s Ecozones
The Canadian Biodiversity Website

Introduction
Ecozones is a name given to one of the many ways to classify ecological systems. Other systems
exist and the number of categories in some of them can be staggering. When trying to classify
an area as large as Canada, the best approach is to have nested levels of classifications, so that
a manageable number of categories exist when looking at the country as a whole while smaller
areas still get their own category at another level.
The National Ecological Framework for Canada (Ecological Stratification Working Group 1996)
uses ecozones for their classification. At the largest scale, there are fifteen terrestrial and five
marine ecozones. These ecozones are so large that the maritime provinces can all fit into one of
them (Atlantic Maritime). Smaller than the ecozones are the ecoregions, and the ecodistricts
are smaller yet. Each smaller-scale classification fits nicely into the larger classification. There
are over 200 ecoregions in Canada and even more ecodistricts.
Ecozones are large and very generalized, having roughly the same land features, climate and
organisms throughout them. Still, there are inevitably still many differences across that large an
area of land. Detailing those differences is done at the ecoregion and ecodistrict levels.

Canada's 15 terrestrial and aquatic ecozones

32
Taiga Plains
Location
The Taiga Plains are centered around the Mackenzie River in the western Northwest Territories,
bordered by the mountains to the west, the arctic to the east, and the boreal forests of the
boreal plains to the south.
Climate
Like the Taiga Shield to its east, the Taiga Plains has short, cool summers and long, cold winters.
Mean summer temperatures range from 7ºC in the north to 14ºC in the south. Winter brings
averages of -26ºC in the Mackenzie delta and a relatively mild -15ºC in the portion contained in
Alberta and British Columbia. Snow and freshwater ice lasts for six to eight months, and
permafrost is widespread. There is generally little rainfall here, only 200-500mm a year.
Geology and Geography
This ecozone is primarily horizontally layered sedimentary
rock; limestone, shale, and sandstone. The largest river in the
country, the Mackenzie, flows through this ecozone and
dominates its west, while the east is in turn dominated by the
Great Slave and Great Bear lakes. Most of the terrain is flat or
slightly rolling, but where the river or its tributaries have cut
through the ground, canyons hundreds of metres deep can be
found. The permafrost leads to large areas being waterlogged
and remnants of glacier activity make the landscape more Beaver pond, Keg River, Alberta
varied. Photo: Dominic Collins

Flora and Fauna

Plants:
Fires are fairly common, and many species are especially adapted to it, resulting in a patchwork
of forest types where each patch is at a different stage of recovery from fire. Trees in the Taiga
Plains include paper birch, willows, trembling aspen, tamarack, green alder, white spruce,
balsam poplar, lodgepole pine, jack pine, dwarf birch, black spruce, and balsam fir. Some of the
smaller plants that grow here are fire snag, wild rose, Labrador tea, bearberry, sedges,
ericaceous shrubs, cottongrass, moss, sphagnum moss, feathermoss, bog cranberry, and
blueberry.
Mammals:
The black bear, lynx, and wolf are the only large carnivores to be found here; smaller carnivores
include red fox, ermine, and marten. Large herbivores include woodland caribou, wood bison,
moose, and barren-ground caribou, while snowshoe hare, red squirrel, arctic ground squirrel
are some of the smaller herbivores.
Birds:
33
Some of the most common birds of prey here, the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and osprey, are
fish-eaters, though the hawk owl is not. Waterfowl, most of whom migrate to the Taiga Plains
in spring and summer, include the red-throated loon, ring-necked duck, greater scaup,
canvasback, and all manner of other ducks, geese and swans. Some ground-dwelling birds are
the sharp-tailed grouse and willow ptarmigan, while some common birds of the forest include
the raven, gray jay, boreal chickadee, common raven, and common redpoll.
Reptiles and Amphibians:
This region is too far north for reptiles, but the western toad, striped chorus frog, and wood
frog can be found here.
Fish:
Fish that can be found in the lakes and rivers of the region include arctic lamprey, lake trout,
lake and mountain whitefish, arctic cisco, longnose sucker, arctic grayling, dolly varden, burbot,
walleye, and northern pike.
Invertebrates:
The large numbers of insects in this ecozone provide food for the insectivorous birds that come
here to feed and breed. Molluscs like the muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and
globular pea clam live in the waters of this ecozone.
______________________

Taiga Shield
Location
This ecozone stretches eastward from the Taiga Plains, just
south of the Southern Arctic. It is interrupted by Hudson Bay
and the Hudson Plains, but then continues to the Atlantic.
Climate
This ecozone has short summers with long days and cold, long
winters with long nights. Average annual temperatures are just
below freezing, and mean summer temperatures are at most
11ºC. Precipitation ranges from 200mm a year in the west to
1000mm on the Labrador coast.
Geology and Geography
As part of the Canadian Shield, the bedrock here is extremely old, and the region north of Great
Slave Lake contains the oldest rock on the planet, over four billion years old. The terrain here is
either flat or rolling hills. Advancing and retreating glaciers have scraped the ground bare at

34
several points in the past, and the millions of depressions that have been left are now lakes.
Much of the flat lands are temporarily or permanently waterlogged.
Flora and Fauna
Plants:
A patchwork of wetlands, forests, meadows, and shrublands covers this area. The northern
edge of the ecozone is delineated by the tree line, and it is north of this that the more typical
arctic tundra begins.
Trees in the Taiga Shield include black spruce, jack pine, green alder, paper birch, willow,
tamarack, white spruce, balsam fir, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white birch, and dwarf
birch.
Other plants in the area include ericaceous shrubs, cottongrass, lichen, moss, sedge, sphagnum
moss, Labrador tea, feathermoss, northern Labrador tea, yellow pond lily, cattail, water
parsnip, water smartweed, water horsetail, water arum, marsh five-finger, ground juniper,
kinnikinick, lichens, goldenrod, grass of Parnassus, shrubby cinqfoil, sweet gale, northern
commandra, wild rose, wood horsetail, wild chives, twinflower, feathermoss, soapberry,
cupidberry, crowberry, bearberry, high-bush cranberry, fireweed, fire snag, rock harlequin,
fragrant shield fern, creeping juniper, prickly saxifrage, mountain cranberry, and gooseberry.
Mammals:
About fifty species of mammals are found in the Taiga
Shield, including the large herbivores barren-ground
caribou, woodland caribou, and moose. Wolves, black and
grizzly bears and the lynx are the larger predators. Smaller
predators include the coyote, red and arctic fox, muskrat,
wolverine, weasel, mink, marten, otter, and least weasel.
The smaller herbivores include the snowshoe hare, beaver,
brown lemming, red-backed vole, northern red-backed vole, Wolf. Photo: S.D. MacDonald, Canadian
and red squirrel. Museum of Nature

Birds:
Spring migration brings a multitude of bird species through this region, including various ducks,
geese, loons and swans. Some stay, but others continue north to the arctic to breed.
Representative birds of prey are the osprey and bald eagle. Shorebirds and seabirds found here
include northern phalarope, Bonaparte’s gull, arctic tern, greater scaup, mew gull,
Characteristic waterfowl are the arctic, pacific, and red-throated loons, red-breasted
merganser, and the green-winged teal. Forest birds in the ecozone include northern shrike, tree
sparrow, gray-cheeked thrush, raven, red-breasted merganser, red-winged blackbird, yellow

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warbler, common redpoll, white-crowned sparrow, flicker, and yellow-rumped warbler. Two
representative ground-dwelling birds are the spruce grouse and willow ptarmigan.
Reptiles and Amphibians:
Three species of amphibians, the mink frog, wood frog, and blue-
spotted salamander live here, but there are no reptiles.
Invertebrates:
The American copper butterfly is found here, as are the molluscs
muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea
clam.
Wood frog
________________________ Photo: David Green

Boreal Plains
Location
The Boreal Plains are found in the centre of Alberta, extending east
through the centre of Saskatchewan and slightly south of centre
Manitoba.
Climate
A more northerly extension of the Prairie ecozone to its
south, the Boreal Plains ecozone endures mean annual
temperatures of around freezing. Summers are short and warm,
winters cold. The Rocky Mountains block much of the moisture, resulting in precipitation of
300mm in the west to 625mm in the east.
Glaciers from many ice ages have flattened the landscape, and the large ancient lakes that
resulted from their meltwater have left many dunes and are still present in many cases as
smaller lakes.
Geology and Geography
Flat or slightly rolling terrain is the rule here, and thick soil deposits overlay Cretaceous shale
bedrock.
Flora and Fauna
Plants:

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Much of the Boreal Plains are covered with forests
despite heavy logging. Fires are common, and many
species are very well adapted to them. Dominant tree
species include white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir,
jack pine, tamarack, white birch, water birch, Alaska
paper birch, mountain alder, trembling aspen, Pacific
willow, Bebb willow, pussy willow, Manitoba maple,
and balsam poplar. The deciduous species are most
commonly found in the south, the coniferous species
to the north. The Saskatoon berry bush is one of the other Wood Buffalo National Park
plant species found here. Photo: National Library of Canada

Animals:
Extensive logging has reduced the population and ranges of many species. Wetlands and rivers
have also suffered from pollution, increased water use and other human activities.
Mammals:
Large carnivores in the ecozone include the
black bear, wolf, and lynx. The most common
large herbivores are elk, mule deer, white-
tailed deer, moose, caribou, and bison.
Smaller carnivores include the coyote, least
weasel, river otter, badger, striped skunk,
muskrat, marten, and fisher. There are many
rodents, such as the northern pocket gopher, Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park, Alberta
beaver, woodchuck, Richardson's ground Photo: National Library of Canada
squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel,
Franklin's ground squirrel, least chipmunk, porcupine, eastern cottontail, and snowshoe hare.
Birds:
Characteristic birds of prey include the great horned owl, boreal owl, northern saw-whet owl,
short-eared owl, Cooper's hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad-winged hawk, and turkey vulture.
Some of the songbirds found here are the blue jay, evening grosbeak, rose-breasted grosbeak,
ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, whip-poor-will, purple finch, brown creeper,
sedge wren, and the common crow. Some other birds of the forest are ruffed grouse, spruce
grouse, northern flicker, downy woodpecker, and pileated woodpecker. Waterfowl include
Franklin’s gull, American white pelican, common loon, sandhill crane, western grebe, wood
duck, ring-necked duck, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead,
canvasback, Canada goose, and whooping cranes, which nest in wetlands in the extreme north
of the ecozone.

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Amphibians and reptiles:
Two of the amphibian species here are the wood frog and american toad. The common garter
snake can also be found.
Fish:
Predatory fish here include lake sturgeon, brown trout, lake trout, northern pike, and walleye.
They prey on such species as cisco (lake herring), lake whitefish, goldeye, lake chub, emerald
shiner, and yellow perch.
_________________________

Prairies
Location
The Prairies cover the south of Alberta, Manitoba and
Saskatchewan.
Climate
The Prairies are the northernmost branch of the Great Plains
of North America and the most altered of the ecozones. The
mountains to the west block much of the precipitation that
would otherwise fall. That and the high winds make this
ecozone very dry, although precipitation does generally
increase towards the east. Temperatures are extreme due to
the lack of access to the ocean's buffering. Winter
temperatures average -10ºC and summers average 15ºC.
Geology and Geography
Glaciation has left its mark on the Prairies,
flattening the landscape and leaving deposits from
inland seas left behind by melting glaciers. These
deposits are now the fertile plains that largely
define the Breadbasket of Canada. Huge numbers
of small temporary wetlands form in years with
high precipitation. Gas and oil is plentiful in the
region.
Flora and Fauna South Saskatchewan River
Plants:
Almost 95% of the Prairies have been converted into farmland, with predictable effects on the
original plant populations. Trees and shrubs are most commonly found in the eastern region.
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Trees found in the Prairies include white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, tamarack, water birch,
Bebb willow, peachleaf willow, wolf willow, lodgepole pine, box elder, choke cherry, black
cottonwood, eastern cottonwood, bur oak, trembling aspen, and balsam poplar. Just a few of
the other plants that grow here are spear grass, wheat, blue grama grass, sagebrush, yellow
cactus, prickly pear, buckbrush, chokecherry, Saskatoon berry bush, alkali grass, wild barley, red
sampire, sea blite, Parry oat grass, June grass, yellow bean, sticky geranium, bedstraw,
chickweed, needle grass, thread grass, snowberry, American silverberry, rose, silverberry,
dryland sedge, black hawthorn, greasewood, plains larkspur , death camas, wild lupine, smooth
aster, prairie sedge, and cattail.
Animals:
The widespread alteration of the natural habitat has resulted in diminished populations and
ranges of many animals, and the Prairies contain a disproportionate number of threatened and
endangered species.
Mammals:
The only large carnivore in the Prairies is the black bear. Large herbivores include whitetail deer
(a recent invader), mule deer, pronghorn antelope, elk, and moose. Small carnivores include
coyote, badger, red fox, longtail weasel, mink, river otter, black-footed ferret, and striped
skunk. Rodents are numerous, such as the black-tailed prairie dog, white-tailed jack rabbit,
snowshoe hare, Richardson’s ground squirrel, Franklin’s ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground
squirrel, least chipmunk, northern pocket gopher, olive-backed pocket mouse, Ord's kangaroo
rat, white-footed mouse and beaver.
Birds:
Some of the birds of prey are the ferruginous hawk, red-
tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, burrowing owl, northern
saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, and turkey
vulture. Songbirds include black-billed magpie, northern
oriole, Audubon’s warbler, grasshopper sparrow, lark
sparrow, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, lark
bunting, chestnut-collared longspur, and black-billed
cuckoo. Birds of the forest that are found here include
ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, sage grouse, northern
flicker, downy woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, and
western meadowlark. Some of the waterfowl found here Northern saw-whet owl. Photo: John and
Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS
are the American avocet, great blue heron, snow goose,
Canada goose, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard,
gadwall, redhead, western grebe, lesser scaup, ring-necked duck, canvasback, Eskimo curlew,
piping plover, and whooping crane.

