(CLASSIFICTION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES)

PERIODIC TABLE -- It is the table which classifies all the elements on the basis of their properties. this table helps in
systematic study of elements.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW--
The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their ATOMIC MASSES.
MENDELEEV PERIODIC TABLE--
In this table elements are arranged in increasing order of Their at. Masses.
1.) It consists of nine vertical columns called as Groups (0 – VIII).
2.) It consists of six horizontal rows called as PERIODS. They are numbered 1 to 6.
IMPORTANCE OF MENDELEEV P.T--
a) It helps in systematic study of elements.
b) Helps in discovery of new elements like GALLIUM (eka – aluminium) & GERMANIUM (eka – silicon)
DEFECTS--
a) Hydrogen was placed with Noble gases which was wrong.
b) Position of Isotopes was wrong because on the basis of at. Wt. each Isotope occupy different position.
c) This P. T included 63 Elements. There was no space for new elements.
COMPETITION BOOSTERS --
a) Law of Triad was given by DOBERIENIER.
b) First P.T was TELLURICS SCREW given by HELIX.
c) Law of Octaves was given by NEWLAND.
d) Lothar Meyer system depends upon at. vol.
MODERN PERIODIC LAW --
The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their ATOMIC NUMBERS.
PERIODICITY --
The repetition of elements of similar properties after a fixed interval of At. No. is called Periodicity.
Cause -- In any group each element has similar outer electronic configuration (same valence electrons)
For E. g – Li = 1s2,2s1, Na = 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s1, K = 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s1.
Q.) What are Magic numbers?
Ans. In any group, the elements of similar properties undergo repetition after an interval of 2,8,8,18,18,32. These no.
are called as Magic no.
LONG FORM OF P.T :-( Bohr’s Periodic Table)
1. There are present 18 vertical columns called as Groups(families). all the elements in each group have similar outer
electronic configuration & similar properties.
2. There are 7 horizontal rows called as periods.
1st period is shortest period = 2 elements.
2nd & 3rd period are short periods = 8 elements each.
4th & 5th period are long periods = 18 elements each.
6th period is the longest period = 32 elements.
7th period is Incomplete period = 28 elements.
3. In this P.T ,14 elements of 6th period (Lanthanoids or Lanthanides from Cerium-58 {Ce} to Lutetium {Lu}-71) and 14
elements of 7th period (Actinides from Thorium- 90 to Lawrentium-103) are placed in separate panels at the bottom.
IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements with At. No. above 103 --
0- nil (n)
1 – un (u)
2 – bi (b)
3 – tri (t)
4 – quad (q) --ium
5- pent (p)
6 – hex (h)
7 – sept (s)
8 – oct (o)
9 - enn (e)
For E. g – 109 = Unnilennium (Une)
119 = Ununennium (Uue)
CLASSIFICATION --
Periodic table is classified into 4 blocks.
A.) s – block elements -- These are the elements in which last electron enters into “s” orbital of valence shell. Their
general E.C is ns1-2 where n = 2 to 7.
These are divided into two groups --
Group 1 – Alkali metals (ns1) – highly soluble in water.
Group 2 - Alkaline Earth metals (ns2)—less soluble in water.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS --
1. They are soft metals having low M. P & B. P, low [Link].
2. They are very reactive & readily form ions.
3. They are reducing agents and form ionic compounds.
B.) p – block elements -- These are the elements in which last electron enters into “p “orbital of the valence shell. Their
general valence shell E. C is (ns2, np1-6) where n = 2 [Link] are divided into six groups –
Group 13 – Boron Family (ns2, np1)
Group 14 – Carbon Family (ns2, np2)
Group 15- Nitrogen Family (ns2, np3)
Group 16 – Oxygen Family (ns2, np4)
Group 17 – Halogens (ns2, np5)
Group 18 - Noble gas family (ns2, np6)
General Characteristics --
1. Their [Link] are relatively high as compared to s- block elements.
2. A regular gradation from metallic to non-metallic character on moving left to right.
3. Mostly form covalent compounds.
C.) d- block elements-- These are the elements in which last electron enters into d -orbital of the penultimate shell.
They contain elements from group 3 – 12. Their general electronic configuration is (n-1) d1-10ns1-2.
These are divided into 4 series --
1st (3d transition series) from 21Sc - 30Zn
2nd (4d transition series) from 39Y - 48Cd
3rd (5d transition series) from 57La ,72Hf - 80Hg

4