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Reptiles and Amphibians:
Among the amphibians that can be found here are the northern leopard frog, striped chorus
frog, plains spadefoot, American toad, great plains toad, and tiger salamander. The area has
several species of snakes and lizards, including the plains garter snake, gopher snake, western
rattlesnake, western terrestrial garter snake, short-horned lizard, and prairie skink.
Fish:
Predatory fish in the Prairie waterways include northern pike, carp, and sauger. They prey on
such fish as the lake whitefish, goldeye, lake chub, brassy minnow, emerald shiner and yellow
perch.
Insects:
Just a few of the insects are the German cockroach, boreal spittlebug, silver-spotted skipper,
spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, eastern black swallowtail,
migratory grasshopper, and pallid-winged grasshopper.
Molluscs:
Three of the mollusc species in the Prairies are the valve snail, umbilicate promenetus, and
globular pea clam.
_______________________

Montane Cordillera
Location
This ecozone covers most of southern British Columbia and some
of southwestern Alberta.
Climate
This is the most diverse of the country's ecozones in all respects.
The effects of two mountain ranges means that climate varies in
all three dimensions. The average annual temperature in the
north of the ecozone is 0.5ºC, in the south 7.5ºC. The dry
summers and wetter winters alike are mild, though increased
elevation brings lower temperatures.

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The Coast Mountains force air masses to rise, where they cool off and lose their moisture as
rain or snow, a phenomenon known as orographic precipitation. The western side of the Coast
Mountains receives 1200 to 1500 mm of precipitation in this way, while the eastern side
receives only 300 mm in the south and 500 to 800 mm in the north and interior due to the dry
air that makes it over the mountains. The Rocky Mountains at the eastern edge of the ecozone
again catch precipitation, bringing 1200 mm of precipitation annually to the western side of the
mountains.
Geology and Geography
The mountains that make up much of the ecozone are formed of
faulted sedimentary rock. The plains and valleys here often consist
of glacial moraine or deposits from ancient lakes.
Flora and Fauna
Plants:
Plants in the ecozone are as varied as the landforms they grow on.
Vegetation that may be common in one area is often completely
absent from another. Trees in the area include Engelmann spruce,
alpine fir, interior Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, western white pine,
Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine, trembling aspen, western
Western hemlock. Photo: Charles
hemlock, Rocky Mountain red cedar, balsam poplar, paper birch, Webber, Berkeley Digital Library
black spruce, white spruce, and western larch. Some of the other Photo Collection
species found here are sagebrush, rabbitbrush, antelope-bush,
mountain avens, bunchgrass, pine grass, and bluebunch
wheatgrass.
Mammals:
The large herbivores include caribou, mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, mountain goat,
California bighorn sheep, and American elk. The large carnivores are the black bear, grizzly
bear, wolf, lynx, bobcat, and cougar. Some of the small herbivores here are hoary marmot,
yellowbelly marmot, Columbian ground squirrel, beaver, golden-mantled squirrel, yellow pine
chipmunk, redtail chipmunk, beaver, northern bog lemming, and pika. Small carnivores that are
found here include coyote, red fox, marten, wolverine, muskrat, badger, marten, mink, pallid
bat, and striped skunk.

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Birds:
Birds of prey such as northern saw-whet owl,
short-eared owl, long-eared owl, burrowing
owl, cooper's hawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-
shinned hawk, northern goshawk, and turkey
vulture are found here. The shorebirds and
seabirds of the area include long-billed
curlew, spotted sandpiper, american bittern,
common snipe, killdeer, and black tern.
Songbirds of the Montane Cordillera include
Mount Edith Cavell, Jasper National Park, Alberta
Stellar’s jay, black-billed magpie, sage Photo: Peter Mirejovsky
thrasher, white-throated swift, red-winged
blackbird, cedar waxwing, cassin's finch,
house finch, purple finch, brown creeper, and American dipper. Waterfowl that are found here
include sandhill crane, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead, ring-
necked duck, canvasback, and Canada goose. The birds of the forest include blue grouse, sharp-
tailed grouse, spruce grouse, chukar, California quail, Lewis' woodpecker, and downy
woodpecker.
Amphibians and Reptiles:
Some of the characteristic frogs and toads of the area are the wood frog, spotted frog, and
western toad. One of the salamander species present here is the long-toed salamander. Snakes
found in the region include rubber boa, common garter snake, racer, western rattlesnake, night
snake, and western terrestrial garter snake. One of the lizards found here is the western skink.
Fish:
Fish species that live in the ecozone include lake whitefish, chiselmouth, lake chub, peamouth,
leopard dace, and redside shiner. White sturgeon and sockeye salmon both come to freshwater
to spawn.
Molluscs:
Molluscs found here include pig-toe, western-river pearl mussel, western floater, and arctic-
alpine fingernail clam.
Insects:
A few of the insects that live here are red turpentine beetle, boreal spittlebug, spring azure,
mourning cloak, and migratory grasshopper.

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Deadwood Habitat in Canadian Boreal Forests
Excerpts
by Kristin Kopra & James Fyles
SFMN Research Note Series No. 13

Deadwood can be found in the form of both standing and downed dead trees. Standing dead
trees (snags) provide necessary foraging and nesting cavity sites for many species of birds and
small mammals. Without these snags, following disturbance many animal species would be
without homes and/ or sources of food, which could eventually result in these species
becoming locally extinct. Downed deadwood also provides necessary habitat for many insects,
fungi and mosses, not to mention tree seedlings! Forest management has come a long way in
terms of its treatment of deadwood. There is recognition that the removal of all deadwood
following harvesting can be extremely harmful to the forest ecosystem. Still, questions persist
regarding the functional and structural importance of deadwood.

Snags as habitat
Birds
Snags, or standing dead trees, provide important foraging and nesting habitat for many species
of birds. Several species of birds, including woodpeckers, act as primary cavity excavators,
meaning that they excavate holes, or cavities, in snags both when looking for food and to build
homes. Without snags, these birds would not persist in forests. Some birds, as well as most
cavity dependent mammals, are secondary cavity users, meaning that they depend on primary
excavators and/ or natural decay of trees to form cavities that they can use for nesting.
Cavity-dependant bird species comprise anywhere from 20-40% of the birds in a given forest.
Supporting this, researchers at the Greater Fundy Model Forest in New Brunswick have found
that snags commonly comprise 5-10% of the total number of trees in mixedwood mature
forests there, and that most of these snags show signs of usage by insectivorous birds. Snags,
then, serve as important habitats for insects and the insectivorous birds that feed on them.
Research conducted in black and white spruce and aspen mixedwood forests in Alaska showed
that three different species of woodpeckers were reliant on snags following fire. These three
species were able to co-exist because each had a unique foraging niche which was determined,
in part, by the degree of charring incurred by snags as a result of the fire. The degree of
charring determined what types of (and how many) insects were found in snags, which, in turn,
determined which species of woodpecker foraged there. A large study in fire disturbed aspen
mixedwood forests in Alberta illustrated that old aspen stands had the greatest species richness
and that 63% of bird species sampled had their highest abundance in old stands. These findings
were related to the structural heterogeneity of old stands, including the presence of standing
dead trees that served as nesting and foraging sites for birds. Young stands contained the
second highest species richness and abundance. Again, these numbers were attributed to
forest structural attributes—one of the most important being the presence of standing and

43
downed deadwood. Studies such as these illuminate the importance of snags to bird species
(whether it be as nesting cavities or foraging grounds) in Canadian boreal forests.

Other Animals
There are many other living creatures that benefit from snags for a variety of reasons. Raptors
use snags as perches, bats often roost under bark flakes, and small mammals may use
excavated cavities for denning, foraging, and protection from thermal drought. Snags also
provide some cover and, thus protection, from predators for small mammals such as martens.
In addition, as discussed above, snags serve as home to many species of insects, including many
species of beetles. In fact, the beetle species that live on dead and dying wood worldwide
outnumbers all mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian species found in the entire world! The
importance of snags in the forest, then, is clear—as is the subsequent need to manage this
important component of boreal forest ecosystems.

Downed deadwood as habitat

Small mammals
Small mammals depend on downed deadwood for denning and foraging sites as well as for
protection from predators. Small mammals that have been studied in relation to deadwood
habitat in Canadian boreal forests include marten, deer mice, and meadow and red back voles.
In Alberta mixedwood boreal forests, it was concluded that the removal of trees and woody
debris changed relative composition among three species (red back vole, meadow vole, and
deer mice), with dominance moving from red-backed voles to deer mice as residual standing
and downed deadwood decreased. Additionally, there was a much higher abundance of red
backed voles on sites where residual trees were left in 40 m diameter circular patches and
woody debris was evenly distributed throughout the cut site. While meadow vole populations
actually increased with less dead wood, there was one grid in the study area where no meadow
voles were counted at all. The significance of this finding lies in the fact that this grid was the
most spatially isolated of all the grids, indicating that the degree of fragmentation can
negatively affect mammal populations.
Martens, once one of the most abundant small mammals in eastern North America, have been
extirpated in several areas in eastern Canada and the U.S. and are threatened in much of their
remaining range. This is due, in part, to loss of habitat via harvesting and fire, as well as
trapping. Marten have most often been found to prefer older coniferous and mixed forests
(although this has not always been found to be the case), in part because of their structural
diversity (including abundance of chronic wasting disease) and subsequent greater abundance
of prey.

Deadwood lying on the forest floor provides martens with natal dens, protection from
predators, and subnivean (below snow) habitat for denning and hunting during winter months.
In Ontario, marten densities were found to be 67-90% lower up to 40 years following

44
clearcutting compared to densities in uncut forest. Because of extreme losses in Newfoundland
and New Brunswick, as well as the continuation of harvesting of remaining marten habitat in
eastern North America, there is continued concern over the fate of this species. In areas where
populations are viable, the possibility exists that future management can provide continued
suitable habitat for these animals if care is taken to preserve viable amounts of older forests
and/or younger forests with attributes that more closely resemble older forests (i.e.
deadwood). On a landscape level, connectivity of patches has also been eluded to as a necessity
for maintaining viable marten populations.

Amphibians
To date there have been extremely few studies conducted in the boreal forests of Canada
linking deadwood habitat to amphibian populations. The few studies that we found (i.e. Greater
Fundy Model Forest in New Brunswick) substantiate findings in many temperate forests of
North America (and elsewhere) that amphibians such as toads, frogs, and salamanders rely on
downed woody debris on land to protect them from thermal drought (i.e. drying out of their
skin), predators, and to provide them foraging sites. Furthermore, these species depend on
fallen logs in streams and lakes for breeding and feeding habitats as well. In southwestern
Oregon State, amphibian populations were found to be positively correlated with levels of
coarse woody debris. Results from studies conducted in New Brunswick support the claim that
amphibians require deadwood for survival.

Bryophytes, lichens, fungi, and seedlings

Deadwood not only provides critical habitat for animal species, but it also is a preferred
growing medium for various species of bryophytes, lichens, and fungi. In east-central Alberta,
old aspen stands were found to have higher species richness of these life forms than younger
stands, which, in turn, had higher species richness than mid-aged (economically mature) stands.
These levels corresponded to the levels of downed woody material which is most abundant and
diverse in old forests and lowest in economically mature forests, with young forests lying
somewhere in between. In managed boreal spruce forests of northern Sweden, species
richness was found to be higher for several species of mosses, fungi, and lichen in forests where
downed woody debris was more abundant. This study also urges the consideration of the size
of deadwood, as higher species richness was observed when fine woody debris was mixed with
coarse woody debris than when just coarse woody debris existed.
Rotting wood found on the forest floor can also provide good seedbeds for several boreal
species including both black and white spruce. The consistent supply of moisture and nutrients
offered by downed wood encourages good seedling growth, which, in turn, promotes the
natural succession of these species in the forest.

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Coarse Woody Debris - why is it essential in our forests?
Coarse woody debris (CWD) is the decomposition of logs on the forest floor that provides nutrients to
plants, habitat for wildlife, and food for insects and microorganisms.
Decaying wood is an essential part of a healthy ecosystem in the forest. They provide nursery-like
conditions for trees to regenerate, and dead wood plays a critical role in providing shelter for wildlife
species that are important in maintaining a bio-diverse forest.
IMPORTANCE IN WILDLIFE
CWD provides habitat to animals such as the snowshoe hare, the ruffled grouse, woodpeckers,
variations of shrew and other small mammals, as well as bigger mammals like bobcats and black bears.
Having CWD in your forest supports healthy populations of these animals, which not only helps with the
biodiversity of your forest but makes it so you can enjoy the wildlife as well.
IMPORTANCE IN FOREST HEALTH
CWD can provide a significant amount of organic matter to the soil, which is crucial for tree growth. The
decaying matter has the capability to provide nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate into the soil to be
reused by other plants. The health of the soil is directly responsible for the health of the trees. It also
helps hold moisture in the forest floor during dry spells.
IMPORTANCE IN CARBON STORAGE
CWD and organic matter store carbon in the forest, prolonging the release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Some tree species that are resistant to rot could take hundreds to thousands of years to
decompose, releasing carbon much slower than if that wood would be burned or used in a short term
manner.
HOW CAN I CREATE COARSE WOODY DEBRIS IN MY FOREST?
Coarse woody debris happens naturally in forests already. Damages that occur to the forest such as
wind storms, ice storms, fire, insects/disease, and competition between trees can be responsible for
tree death and decay. When you're harvesting wood from your property, leaving the stumps, tops, and
branches of trees can all help create CWD. Cutting down trees that are in decline can also help create
CWD, but leaving these trees standing can also be beneficial to wildlife, and it will fall down eventually
anyway!

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HEALTHY FORESTS FOR CLEAN WATER
North Carolina Forest Service

Did You Know?

We all need clean water to stay healthy, yet less than one percent of the water on earth can be
used by humans as drinking water. Whether you drink water from a well or a municipal supply,
forests keep that water clean and abundant. They do this by capturing rainwater and recharging
underground aquifers. They also act as a natural filter as water moves over land, cleaning it of
pollutants so it arrives at our lakes, rivers and streams in a better condition. We call this an
ecosystem service — something our environment provides that people need, but don’t have to
pay for.
Natural Water Filter
Forests act as a natural water filter. When it rains, any water that does not soak into the ground
becomes runoff and travels downslope to the closest stream, river or lake. As runoff travels it
picks up nutrients from excess fertilizer and animal waste carrying that nutrient pollution into
our waters, which is mainly nitrogen and phosphorus. All plants, including trees, use nitrogen
and phosphorous for growth. But excess nutrients that get washed into streams, rivers and
lakes support the growth of plants like algae. When there are a lot of pollutants in the water
and an overgrowth of algae, it causes health concerns not only for the people who fish, swim or
drink that water, but also other plants, fish, and insects that live in the water. Tree roots are an
important mechanism for absorbing nutrient pollution before it reaches our waters

Green Swamp. Photo Credit: Misty Buchanan

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Rainfall runoff that flows over parking lots and roads also picks up oil, grease, trash or other
pollutants. This rainfall runoff then flows into storm drains that flush the water directly to the
stream, river or lake it drains to, without any treatment. But healthy forests, especially when
properly managed and maintained, catch this runoff, slow its speed and allow pollutants to
settle out. The trees in the forests also absorb some of the heavy metals, chemicals, and oil that
come off pavement and other surfaces.

Keep Your Land in Place

Tree roots hold the soil in place, which reduces erosion and keeps the soil from washing into
our waterways. Soil erosion, or sediment, is a main source of water pollution. Human activities
like construction, plowing agricultural fields, or cutting trees can increase the amount of soil
that enters our waters, when carelessly or unprofessionally done. Sediment in the water clogs
the gills of fish and other wildlife. It also covers rocks in the bottom of streams and rivers which
these animals depend upon, to hide amongst or to lay their eggs on. Sedimentation can reduce
the life that the waters support. However, this type of pollution is easy to reduce simply by
following best management practices for construction, farming and forestry. The easiest way to
keep soil in place is by encouraging healthy trees to grow, especially along streams.

Abundant Water
Forests increase the amount of water that
is available for human use, and reduce the
amount of water that travels across the
surface of the land. Not only do living tree
roots hold soil in place, but as trees age
new roots grow and old roots die, creating
small spaces (pores) in the soil, which
allows water to soak and infiltrate into the
soil. While all plant roots, even grasses,
have this effect, tree roots extend further
through the soil. Trees’ support roots are
larger and they decay more slowly, so
even dead or declining tree roots
contribute to long term soil stability and soil porosity. As forests are cut to build subdivisions
and shopping malls, and soil surfaces are replaced with asphalt and concrete, less water is able
to soak into the ground to fill underground aquifers.

Less Flooding
The more parking lots, roads, buildings and grassed lawns within a community, the more water
runs off the surface of the land to storm drains, retention ponds and streams, rivers and lakes.
In fact, a one acre parking lot releases 36 times more water than one acre of forest (Changing
Landscapes, USDA NA– TP–01–14 A3). The volume of water is not the only factor contributing
52
to flooding, the speed that the water reaches its destination increases the potential for flooding
even more.
Trees and their surrounding green spaces slow water flow so that the precipitation can infiltrate
into the soil. But even water that does not soak into the ground is slowed on its way, so that
peak flow is reduced and pressure on the banks of streams, rivers and lakes to hold all that
water is eased. Large floods make the news and cause major economic damage. Small floods
cause loss of property from erosion and can be an issue for those living near streams, rivers and
lakes. As surface runoff is reduced and slowed, by plants and trees, flooding is also reduced.

Water Management
A watershed is the area of land that water travels across on its way to a stream, river or lake.
What happens uphill, or upstream, in a watershed has an effect on everyone downstream. As
population continues to increase, it becomes more important that communities create a
watershed plan that identifies how clean the water is, how the land is used and where water
pollution is coming from. This type of plan identifies places in the watershed where forests,
parks and other open places are needed and where they can be restored, and protected. Most
watershed plans include a combination of protection and restoration measures. Protecting
natural resources is more cost-effective than restoration but, unfortunately, such efforts often
occur after significant impacts have already occurred. Working lands and undeveloped
greenspaces allow people to work the land, explore the forests, play in the parks and exercise
outside while the water is cleaned and replenished.

Forest Management
Well managed forests provide many benefits for water, people and wildlife. An unmanaged
stand of trees may have a high density, with too many trees crowded together. This means the
trees grow more slowly as they must compete for a limited amount of soil nutrients, water and
light. And that stress makes the trees more susceptible to diseases and pests, such as pine
beetles. Crowded and stressed trees can also make it easier for wildfire to spread rapidly from
tree to tree. Removing or thinning the stressed, damaged and diseased trees from a forest gives
healthy trees more room to grow, and standing healthy trees protect the water. Prescribed fire,
or managed burns, reduce the growth of invasive plants and other competing vegetation. These
management practices allow increased light and precipitation to reach the forest floor. As more
light reaches the ground native plant life, such as wildflowers, shrubs and grasses can grow to
provide food and shelter for large and small wildlife. Not only are forests an important habitat
for wildlife but, when forests, green spaces and riparian areas are connected, they create paths
that animals can use to move from one area to another. Healthy forests can look quite different
from one another, depending on their age, the tree species composition, and how the different
tree species grow. To benefit all types of wildlife, different types of forests at different stages of
growth, from young to mature, are necessary. Managed forests not only contribute to clean
water but can provide a source of income for landowners. Management can include
commercial thinning, partial cuts or clear cuts. Registered foresters, management plans, and
53
forestry best management practices are important to ensure that the trees, as well as the soil
and water, are not damaged or degraded during such activities.

Think About It
While technology can do many things, we should
take advantage of the natural processes around
us. Retaining trees and forested land does more
than give wildlife a home, it provides the
resources humans need to exist and to thrive.
Forests do this more inexpensively than man-
made infrastructure. Managing our forests
responsibly, recognizing their value and including
them in planning considerations is necessary for
clean water, now and in the future.

54
 NCF-Envirothon 2025 Alberta
Forestry Study Resources

Key Topic #3: Forest Management

10. Describe the harvesting systems and the best management practices associated with
each utilized within forests in Alberta.
11. Identify silvicultural techniques used to prepare harvested land for tree planting in
Alberta.
12. Explain why sustainable harvest and use of forest, grasslands, and other plant
communities is essential to maintain a healthy ecosystem.
13. Define an urban forest and describe how common urban forestry practices influence the
environmental, economic, and social well-being of urban communities.

Study Resources

Located
Resource Title Source on Page
Timber Harvest Methods Grundberg & Vanderwel, 1994 56
A Guide to Site Preparation Government of Canada, 2017 58
Caring for Alberta's Forests Alberta Forest Products Association 62
(n.d.)
Urban Forests and Climate Change Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.) 64
Forests and Climate Change. Prairie
Climate Centre.
https://climateatlas.ca/urban-forests-
and-climate-change

55
Timber Harvest Methods
Several methods can be used to harvest timber. Each method has advantages and
disadvantages. Your objectives for the present and future use of your forested land will
influence the harvest method that you choose. The harvest method will, in turn, affect other
decisions such as cutblock size, layout and road location.
Clearcut Harvest
Clearcutting removes all merchantable trees from the cutblock at the same time. This method is
the most economical way to harvest. It is appropriate for most species but is especially suited
to even-aged stands of sun loving (shade intolerant) species such as lodgepole pine or aspen.
For land use options that require removal of the forest, clearcutting is probably the only
realistic option. One common misconception about clearcutting is that you must remove all the
forest at once. Although you harvest all the merchantable trees in a certain area, the size of
that area can be large or small depending on your objectives. A series of small clearcuts,
promptly regenerated, can provide periodic, sustainable income while maintaining a healthy
forest with diverse age classes.
Partial Cut Harvest
In partial cut harvest systems, the initial harvest does not remove all the merchantable trees
from any unit of land. Partial cut methods are intended to encourage natural regeneration. The
three partial cut systems are:
● Selection method - harvesting selected trees in an uneven-aged stand either individually
or in small groups at periodic intervals throughout a harvesting rotation. Harvested
trees may be the most valuable trees, the poorest quality trees, the oldest trees or trees
of a certain species.
● Shelterwood method - harvesting mature trees in two or more cuttings to allow
establishment and early growth of seedlings under partial shade and shelter of older
trees.
● Seed tree method - leaving individual trees or groups of trees uncut to provide seed to
regenerate the cutover area. The amount of tree cover initially removed increases from
selection to shelterwood to seed tree method.
The selection method is best adapted to uneven-aged stands of shade tolerant species such as
spruce or fir. It can also be used to convert even-aged stands to uneven-aged stands if the
species being managed is capable of regenerating in a partially shaded stand. Selection cuts are
often considered to be less visually offensive than clearcuts. As such, they are frequently
favoured in areas where recreation or scenic values are important. Selection cuts may also be
used to harvest timber from sensitive areas such as steep slopes or buffer strips where it is
desirable to maintain permanent tree cover.
Unlike the selection method, the shelterwood and seed tree methods will not provide a
continuous cover of mature trees. Once young trees are well established on the cutover, the
56
remaining larger trees are removed, leaving only the even-aged regeneration. Windthrow is a
serious concern in all partial cut systems. If residual trees blow down, uprooted stems can
displace significant amounts of soil and can be unsightly. The impact on soils, watersheds and
aesthetics may be worse than if the trees had been harvested. As well, salvage harvests usually
cost more than clearcutting. Planning a partial harvest to minimize windthrow requires
considerable expertise. The risk of windthrow is related to soil texture, soil moisture, wind
speed and the species, age, rooting habit, size and crown development of the residual trees. In
general, selection cutting that removes very little of the mature stand in the initial harvest is
the least likely to result in windthrow problems. Consult a professional forester for advice on
the shelterwood and seed tree methods.
No Harvest
You may decide not to harvest if the benefits of the forest are worth more to you than the cash
value of the timber. However, not harvesting can have long-term impacts. If the forest is
overmature or if it consists of an even-aged stand with just one or two tree species, it may be
more susceptible to damage from insects, disease or fire. Management activities, including
timber harvesting, may be desirable to maintain a healthy, diverse forest.

57
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59
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61
Caring for Alberta’s Forests
Alberta Forest Products Association

Responsibly managing the province’s forests ensures they continue to thrive for generations to
come.

Forested lands make up more than 60 percent of Alberta, and these forests help people, plants
and animals in innumerable ways. Forests capture carbon, maintain important watersheds and
are home to thousands of wildlife species. They connect us to nature and history, and hold a
significant importance for Indigenous peoples in Alberta.

Alberta’s forest industry employs more than 30,000 Albertans, and provides lumber and
plywood to build the homes and buildings we live and work in, as well as pulp and paper
products for the books we love, medical supplies we need, and even the screens we watch.

“Alberta’s forests affect the province’s quality of life in so many ways that people may not even
think about,” says Aspen Dudzic, director of communications for the Alberta Forest Products
Association. “Air quality, clean drinking water, biodiversity, flood and fire control all depend on
the health of our forest ecosystems. In addition, forests provide economic, social and cultural
benefits for many communities across the province. We have such a healthy abundance of
forest today because of Alberta forest companies’ decades-long commitments to sustainable
forest management practices.”

62
Effective forest management
Ensuring the sustainable harvesting and regeneration of Alberta forests is critical to the
environmental, economic, social and cultural health of the province.
That’s why, before harvesting a single tree, Alberta forestry companies create 200-year forest
management plans that must be approved by the provincial government. These comprehensive
plans dictate how ecological functions will be protected and how operations will result in a
healthy forest in the future. Factors like vegetation, wildlife, water sources, soil quality and
climate change are all factored in along with input from Indigenous communities.
Strategic plans that cover such a long duration ensure that Alberta’s forests remain healthy for
generations to come. “Under the very best conditions, most of our native tree species can live
up to 120 years. That’s the kind of timescale forest management planners have to consider to
maintain the long-term health of our forests. Forests beyond that age are at risk of wildfire and
pest infestation,” affirms Dudzic.
Strategic regeneration
Following a harvest, companies are required by law to regenerate harvest areas — this can be
done by planting with a similar mix of trees, or by creating optimal conditions for forests to
regenerate themselves naturally. Alberta forest companies grow three trees for every one
harvested — this translated into more than 100 million coniferous trees in 2021 alone. Over the
past 20 years, Alberta forestry companies have regrown nearly two billion trees. And, they are
required to monitor their replanted forest ecosystems for at least 14 years to ensure they
remain healthy and viable.
Growing back bio-diverse, healthy forests that provide multiple benefits for Albertans requires
tools like strategic harvesting, which mimics the benefits of fire without the risks. Unlike fires,
harvesting is carefully planned and controlled — the size, shape and location of harvest areas
are chosen for maximum benefit and minimum risk. Taking care to ensure companies cut less
forest than what is grown each year results in less than one percent of Alberta’s forest being
harvested each year.
Strategic harvesting also means leaving buffer zones around important features like wetlands,
rivers, sensitive wildlife habitat and sites of cultural importance. The harvested areas help the
forest, too — creating spaces between stands of mature forest can slow the spread of fire and
disease, making mature forests less vulnerable. The outcome is that Alberta has a natural
distribution of young and mature forests, rather than a disproportionate area of mature and
over-mature forests.
Plus, since trees take in carbon from the atmosphere, the carbon in the harvested trees stays
locked in the products and materials produced by the forest sector. When trees burn due to
wildfires or decay following insect infestation, carbon is released back into the atmosphere.

63
Through effective forest management, Alberta maximizes a number of benefits: fire and insect
risks are mitigated, carbon stays sequestered in wood products, newly replanted areas absorb
more carbon and a natural distribution of young and old forests.
Such thoughtful planning continues to evolve as the forest industry develops innovative ways to
carry out sustainable forest management (SFM). That means Alberta forests will continue to
thrive, now and in the future.

64
Urban Forests and Climate Change

In her work as Winnipeg’s City Forester, Martha Barwinsky talks to a lot of people about trees.
“People love trees,” she laughs, saying that many people tell her “cool stories about trees: they
remember this tree, and they climbed that tree, or their grandfather planted a tree and now
they go and pick apples from it.”
In recent years, cities have increasingly recognized the importance of a healthy urban tree
canopy as an essential and valuable part of urban life. There are many compelling reasons why
people – and cities – love trees.
Barwinsky notes that there are practical and tangible benefits to a healthy urban tree canopy,
including “reduced cooling costs: reduced energy costs all around.” She points out that trees
help offset the urban heat island effect, keeping our cities cooler. They also help manage
stormwater runoff, reducing demands on drainage infrastructure, and help prevent river bank
erosion. [1][2]
Urban forests are an essential asset in dealing with our changing climate.
She also says that there are “a lot of intangible benefits as well, such as helping our
psychological well-being, our social well-being, and the social structure of our communities.”
Recent research suggests that trees are beneficial to our physical and mental health as well as
better community cohesion, and improved quality of life. [2][3]
All of this makes urban forests an essential asset when dealing with our changing climate. In the
face of rising heat and the threat of more extreme weather hazards, urban forests and green
spaces can improve health and well-being, provide a buffer against heat extremes and
dangerous weather events, and promote community resilience, all while helping us save money
on costs such as air conditioning and municipal infrastructure. [3]
Unfortunately climate change also poses real challenges to the health of our urban forests.
Barwinsky strikes a cautionary note about the seriousness of the threat: “When it’s lost, then
people realize what value it had. Let’s not get to that point, where we realize what we’ve lost.”

65
Urban forests are already difficult to manage: a typical Canadian city is not a friendly place for
many tree species, and the most effective urban forestry practices are costly and labour-
intensive. Climate change makes these existing challenges worse, but also adds entirely new
and troubling problems.
We need only look at the summer of 2018 in Winnipeg to see why. The city experienced 26
days that were 30 °C or warmer, which is the most since 1988 (when there were 34 such hot
days). [4][5] Climate projections show that this unusual heat is likely to be the “new normal” in
the near future. [6] This will have lasting consequences for trees. Barwinsky says that “there are
a number of tree species that are going to suffer. They are going to have a hard time getting
through those hot conditions, those dry conditions.”
And yes, it was also a very dry summer. The total precipitation in Winnipeg over June, July, and
August was only half the normal amount. [4] Barwinsky clearly sees the effects of drought
stress in some local tree species . But she points out that not all impacts will be immediately
apparent, since “trees don’t necessarily show the effects of those changes immediately: it can
take five years, it can take ten years.”
Other threats can appear suddenly and unexpectedly – damaging insect infestations, for
example. The recently introduced emerald ash borer killed off 99% of Toronto’s 850,000+ Ash
trees in less than a decade. [7][8] It has now been found in Winnipeg as well. [9] Barwinsky
notes that “Where normally some of these invasive pests may not be able to survive our
winters, and particularly our growing season, with climate change they might start surviving,
and we’re going to have a problem managing them.” Warmer climates allow insects to
reproduce and spread more quickly, but warm and dry conditions are also stressful for trees,
leaving them with less capacity to defend against pests and infection in the first place. [10]
Urban foresters are rising to the challenge of climate change in part by adjusting their
management plans to account for the changing climate. For example, Barwinsky notes that
currently “when we plant trees, we water them for the first two years to get them established.
After that, they’re on their own. Possibly in the future we may have to water these trees over a
longer period of time.” She also reports that the city has embarked on a program of rapid
removal of infected trees to address the growing threat of invasive pests.
But protecting the health of urban forests requires long-term planning for resilience as well as
short-term crisis management. One of the most challenging aspects of planning for the hazards
of climate change is knowing that unpredictable threats (such as the arrival of the ash borer)
are likely to arise. Barwinsky says that the best strategy for dealing with the unexpected is to
expand the diversity of the urban forest. She notes that in urban forestry “there has always
been a tendency to create monocultures of particular tree species that perform really well in an
urban environment. But we need to continue to move away from that monoculture mindset.”
Changes in mindset are essential when it comes to dealing with climate change. As Barwinsky
says, “The most important thing is that we have to recognize that it’s happening. Recognizing
that and getting started on it and knowing we’ve got to change what we’re doing: that’s a big

66
part of it.” Appreciating the impact of climate change on our trees and the value of trees in
dealing with climate change is key to taking action in the short term and cultivating resilience in
the long term.
This shift in attitude has to include all the stakeholders, politicians, and citizens who benefit
from the advantages of urban forests. After all, a majority of Winnipeg’s trees are on private
land and thus not in the City Forester’s care. “The City of Winnipeg can’t do it all”, Barwinsky
says. “We need partnerships to get the message out and to help people understand what we’re
faced with,” she says.
Community groups and residents’ associations have long taken a keen interest in tree health
and maintenance, and are an important way for citizens and city staff to collaborate on
education and action. Barwinsky’s team also does outreach in schools, and she sees that
“there’s a greater awareness with this next generation” about the importance and value of
trees. Collective effort and education as well as well-funded and -directed government
programs are key to preserving and expanding our much-loved and much-needed urban forests
in the face of climate change.
Our cities are much better off when they have healthy, thriving forest canopies. [11] The
benefits of trees will only become more valuable in all senses – promoting community
resilience, improving health and well-being, and providing economic benefits to private citizens
and public budgets – as our climate continues to change.
References

1. Tree Canada. Compendium of Best Urban Forest Management.

2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “Guidelines on urban and peri-urban forestry”
3. Canadian Forest Service and Department of Forestry, UBC. Canadian Forest Service and Department of
Forestry, UBC.
4. Winnipeg Free Press. “The long, hot summer: Winnipeg had 26 days of 30 C or more — the most since
1988.”
5. CBC News. “Record setting hot dry summer takes toll on Winnipeg trees”
6. The Climate Atlas of Canada. Winnipeg, MB : Very hot days (+30°C) (RCP 8.5).
7. The Toronto Star. “Bug 1, Tree 0: Most of Toronto’s ash trees expected to die by 2017.”
8. Edward R. Wilson and Sandy M. Smith (Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto). “All that is Green is not
Gold: The Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) Invasion of Toronto’s Urban Forest, Canada”
9. City of Winnipeg. “Emerald Ash Border (EAB)”.
10. Natural Resources Canada. “Climate change: Impacts”
11. Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition. Urban Forests.
12. Anika Terton. Building a Climate-Resilient City: “Urban ecosystems”

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 NCF-Envirothon 2025 Alberta
Forestry Study Resources

Key Topic #4: Field Skills and Identification

14. Identify the common trees of Alberta forests (common and scientific names) by leaves,
bark, branching patterns, buds, fruit, and other characteristics without the use of a key.
15. Utilize common forestry tools including a D-tape, clinometer, a scaled map to make
forestry measurements and determine stand volume in field scenarios.
16. Use satellite imagery to interpret current and historical land use, stand succession, and
forest growth.

Study Resources

Located
Resource Title Source on Page
Types of Trees Harvested in Alberta Sanforestry, 2024 69
and Their Uses
Guide to the Common Native Trees Government of Alberta, 2009 75
and Shrubs of Alberta, excerpts

Engelmann Spruce A Guide to Conifers of the Pacific Northwest, 82

Northwest Conifers, (n.d.),
https://nwconifers.com/nwhi/engelmann.htm
Guide to Forestry Measurement Tools Baseline Equipment Co., (n.d.) 83
Investigate forest change with recent Global Forest Watch, 2022 87
satellite imagery
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing – Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth 92
Sections 4, 5.2, 2.21, 5.22, and 5.6 Observation, Natural Resources Canada, (n.d.)

68
Types of Trees Harvested in Alberta and Their Uses
March 25, 2024

Alberta, a province known for its stunning landscapes and rich natural resources, has huge
forests that are super important for its economy and the environment. The variety of tree types
in Alberta’s forests shows how special the region is and supports industries like lumber, paper,
essential oils, and biomass fuels. This blog post explores the cool world of Alberta’s forestry,
discussing the trees cut down, their unique traits, and the many ways they’re used. We’ll
discuss species like the tall Lodgepole Pine, tough White Spruce, and versatile Aspen and see
how crucial they are for Alberta’s economy and local communities. With climate change and
habitat loss in mind, sustainable forestry practices are in the spotlight more than ever. This post
will dive into the types of trees harvested in Alberta, their uses, and balancing resource use in
one of Canada’s most forest-filled provinces.

Overview of Alberta’s Forest Industry

Alberta’s forest industry is a major pillar of its economy, contributing billions of dollars and
providing employment opportunities to thousands of residents. Forestry in Alberta is not just
about cutting down trees for wood; it is a nuanced sector that requires balancing economic
gains with environmental preservation. This balance is achieved through sustainable
management practices that ensure the long-term health and productivity of forest ecosystems.
Sustainable management includes strategies like replanting trees, protecting wildlife habitats,
and using forestry methods that minimize environmental impact.
In terms of operations, Alberta’s forestry sector employs various methods to harvest timber.
Clear-cutting, where large forest areas are cut down, is common but increasingly
complemented by selective logging. Selective logging involves carefully choosing and cutting
down only mature or diseased trees, thereby preserving the forest structure and reducing
69
environmental disturbance. These methods, like shelterwood cutting and seed tree harvesting,
reflect Alberta’s commitment to sustainable forestry practices. The emphasis on sustainability
protects the environment and ensures that the forestry industry can continue to be a vital part
of Alberta’s economy for generations.

Main Types of Trees Harvested in Alberta

Coniferous Trees
Coniferous trees, often called evergreens
because they retain their foliage year-round,
are a significant backbone of Alberta’s forestry
sector. These trees, distinguished by their
needle-like leaves and cone-bearing seeds,
thrive in Alberta’s varied climate, from cold
winters to warm summers. Among the most
harvested in this category are the Lodgepole
Pine, known for its tall, straight trunk and utility in construction and pulp industries, and the
White Spruce, favoured for its strength and versatility in building materials and paper
production. Coniferous forests contribute to the province’s economy through timber and
related industries and play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, offering habitat to
wildlife and acting as natural carbon sinks.
Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta)
Description: The Lodgepole Pine is a tall, slender tree that can reach up to 80 feet in height. It’s
easily recognizable by its narrow conical shape and the bark that turns from smooth and
yellow-brown in young trees to dark and furrowed in older ones.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: Lodgepole pines prefer higher elevations and are
predominantly found in the western parts of Alberta. They thrive in sandy or gravelly soils
requiring full sunlight and are adaptable to dry and moist conditions.
Commercial Value: Lodgepole Pine is highly valued for its strong and flexible wood, which
makes it ideal for construction materials, particularly framing and panelling. Additionally, it’s
used for making poles, plywood, and pulpwood.
White Spruce (Picea glauca)
Description: White Spruce is a robust tree that can grow up to 60 feet tall. It features a conical
shape, with short, stiff needles and a smooth, grey bark that becomes scaly with age.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: This versatile tree is found across a vast range within Alberta,
from lowland bogs to dry, upland areas. White Spruce prefers moist, well-drained soils but can
adapt to various soil types and conditions.
Commercial Value: Due to its resilience and medium to fine texture, White Spruce wood is
extensively used in the construction industry for products such as lumber, pulp for paper, and
70
crates. It’s also sought after for Christmas trees due to its symmetrical shape and pleasant
aroma.
Black Spruce (Picea mariana)
Description: Black Spruce is a small to medium-sized tree that grows to 30-50 feet. It is
characterized by its straight trunk and narrow, conical shape. Its bark is thin, scaly, and grayish-
brown, while the tree’s needles are short, stiff, and dark bluish-green, giving off a distinctive
aromatic scent when crushed.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: Thriving in cooler climates, Black Spruce is commonly found in
the boreal forests of Alberta, favouring wet, swampy areas. It is well-adapted to survive in
harsh conditions, including poor soil and fire-prone environments, as it can regenerate quickly
by releasing seeds stored in its cones after a fire.
Commercial Value: Black Spruce is highly prized for its wood used in the construction and paper
industries. Its dense wood makes it suitable for producing lumber, poles, and pulpwood.
Additionally, the tree is a source of spruce gum and essential oils, which have various medicinal
and fragrant uses. Sustainable harvesting practices are essential to prevent overexploitation
and preserve the natural habitats where Black Spruce plays a critical ecological role.
Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea)
Description: The Balsam Fir is a medium-sized conifer that often reaches heights of 45 to 75
feet, distinguished by its pyramidal shape and flat, long-lasting needles that give off a pleasant,
balsamic fragrance when crushed. The bark is smooth and gray on younger trees, becoming
rougher and more deeply furrowed with age.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: This tree is commonly found in the cool climates of northern
Alberta, thriving in moist, acidic soils. It prefers well-drained sites and can be found in pure
stands and mixed forests, often alongside spruces and birches.
Commercial Value: Balsam Fir is highly valued not only for its iconic status as a Christmas tree
due to its dense, symmetrical branches and long-lasting aroma but also for its wood, used in
manufacturing paper and lumber. Additionally, the resin, or “Canada balsam,” extracted from
its bark, is used in the optical industry for making microscope slides and in traditional medicine
for its healing properties. Sustainable harvesting practices, such as selective cutting and
maintaining biodiversity, are crucial for preserving Balsam Fir populations and their habitats.

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Deciduous Trees
Deciduous trees, contrasting with their
coniferous counterparts, mark the changing
seasons with their vivid transformations.
Shedding their leaves annually, these trees
play a crucial role in the ecological balance
and the human economy. With leaves that
burst into vibrant colours in autumn before
falling, deciduous species contribute to
biodiversity, act as crucial carbon sinks, and serve various commercial uses. In the following
sections, we will explore the dominant deciduous trees found in Alberta, their unique
characteristics, habitats, and their significant value in nature and industry.
Aspen (Populus spp.)
Description: Aspen trees, including species like Trembling (Quaking) Aspen and Balsam Poplar,
are known for their fast growth and ability to regenerate quickly after disturbances. They have
smooth, white bark and leaves that turn yellow in the fall.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: Aspen trees are incredibly adaptable, thriving in various soil
types and moisture levels. They’re commonly found throughout Alberta, from wetlands to
semi-arid regions, and they often are the first species to repopulate cleared areas.
Commercial Value: Aspen wood is soft but strong, making it a popular choice for manufacturing
furniture, pulp, and paper. Due to its quick turnover rate, Aspen is also used in sustainable
forestry practices, providing a continuous supply without excessive impact on ecosystems.
White Birch (Betula papyrifera)
Description: The White Birch, also known as Paper Birch, is celebrated for its distinctive white,
peeling bark and elegant stature. Growing up to 70 feet in height, it displays a slender profile
with oval to triangular leaves that turn a bright yellow in the fall, offering a stunning contrast
against its bark.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: White Birch thrives in cool, northern climates and is commonly
found throughout Alberta. It prefers sunny, well-drained sites. It is adaptable to various soil
conditions but flourishes in moist, sandy, or loamy soils. This species is often one of the first to
colonize burned or clear-cut areas, playing a crucial role in forest regeneration.
Commercial Value: The wood of the White Birch is hard and dense, making it valuable for
furniture, flooring, and plywood. Its bark, renowned for its waterproof qualities, has
traditionally been used by Indigenous peoples to craft canoes and other containers.
Additionally, the sap of the White Birch can be tapped to make syrup or fermented to produce
birch beer, adding to its diverse commercial applications.

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Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera)
Description: The Balsam Poplar, standing tall at an average height of 50 to 80 feet, commands
attention with its robust stature and thick, fissured bark that darkens with age. Its broad leaves,
which turn yellow in the fall, emit a distinctive resinous fragrance in the spring that fills the air
with a sweet scent. These trees are easily identifiable by their large, sticky buds coated with a
resin used in traditional salves and balms.
Habitat and Growth Conditions: Predominantly found along rivers, in floodplains, and in moist,
well-drained soils, the Balsam Poplar prefers abundant sunlight. It is a resilient species capable
of thriving in cold climates across Alberta. Its ability to quickly colonize disturbed areas makes it
an essential player in natural forest regeneration processes.
Commercial Value: The wood of the Balsam Poplar, while softer and lighter than that of many
hardwoods, is highly valued for its versatility. It is used in the production of pulp and paper and
the manufacture of crates and pallets. The sticky resin from its buds, known for its medicinal
properties, is useful in various therapeutic products. This tree, with its rapid growth and ability
to reproduce both sexually and asexually, is also significant in sustainable forestry practices,
contributing to ecosystem recovery and maintenance.

Harvested Trees in Industries

Trees harvested in Alberta’s forestry industries serve critical roles beyond their ecological
contributions. Highlighted below are some of the primary uses of trees in various industries:
• Construction Industry: Trees like the White Birch and Balsam Fir are valued for their
dense, strong wood, suitable for structural materials, flooring, and roofing. Aspen and
Balsam Poplar are also commonly used in construction for their quick growth and
affordability.
• Paper and Pulp Industry: Aspen and balsam poplar’s soft but strong woods make them
preferred choices for producing high-quality paper products, including magazines,
books, and packaging materials.
• Furniture Manufacturing: Due to its durability and aesthetic appeal, White Birch wood is
commonly used to make furniture, offering both functional and decorative value.
• Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries: The resin extracted from Balsam Fir and
Balsam Poplar buds is used in traditional and modern therapeutic products, including
salves, balms, and certain perfumes, for its healing properties.
• Cultural and Recreational Products: Indigenous peoples have traditionally used the
waterproof bark of the White Birch to craft canoes, while its sap is tapped for making
syrup or fermented to produce birch beer, demonstrating its diverse cultural
applications.

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Sustainability Practices in Forestry
Sustainability stands at the forefront of modern forestry practices in Alberta, ensuring that the
vast wealth of forests remains available for future generations while maintaining the ecological
balance. A key focus within these practices includes promoting methods that reduce
environmental impact, such as selective logging—which targets specific trees for harvest while
preserving the surrounding forest structure and biodiversity. Additionally, reforestation
initiatives are diligently pursued, with millions of trees being planted annually to replenish
harvested areas. These efforts are supplemented by strict regulations that limit the size and
frequency of cuts, aiming to mimic natural disturbance patterns and promote a diverse age
range among forest stands. Integrating traditional knowledge with scientific research further
enriches these sustainability efforts, emphasizing the importance of forests as commercial
resources and as vital ecosystems supporting many species, including humans. Through these
comprehensive strategies, Alberta’s forestry sector is making significant strides toward
achieving a delicate balance between resource utilization and conservation.

Conclusion
The forests of Alberta play a profound role in shaping both the economy and the environment,
serving as pivotal hubs of biodiversity, carbon sinks, and sources of raw materials for various
industries. The sustainable management and harvesting of these forests contribute significantly
to Alberta’s economic vitality, particularly through the construction, paper and pulp, and
pharmaceutical industries, and ensure the preservation of these natural resources for future
generations. The future of forestry in Alberta appears promising, with an increasing emphasis
on sustainable growth and practices that aim to balance economic gains with environmental
stewardship. Efforts towards reforestation, responsible harvesting, and innovative forestry
practices are imperative to maintain this delicate equilibrium.
Businesses, policymakers, and individuals must support and advocate for sustainable forestry
practices to contribute to a sustainable future. Whether by choosing products from responsibly
managed forests, supporting policies that protect natural resources, or simply spreading
awareness, every action counts towards preserving the rich forestry heritage of Alberta. By
collectively committing to sustainability, we can ensure our environment’s and economy’s
prosperity for future generations.

74
Guide to the Common Native Trees and Shrubs of
Alberta

Lodgepole Pine
Pinus contorta var. latifolia Loudon.

TREE: Tall, slender conifer, with little taper and straight trunk. Bark orange-brown, some-
what scaly, less than 2 cm thick. Branches curve upwards; self pruning in pure stands. SIZE:
20-30 m high; trunk 30-45 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Needle-shaped, in bundles of two,
2 1/2 -8 cm long, spirally twisted, stiff, very sharp pointed, yellowish-green; form dense clus-
ters toward the ends of twigs. CONES: Short-cylindrical to egg-shaped, curved away from
branch tip, 2-5 cm long, remain on trees for many years; scales armed with small prickles.
DISTRIBUTION: Grows on a wide variety of sites but prefers well drained sandy soils in the
western part of the province. It is abundant in the Rocky Mountain and foothills regions.
NOTES: Lodgepole Pine and Jack Pine (P. banksiana Lamb.) hybridize freely where the
ranges of these two species overlap in central Alberta. As of May 1984, Lodgepole Pine is
the official provincial tree of Alberta.
Tamarack
Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch Larch

Photo by D. Johnson

TREE: Slender with a straight trunk having little taper. Bark thin, smooth, and grey when
young becoming dark reddish-brown and scaly when older. Branches curved slightly down-
wards. SIZE: 20 m high; trunk 30-60 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Needle-shaped, in feather-like
clusters of 10-20; 2-4 cm long, soft, flexible; pale green turning bright yellow in autumn; shed
in autumn. CONES: 21/2 cm long, reddish when young becoming brown when mature; open
in the autumn and persist on tree through the winter and following summer. DISTRIBUTION:
Found in wetlands in central and northern Alberta. In northern Alberta it can also be found on
better drained sites such as valley slopes. NOTES: Lyall’s or Subalpine Larch (L. lyallii Parl.)
is found in the subalpine zone in the mountains, from Lake Louise to the Montana border.
 25

Photo by D. Griffin

White Spruce
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss

TREE: Dense conifer with a straight, tapered trunk. Bark scaly, thin, grey to ashy-brown.
Branches horizontal. SIZE: Averages 25 m high; trunk 65 cm in diameter. Under favorable
conditions 40 m high; trunk 130 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Needle-shaped, four-sided, 2-3 cm
long, straight, stiff, sharp pointed, bluish-green; aromatic when crushed. CONES: Cylindrical,
4-5 cm in length, located at the ends of twigs; yellow when young turning brown when
mature, smooth margins. Cones open in the autumn and drop during the winter or spring.
DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout western, central, and northern Alberta. It is found in
a variety of soil types and climatic regions.
26

Black Spruce
Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP. Bog Spruce, Swamp Spruce

TREE: Dense conifer with a straight trunk. Bark thin, greyish-brown and scaly. Branches
upturned at ends forming a distinctive club-like shape at the crown. SIZE: Averages
10 m high; trunk 25 cm in diameter. Under favorable conditions 30 m high; trunk 92 cm in
diameter. LEAVES: Needle-shaped, four-sided, 1-2 cm, long; straight, thick, stiff, blunt, blu-
ish green. CONES: Spherical, 2-3 cm long, purplish to dark brown; usually several in a
cluster; retained for one or more years. DISTRIBUTION: Most common in wetlands through-
out central and northern Alberta.
 27

Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.

TREE: Symmetrical conifer with narrow, conical crown. Bark smooth, pale grey and blistered
on young trees, rough, scaly and brown on older trees. Branches horizontal. SIZE: 18 m high;
trunk 45 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Needle-shaped, flattened, 2-3 cm long, bent upward,
rounded or blunt tipped; dark shiny green surface and whitish underside. CONES: Oval or
oblong, 5-10 cm long, dark purple; disintegrate on tree and do not fall. DISTRIBUTION:
Common tree in north-eastern Alberta which has adapted to a variety of soils and climates.
NOTES: Subalpine Fir (A. lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.), a mountain species, is similar in appear-
ance to Balsam Fir. It is larger, 25 m high, and its leaves are greyish-green to pale blue-green.
Subalpine Fir is mainly distinguishable from Balsam Fir by slight differences in their cones.
 29

Aspen Poplar
Populus tremuloides Michx. Trembling Aspen, White Poplar

TREE: Slender with a long straight trunk and rounded crown. Bark smooth, greenish-white on
young trees becoming somewhat blackened and furrowed near base on older trees. Branches
restricted to tops on mature trees. SIZE: Averages 20 m high. Trunk 25 cm in diameter. Under
favorable conditions 30 m high; trunk 61 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Alternate, simple, oval to
ovate, 4-6 cm wide; fine, irregular, rounded teeth on margin; slender, flattened petiole, usually
longer than the leaf-blade; deep green upper surface, paler underside. FLOWERS: Small,
hairy, drooping catkins appear before the leaves. FRUIT: Small, green capsules splitting when
ripe to form a cotton mass. DISTRIBUTION: Very common and widespread throughout for-
ested regions, but grows best in well drained soils. NOTES: Leaves tremble with slight breezes
because of flattened leaf petioles. This tree suckers freely when cut or damaged. Root sucker-
ing is the primary method of propagation.
30

Balsam Poplar
Populus balsamifera L. Black Poplar, Balsam

TREE: Slender, with a long, straight trunk and narrow crown. Bark light grey and smooth on
young trees, dark grey and furrowed on mature trees. Branches stout, pointing upward.
SIZE: Averages 20 m high; trunk 40 cm in diameter. Under favorable conditions 30 m high;
trunk 120 cm in diameter. LEAVES: Alternate, simple, ovate to ovatelanceolate, 8-15 cm,
long; fine, irregular, rounded teeth on margin; shiny dark green surface, with whitish-green
underside sometimes with rusty brown resin stains; winter buds large and pointed and cov-
ered with sticky resin. FLOWERS: Small, drooping catkins, appear before the leaves. FRUIT:
Small, green capsules splitting when ripe to form large amounts of loose cotton mass that
is blown about by spring breezes. DISTRIBUTION: Common and widespread throughout
most of Alberta but grows best on rich, moist soils and low lying terrain. NOTES: A similar
species, called Black Cottonwood (P. trichocarpa Hook.), is found in the western parts of the
province. It is very difficult to differentiate from Balsam Poplar because both species hybrid-
ize freely. Balsam Poplar readily suckers when the main trunk is cut or damaged.
Northwest Conifers

Engelmann Spruce

Engelmann Spruce – Picea engelmannii

This mountain native is a medium size tree that grows
to 130 feet (40 meters), about half the size of a tall
Sitka spruce.
Needles: The needles of Engelmann spruce are thin
and sharp like other spruce trees and stick out all
around the twig like a bottle brush. You can easily
identify spruce trees by touching their sharp needles.
Also, spruce needles are unique in growing from short,
woody pegs that remain after the needles fall off.
Cones: The 3-inch cones are similar to those of
mountain hemlock, but the scales are paper-thin,
narrower and come to a point.
Bark: The the thin, gray bark breaks into small scales
on large trees.

Spruce needles with unique pegs

Where it grows: Engelmann spruce grows in the

mountains east of the Cascades crest above 3000 feet
(900 meters). Although it is not common in the
Cascades, it is more abundant in the mountains to the
east in Idaho and Montana. It is shade tolerant, and
some shade is required for the healthy development of
seedlings. You can find Engelmann spruce growing
under a canopy of large trees where it competes well
with other shade-tolerant conifers.
Engelmann spruce at Hoyt Arboretum.
Similar Tree: Sitka spruce grows only at low
elevations along the Pacific Coast and Columbia
River. The easiest way to distinguish Engelmann
spruce from Sitka spruce is by location. You can also
USGS Distribution Map distinguish them by rolling a needle between your
fingers. The flat Sitka needle will not roll, but the
square-shaped Engelmann needle will.
Uses: Like other spruces, Engelmann spruce is used
for making paper, lumber, and fine musical instruments
such as guitars and violins.
Names: Engelmann spruce is named after nineteenth-
century physician and botanist George Engelmann.
Other common names: Silver spruce, white spruce,
and mountain spruce.
Guide to Forestry Measurement Tools
Woodland owners routinely measure elements of a forest, such as property acreage,
boundaries, ground slope, standing timber characteristics, and log volumes. Measurements
have become even more important as people increasingly understand the ecological
importance of forestry.
Over the years, many sophisticated instruments have been developed to make forestry
measurements. However, the majority of measurements require only a few simple and
inexpensive pieces of equipment. Investing in the right equipment can go a long way toward
best forestry practices.
Tools
The tools listed below are some of the most integral equipment to a forester’s toolkit. While
not exhaustive, this offers a great start to being equipped to handle many of the basic forestry
tasks.
Diameter Tape
In order to manage, buy, and sell standing timber, it is necessary to measure trees’ diameters.
Diameter tape is used to measure a tree’s diameter, usually at breast height. This is called the
Diameter Breast Height (or DBH).
Diameter tape is unique because it has regular length measurements on one side and diameter
conversions on the other. The Lufkin Artisan Diameter Tree Tape features a rugged, vinyl-
covered steel case and a special claw hook designed for anchoring in tree bark at $129.60 per
tape roll.
The Spencer Logging Diameter AutoRewind Tape is 75 ft long and costs just $60.00. It features
automatic rewind, an aluminum case, and an active bumper to cushion the blade tip.
Logger Tape
Logger tape is a self-retracting reel tape that foresters use to measure felled timber. A
horseshoe nail holds the end of the tape in place while the forester makes a measurement.
Once completed, a gentle tug will make the nail release and the tape will rewind. The reels are
built to withstand rough treatment in the elements.
Tree Calipers
Tree calipers offer more precise data when measuring tree and log diameters. However,
compared to diameter tape, they are cumbersome. This means foresters only use them when
the measurement needs to be precise.

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Clinometer
A clinometer is used to measure vertical angles, such as ground slope, road grade, or tree
height. This handheld instrument comes in many models. The best models have degree and
percent scales.
Suunto Clinometers are used to measure tree heights, vertical angles, and slopes all over the
world by foresters, surveyors, engineers, cartographers, and more and can be purchased for
$231.
The Brunton Omni-Slope Sighting Clinometeris just $169.95. This product offers fast and
accurate readings, whether you are measuring the height of a tree, avalanche danger, or
judging the pitch of a cave.
Compass
A handheld compass measures direction in degrees. Compasses are used to establish plots and
determine property lines. A handheld compass is sufficient for most forestry purposes and its
compact frame makes it easy to carry. In order to get the most accurate readings, hold the
compass level while using.
Compasses come at various prices and abilities, depending on what you are looking for.
Compasses such as the Brunton TruArc 3 are reliable and trusted for just $19.95 per compass.
Other compasses offer more to extend their abilities. The SILVA Ranger 2.0 Quad Compass, at
$49.49 per compass, features a mirror, slope card, and distance lanyard.
The Brunton Omni-Sight Sighting Compass features special aluminum housing to ensure
ruggedness and a rare earth magnet that ensures exceptional accuracy, all for $169.95. Finally,
the GEO Pocket Transit is most notable for its hinge inclinometer that reduces the number of
measurements required in the field by allowing for simultaneous trend and plunge
measurements. This high-quality tool costs $719.95.
Biltmore Sticks
The Biltmore stick is used to measure tree diameters at DBH. The tool, shaped like a yardstick,
can help you calculate the diameter based on the principle of similar triangles.
To use, you stand 25 inches from the tree and hold the Biltmore stick so that it is flush with the
tree. Using only one eye, you then line up the left side of the stick with the left edge of the tree.
Then, line the right edge of the tree with the corresponding number on the Biltmore stick. This
is the first diameter measurement. Confirm by repeating the process on the others side of the
tree, and take the average of your two measurements.
Angle Gauge and Wedge Prisms
The basal area is the measurement of the cross-sectional area of a given tree trunk, measured
in square feet at DBH. The basal area of a section of a forest is the sum of the basal areas of
individual trees (measured in square feet per acre).

84
An angle gauge is used to measure the average basal area within a given area. This tool, which
is held from a fixed distance from the eye to function properly, quickly measures whether a tree
in inside or outside of a given plot.
The wedge prism is a wedge-shaped piece of glass that deflects the tree trunk image when
viewed. They are available in a range of dimensions to fit the size of the trees being measured.
Increment Borer
Tree borers allow foresters to extract core samples from trees. The increment borer extracts a
small straw-shaped sample (generally 0.2 inches in diameter) that runs from the bark to the
center of the tree. By examining the tree rings, the forester can determine the age, growth rate,
and soundness of the tree.
Borer lengths vary in two-inch increments. They range from an 8-inch minimum to a much
larger sampling depth.
The hole can introduce decay into the trunk. In order to prevent decay, trees are limited to one
bore every six years. Furthermore, the forester reinserts the extracted core back into the hole
after it has been used.
Laser Rangefinder
Laser rangefinders allow foresters to measure distances,
angles, and heights. With this high-tech instrument,
foresters can look through the viewfinder and have the
machine calculate the measurements of the different
points where they direct the rangefinder.
IMAGE: https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/modern-optical-range-finder-isolated-on-white-background-isolated-
black-plastic-gm1184688338-333596405

For a price of $450, the Laser Technology TruPulse 200L was designed to make professional
measurements at a low cost. It uses TruTargeting technology and premium built-in features for
reliable results. Or, you can opt for the Laser Technology TruPulse 200X for $1,995. This
instrument can instantly measure slope distance, and inclination and calculate the horizontal
and vertical distance with a single push of a button.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Foresters use GPS systems for many tasks, but most often to mark the location of features in a
forest plot. GPS systems allow you to make a point at a location of interest so that you can
revisit that spot later on.
You can consider buying a GPS system or downloading a phone app such as Avenza. Visit
the Southern Regional Extension Forestry website for more examples of apps. For the most
accuracy, cheap apps may not always be reliable. In cases where precision is vital, licensed
surveyors using high-quality GPS systems are your best bet.
Tree Marking Paint

85
Not every visit into the forest merits tree marking paint. However, there are times of the year
when paint is a useful device. For instance, tree marking can be used to show which trees
should be cut before a harvest.
Aervoe Tree Marking Paint is fast drying, has excellent adhesion, and can be bought for a price
of $5.63 per case. Aervoe Wet Coat Tree Marking Paint is built for wet conditions. It is built to
mix with the water in wet wood allowing the paint to penetrate deep into the pores of the
lumber.
Field Books
Foresters may need to write down a note to remember what they have measured while out in
the forests. For this reason, it is important to carry a notebook while working.
That said, a standard notebook is a risky proposition. In case of rain, it is best to carry a
notebook that is built to weather the elements. This could prevent you from losing all of your
data. A wide range of forestry field books is available to help you meet this need.
Conclusion
Forest owners have many responsibilities to measure the trees on their property. Providing
workers with the appropriate instruments to measure tree height, diameter, distances, and
more will make for more accurate data and more efficient use of time.

86
Investigate forest change with recent satellite imagery
The recent satellite imagery tool provides information regarding vegetation health around the
world and can help validate near real-time alerts. New images are populated daily, showing the
latest satellite imagery from the Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 systems.
The imagery offers global geographic coverage at a 10 x 10-meter resolution with Sentinel-2,
and a 30 x 30-meter resolution with Landsat 8. The Sentinel-2 satellite revisits locations every
10 days, while Landsat 8 revisits locations every 16 days.
Another resource to help validate near real-time alerts is the 5-meter resolution Planet
imagery. The Planet imagery basemap is updated monthly starting September 2020 and is
available for the tropics. Six-month mosaics are also available for past years. Learn more about
the Planet basemap and other available basemaps here.
Recent satellite imagery features
Recent satellite imagery can help show what an area looks like in near real-time and facilitate
validation of forest change data, such as deforestation or fire alerts.
1. To use the recent satellite imagery tool, situate the crosshair in the center of the map
over your area of interest. Check the selection box in the dark gray bar at the bottom of
the Legend panel, then select the option labeled “Landsat 8 / Sentinel 2″. The tool will
only work if the crosshair is situated above land. For the best results, zoom in to a
specific location before activating the tool.

Zoom in to the location you’d like to investigate with recent satellite imagery.

87
Check the selection box in the dark gray bar at the bottom of the Legend panel, then select the option labeled
“Landsat 8 / Sentinel 2″ to activate the tool.

2. The “Acquisition Date” drop-down menu at the top of the pop-up window allows you to
access images 1 week, 2 weeks, 4 weeks, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months or 12 months
before a specified date. The default acquisition date will be 3 months before the present
date, but can be changed by clicking on the date.
3. Adjust the cloud cover percentage by clicking and dragging the bar to the desired
percentage. The default is set at 25%, which means only satellite imagery with less than
25% cloud cover will load. The higher the maximum cloud cover percentage, the more
images will appear in your search; however, some of these images may be obscured by
clouds.
4. There are two imagery options available: natural color or vegetation health. The natural
color imagery uses information from visible light (red, green and blue) to show Earth’s
surface as it would appear to the human eye. The vegetation health imagery is detected
using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which uses information from
both red and near-infrared reflectance. The NDVI method relies on the fact that healthy
vegetation absorbs most visible light and reflects most near-infrared light that strikes its
surface. When interpreting imagery that shows vegetation health, red indicates healthy
growing vegetation, green indicates bare ground and black/purple indicates water
bodies. While the natural color imagery is more intuitive, some details can be lost as
images can be hazy and subtle features can be difficult to recognize. By contrast, the
vegetation health imagery highlights differences in land cover and can make the images
easier to interpret.

88
Select “Natural color” to view imagery from visible light, displaying the Earth’s surface as it would appear to the
human eye.

Select “Vegetation Health” to view imagery from NDVI. The red/orange colors reflect healthy vegetation, whereas
the green color reflects bare ground. The black/purple colors reflect water bodies.

Use the recent satellite imagery tool

1. Let’s say you are managing this area in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In this
example, you can see how the deforestation alerts align with the brown – or cleared –
areas in the natural color satellite imagery.

89
 Activate recent satellite imagery over the area you’d like to investigate. The deforestation alerts and
satellite imagery indicate tree cover loss based on the brown clearing zones beneath the alerts.

2. The deforestation alerts are activated for April 1st, 2020 through May 16th, 2020. This
shows locations of potential deforestation for that time period.
3. To investigate further, recent satellite imagery within the past four weeks was selected.
The maximum cloud cover percentage was lowered and “natural color” was selected for
the images. This will help you get started in verifying whether the alerts indicate any
clearings.
4. The deforestation alert opacity was reduced in order to see a clearer satellite image
beneath the alerts. Learn more about how to reduce data layer opacity here. In the
example below, there is evidence of clearings throughout this area based on the brown
areas where the alerts are.

Reduce the deforestation alert opacity to help reveal more of the underlying recent satellite images.

90
 5. Zooming in closer to the area can also provide a clearer view of the characteristics of the
clearing, helping to determine whether the clearing is from human or natural causes, as
well as what the likely driver of the clearing was (e.g., small-holder agriculture,
commercial agriculture, mining, logging, fire, etc.).
6. To investigate and verify further, you can activate the vegetation health imagery. Here,
the alerts are overlaid on green patches, indicating bare ground – you can now verify
that clearing has occurred in this area.

Activate the vegetation health imagery to help identify areas of likely tree cover loss. The green patches indicate
bare ground and likely clearing.

7. From here, you can begin taking the necessary steps to investigate on the ground and
take appropriate action. Learn more about how the Forest Watcher mobile app can help
you investigate forest change while offline and in the field here.

In short, recent satellite imagery is a powerful tool to help monitor, verify and investigate an
area of interest before heading into the field. Identifying whether tree cover loss has occurred
before investigating on the ground can save you time, money and other resources and allow
you to focus your efforts on where forest threats are actually occurring. Additionally, it can be
used in reports, policy briefs, presentations and throughout the media to show where
deforestation has likely occurred and its likely cause.

91
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing
Section 4 - Image interpretation & analysis

Introduction
In order to take advantage of and make good use of
remote sensing data, we must be able to extract
meaningful information from the imagery. This
brings us to the topic of discussion in this chapter -
interpretation and analysis - the sixth element of the
remote sensing process which we defined in
Chapter 1. Interpretation and analysis of remote
sensing imagery involves the identification and/or
measurement of various targets in an image in order
to extract useful information about them. Targets in
remote sensing images may be any feature or object which can be observed in an image, and
have the following characteristics:
• Targets may be a point, line, or area feature. This means that they can have any form,
from a bus in a parking lot or plane on a runway, to a bridge or roadway, to a large
expanse of water or a field.
• The target must be distinguishable; it must contrast with other features around it in the
image.
Much interpretation and identification of targets in remote
sensing imagery is performed manually or visually, i.e. by a
human interpreter. In many cases this is done using imagery
displayed in a pictorial or photograph-type format, independent
of what type of sensor was used to collect the data and how the
data were collected. In this case we refer to the data as being in
analog format. As we discussed in Chapter 1, remote sensing
images can also be represented in a computer as arrays of pixels,
with each pixel corresponding to a digital number, representing
the brightness level of that pixel in the image. In this case, the
data are in a digital format. Visual interpretation
may also be performed by examining digital imagery displayed on a computer
screen. Both analogue and digital imagery can be displayed as black and white
(also called monochrome) images, or as colour images (refer back to Chapter 1,
Section 1.7) by combining different channels or bands representing different
wavelengths.
When remote sensing data are available in digital format, digital processing and analysis may
be performed using a computer. Digital processing may be used to enhance data as a prelude to

92
visual interpretation. Digital processing and analysis may also be carried out to automatically
identify targets and extract information completely without manual intervention by a human
interpreter. However, rarely is digital processing and analysis carried out as a complete
replacement for manual interpretation. Often, it is done to supplement and assist the human
analyst.
Manual interpretation and analysis dates back to the early beginnings of remote sensing for air
photo interpretation. Digital processing and analysis is more recent with the advent of digital
recording of remote sensing data and the development of computers. Both manual and digital
techniques for interpretation of remote sensing data have their respective advantages and
disadvantages. Generally, manual interpretation requires little, if any, specialized equipment,
while digital analysis requires specialized, and often expensive, equipment. Manual
interpretation is often limited to analyzing only a single channel of data or a single image at a
time due to the difficulty in performing visual interpretation with multiple images. The
computer environment is more amenable to handling complex images of several or many
channels or from several dates. In this sense, digital analysis is useful for simultaneous analysis
of many spectral bands and can process large data sets much faster than a human interpreter.
Manual interpretation is a subjective process, meaning that the results will vary with different
interpreters. Digital analysis is based on the manipulation of digital numbers in a computer and
is thus more objective, generally resulting in more consistent results. However, determining the
validity and accuracy of the results from digital processing can be difficult.
It is important to reiterate that visual and digital analyses of remote sensing imagery are not
mutually exclusive. Both methods have their merits. In most cases, a mix of both methods is
usually employed when analyzing imagery. In fact, the ultimate decision of the utility and
relevance of the information extracted at the end of the analysis process, still must be made by
humans.

Section 5.2 Forestry

Forests are a valuable resource providing food, shelter, wildlife
habitat, fuel, and daily supplies such as medicinal ingredients
and paper. Forests play an important role in balancing the
Earth's CO2 supply and exchange, acting as a key link between
the atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Tropical
rainforests, in particular, house an immense diversity of
species, more capable of adapting to, and therefore surviving,
changing environmental conditions than monoculture forests.
This diversity also provides habitat for numerous animal species and is an important source of
medicinal ingredients. The main issues concerning forest management are depletion due to
natural causes (fires and infestations) or human activity (clear-cutting, burning, land

93
conversion), and monitoring of health and growth for effective commercial exploitation and
conservation.
Humans generally consider the products of forests useful, rather than the forests themselves,
and so extracting wood is a wide-spread and historical practice,
virtually global in scale. Depletion of forest resources has long term
effects on climate, soil conservation, biodiversity, and hydrological
regimes, and thus is a vital concern of environmental monitoring
activities. Commercial forestry is an important industry throughout the
world. Forests are cropped and re-harvested, and the new areas
continually sought for providing a new source of lumber. With increasing pressure to conserve
native and virgin forest areas, and unsustainable forestry practices limiting the remaining areas
of potential cutting, the companies involved in extracting wood supplies need to be more
efficient, economical, and aware of sustainable forestry practices. Ensuring that there is a
healthy regeneration of trees where forests are extracted will ensure a future for the
commercial forestry firms, as well as adequate wood supplies to meet the demands of a
growing population.
Non-commercial sources of forest depletion include removal for
agriculture (pasture and crops), urban development, droughts, desert
encroachment, loss of ground water, insect damage, fire and other
natural phenomena (disease, typhoons). In some areas of the world,
particularly in the tropics, (rain) forests, are covering what might be
considered the most valuable commodity - viable agricultural land.
Forests are burned or clear-cut to facilitate access to, and use of, the
land. This practice often occurs when the perceived need for long term
sustainability is overwhelmed by short-term sustenance goals. Not only are the depletion of
species-rich forests a problem, affecting the local and regional hydrological regime, the smoke
caused by the burning trees pollutes the atmosphere, adding more CO2, and furthering the
greenhouse effect.
Of course, monitoring the health of forests is crucial for sustainability and conservation issues.
Depletion of key species such as mangrove in environmentally sensitive coastline areas,
removal of key support or shade trees from a potential crop tree, or disappearance of a large
biota acting as a CO2 reservoir all affect humans and society in a negative way, and more effort
is being made to monitor and enforce regulations and plans to protect these areas.
International and domestic forestry applications where remote sensing can be utilized include
sustainable development, biodiversity, land title and tenure (cadastre), monitoring
deforestation, reforestation monitoring and managing, commercial logging operations,
shoreline and watershed protection, biophysical monitoring (wildlife habitat assessment), and
other environmental concerns.
General forest cover information is valuable to developing countries with limited previous
knowledge of their forestry resources. General cover type mapping, shoreline and watershed
94
mapping and monitoring for protection, monitoring of cutting practices and regeneration, and
forest fire/burn mapping are global needs which are currently being addressed by Canadian and
foreign agencies and companies employing remote sensing technology as part of their
information solutions in foreign markets.
Forestry applications of remote sensing include the following:
1) reconnaissance mapping:
Objectives to be met by national forest/environment agencies include forest cover updating,
depletion monitoring, and measuring biophysical properties of forest stands.
• forest cover type discrimination
• agroforestry mapping
2) Commercial forestry:
Of importance to commercial forestry companies and to resource management agencies are
inventory and mapping applications: collecting harvest information, updating of inventory
information for timber supply, broad forest type, vegetation density, and biomass
measurements.
• clear cut mapping / regeneration assessment
• burn delineation
• infrastructure mapping / operations support
• forest inventory
• biomass estimation
• species inventory
3) Environmental monitoring
Conservation authorities are concerned with monitoring the quantity, health, and diversity of
the Earth's forests.
• deforestation (rainforest, mangrove colonies)
• species inventory
• watershed protection (riparian strips)
• coastal protection (mangrove forests)
• forest health and vigour
Canadian requirements for forestry application information differ considerably from
international needs, due in part to contrasts in tree size, species diversity (monoculture vs.
species rich forest), and agroforestry practices. The level of accuracy and resolution of data
required to address respective forestry issues differs accordingly. Canadian agencies have
extensive a priori knowledge of their forestry resources and present inventory and mapping
needs are often capably addressed by available data sources.
For Canadian applications requirements, high accuracy (for accurate information content),
multispectral information, fine resolution, and data continuity are the most important. There
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are requirements for large volumes of data, and reliable observations for seasonal coverage.
There is a need to balance spatial resolution with the required accuracy and costs of the data.
Resolution capabilities of 10 m to 30 m are deemed adequate for forest cover mapping,
identifying and monitoring clearcuts, burn and fire mapping, collecting forest harvest
information, and identifying general forest damage. Spatial coverage of 100 - 10000 km2 is
appropriate for district to provincial scale forest cover and clear cut mapping, whereas 1-100
km2 coverage is the most appropriate for site specific vegetation density and volume studies.
Tropical forest managers will be most concerned with having a reliable data source, capable of
imaging during critical time periods, and therefore unhindered by atmospheric conditions.

Section 5.21 - Species Identification & Typing

Background
Forest cover typing and species identification are critical to both forest conservation managers
and forestry companies interested in their supply inventory. Forest cover typing can consist of
reconnaissance mapping over a large area, while species inventories are highly detailed
measurements of stand contents and characteristics (tree type, height, density).
Why remote sensing?
Remote sensing provides a means of quickly identifying and delineating various forest types, a
task that would be difficult and time consuming using traditional ground surveys. Data is
available at various scales and resolutions to satisfy local or regional demands Large scale
species identification can be performed with multispectral, hyperspectral, or airphoto data,
while small scale cover type delineation can be performed by radar or multispectral data
interpretation. Both imagery and the extracted information can be incorporated into a GIS to
further analyze or present with ancillary data, such as slopes, ownership boundaries, or roads.
Hyperspectral imagery can provide a very high spatial resolution while capturing extremely fine
radiometric resolution data. This type of detailed spectral information can be used to generate
signatures of vegetation species and certain stresses (e.g. infestations) on trees. Hyperspectral
data offers a unique view of the forest cover, available only through remote sensing
technology.
Data requirements
Requirements depend on the scale of study to be conducted. For regional reconnaissance
mapping, moderate area coverage, with a sensor sensitive to differences in forest cover
(canopy texture, leaf density, spectral reflection) is needed. Multitemporal datasets also
contribute phenology information that may aid in interpretation by incorporating the seasonal
changes of different species.

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For detailed species identification associated with forest stand analysis, very high resolution,
multispectral data is required. Being able to view the images in stereo helps in the delineation
and assessment of density, tree height, and species. In general, monitoring biophysical
properties of forests requires multispectral information and finely calibrated data.
Canada vs. International
Current sources of data used operationally for forest cover typing and species identification
applications within Canada are aerial photography, orthophotography, Landsat TM, and SPOT
data. Landsat data are the most appropriate for executing reconnaissance level forest surveys,
while aerial photography and digital orthophoto are the preferred data source for extracting
stand and local inventory information. Airphotos are the most appropriate operational data
source for stand level measurements including species typing. SAR sensors such as RADARSAT
are useful where persistent cloud cover limits the usefulness of optical sensors.
In humid tropical areas, forest resource assessments and
measurements are difficult to obtain because of cloudy
conditions hindering conventional remote sensing
efforts, and difficult terrain impeding ground surveys. In
this situation, reliability of data acquisition is more
crucial than resolution or frequency of imaging. An
active sensor may be the only feasible source of data,
and its reliability will facilitate regular monitoring. Radar
will serve this purpose, and an airborne sensor is
sufficient for high resolution requirements such as cover typing. This type of data can be used
for a baseline map , while coarser resolution data can provide updates to any changes in the
baseline.

Case study (example)

Inventory Branch, Ministry of Forests, Province of British Columbia, Canada
This is an example of the operational requirements and procedure for a provincial department
involved in a number of forestry applications using remote sensing technology.
The Inventory Branch is responsible for maintaining a database of Crown Land information
concerning historical, stand, and sustainable forest management information which is used for
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determining timber volumes and annual allowable cuts. The inventory itself is performed every
ten years with 1:15,000 scale aerial photography, and updated with satellite imagery every two
years.
The Inventory branch requires geocoded, terrain corrected data. For most studies, the branch
currently buys precision geocoded data, and for large scale mapping projects, they will cut costs
by obtaining systematic versus precision geocoded data. Further processing is done in-house on
workstations. Some location data are now being provided by the private sector, conducting
field traverses with GPS (global positioning system) data.
Present planimetric accuracy requirements are 20 m, but will be more demanding in the near
future. Airphotos and orthophotos meet requirements and are good for interpretation but are
limited by expense. Data continuity is important, as monitoring will be an ongoing operation.
TM data for updating maps is reasonable in cost and information content for interim
monitoring.
Much of the updating in the Ministry of Forests is done with TM data, either brought digitally
into a MicroStation workstation to perform heads-up digitizing, or in transparency form with
the image overlain onto existing maps using a projection device. The Ministry of Forests is
presently investigating the potential of a number of data sources with various levels of
processing applied, and integration possibilities to assess accuracy versus cost relationships.
The Ministry of Forests in B.C. employs an expert system SHERI (System of Hierarchical Expert
Systems for Resource Inventories) to provide a link between remotely sensed data, GIS and
growth and yield modelling. The end to end information flow is complete with the generation
of final products including forest cover maps incorporating planimetric and administrative
boundary information.
Case study (example)

Hyperspectral image and recent stem count from hyperspectral imagery

Forest companies use hyperspectral imagery to obtain stem counts, stand attributes, and for
mapping of land cover in the forest region of interest. These images depict a false colour
hyperspectral image of a Douglas fir forest on Vancouver Island at a resolution of 60 cm. The
imagery was acquired in the fall of 1995 by the CASI (Compact Airborne Imaging Spectrometer).
Attributes obtained from the imagery (a subset is shown) include:

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 • Stand Area (hectares) 9.0
• Total number of trees 520
• Tree density (stems/ha) 58
• Crown closure (%) 12.46
• Average tree crown area (sq m) 21.47
The corresponding land cover map contains the following classes:
• Dark green: conifers
• Green: lower branches
• Light purple: gravel
• Yellow: deciduous
• Orange: dry ground cover
• Red: wet ground cover
• Blue (light): water
• Blue (dark): deep or clear water

All imagery courtesy of MacMillan Bloedel and ITRES Research Limited.

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Section 5.22 – Burn Mapping
Background
Fire is part of the natural reproductive cycle of many forests revitalizing growth by opening
seeds and releasing nutrients from the soil. However, fires can also spread quickly and threaten
settlements and wildlife, eliminate timber supplies, and temporarily damage conservation
areas. Information is needed to help control the extent of fire, and to assess how well the forest
is recovering following a burn.
Why remote sensing?
Remote sensing can be used to detect and monitor forest fires and the regrowth following a
fire. As a surveillance tool, routine sensing facilitates observing remote and inaccessible areas,
alerting monitoring agencies to the presence and extent of a fire. NOAA AVHRR thermal data
and GOES meteorological data can be used to delineate active fires and remaining "hot-spots"
when optical sensors are hindered by smoke, haze, and /or darkness. Comparing burned areas
to active fire areas provides information as to the rate and direction of movement of the fire.
Remote sensing data can also facilitate route planning for both access to, and escape from, a
fire, and supports logistics planning for fire fighting and identifying areas not successfully
recovering following a burn.
Years following a fire, updates on the health and regenerative status of an area can be obtained
by a single image, and multitemporal scenes can illustrate the progression of vegetation from
pioneer species back to a full forest cover.
Data requirements
While thermal data is best for detecting and mapping ongoing fires, multispectral (optical and
near-infrared) data are preferred for observing stages of growth and phenology in a previous
burn area. The relative ages and area extent of burned areas can be defined and delineated,
and health of the successive vegetation assessed and monitored. Moderate spatial coverage,
high to moderate resolution, and a low turnaround time are required for burn mapping. On the
other hand, fire detection and monitoring requires a large spatial coverage, moderate
resolution and a very quick turnaround to facilitate response.
Canadian vs. International
Requirements for burn mapping are the same, except where cloud cover precludes the used of
optical images. In this case, radar can be used to monitor previous burn areas, and is effective
from the second year following a burn, onwards.

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Case study (example) Northwest Territory Burn
Burned and burning forest near Norman Wells, NWT
In the western Northwest Territories along the Mackenzie
River, boreal forest covers much of the landscape. Natives
rely on the forests for hunting and trapping grounds, and
the sensitive northern soil and permafrost are protected
from erosion by the forest cover. In the early 1990's a
huge fire devastated the region immediately east of the
Mackenzie and threatened the town of Fort Norman, a
native town south of Norman Wells.
The extent of the burned area, and the areas still burning,
can be identified on this NOAA scene, as dark regions (A).
The lake in the upper right is Great Bear Lake, and the lake to the lower right is Great Slave
Lake. The distance represented by the yellow line is approximately 580 km. The course of the
Mackenzie River can be seen to the left of these lakes. Fort Norman (B) is located at the
junction of the Mackenzie River and Great Bear River, leading out of Great Bear Lake. At that
location, the fire is on both sides of the river. Norman Wells (C) is known as an oil producing
area, and storage silos, oil rigs, homes, and the only commercial airport in that part of the
country were threatened. Fires in this region are difficult to access because of the lack of roads
into the region. Winter roads provide only seasonal access to vehicles in this part of Canada.
The small population base also makes it difficult to control, let alone fight, a fire of this
magnitude.
Haze and smoke reflect a large amount of energy at shorter wavelengths and appear as blue on
this image.

Section 5.6 - Land Cover / Biomass Mapping

Background
Land cover mapping serves as a basic inventory of land resources for all levels of government,
environmental agencies, and private industry throughout the world. Whether regional or local
in scope, remote sensing offers a means of acquiring and presenting land cover data in a timely
manner. Land cover includes everything from crop type, ice and snow, to major biomes
including tundra, boreal or rainforest, and barren land.
Regional land cover mapping is performed by almost anyone who is interested in obtaining an
inventory of land resources, to be used as a baseline map for future monitoring and land
management. Programs are conducted around the world to observe regional crop conditions as
well as investigating climatic change on a regional level through biome monitoring. Biomass
mapping provides quantifiable estimates of vegetation cover, and biophysical information such
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as leaf area index (LAI), net primary productivity (NPP) and total biomass accumulations (TBA)
measurements - important parameters for measuring the health of our forests, for example.
Why remote sensing?
There is nothing as practical and cost efficient for
obtaining a timely regional overview of land cover
than remote sensing techniques. Remote sensing data
are capable of capturing changes in plant phenology
(growth) throughout the growing season, whether
relating to changes in chlorophyll content (detectable
with VIR) or structural changes (via radar). For regional
mapping, continuous spatial coverage over large areas
is required. It would be difficult to detect regional
trends with point source data. Remote sensing fulfills
this requirement, as well as providing multispectral, multisource, and multitemporal
information for an accurate classification of land cover. The multisource example image shows
the benefit of increased information content when two data sources are integrated. On the left
is TM data, and on the right it has been merged with airborne SAR.

Data requirements
For continental and global scale vegetation studies, moderate resolution data (1km) is
appropriate, since it requires less storage space and processing effort, a significant
consideration when dealing with very large area projects. Of course the requirements depend
entirely on the scope of the application. Wetland mapping for instance, demands a critical
acquisition period and a high resolution requirement.
Coverage demand will be very large for regional types of surveying. One way to adequately
cover a large area and retain high resolution, is to create mosaics of the area from a number of
scenes.

Land cover information may be time sensitive. The identification of crops, for instance canola,
may require imaging on specific days of flowering, and therefore, reliable imaging is
appropriate. Multi-temporal data are preferred for capturing changes in phenology throughout
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the growing season. This information may be used in the classification process to more
accurately discriminate vegetation types based on their growing characteristics.

While optical data are best for land cover mapping, radar imagery is a good replacement in very
cloudy areas.
Case study (example)
NBIOME: Classification of Canada's Land Cover

A major initiative of the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing is the development of an objective,
reproducible classification of Canada's landcover. This classification methodology is used to
produce a baseline map of the major biomes and land cover in Canada, which can then be
compared against subsequent classifications to observe changes in cover. These changes may
relate to regional climatic or anthropogenic changes affecting the landscape.
The classification is based on NOAA-AVHRR LAC (Local Area Coverage) (1km) data. The coarse
resolution is required to ensure efficient processing and storage of the data, when dealing with
such a large coverage area. Before the classification procedure, cloud -cover reduced
composites of the Canadian landmass, each spanning 10 day periods are created. In the
composite, the value for each pixel used is the one most cloud free of the ten days. This is
determined by the highest normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) value, since low NDVI
is indicative of cloud cover (low infrared reflectance, high visible reflectance). The data also
underwent a procedure to minimize atmospheric, bidirectional, and contamination effects.
The composites consist of four channels, mean reflectance of AVHRR channels 1 and 2, NDVI
and area under the (temporal NDVI) curve. 16 composites (in 1993) were included in a
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customized land cover classification procedure (named: classification by progressive
generalization), which is neither a supervised nor unsupervised methodology, but incorporates
aspects of both. The classification approach is based on finding dominant spectral clusters and
conducting progressive merging methodology. Eventually the clusters are labelled with the
appropriate land cover classes. The benefit is that the classification is more objective than a
supervised approach, while not controlling the parameters of clustering, which could alter the
results.
The result of this work is an objective, reproducible classification of Canada's land cover.

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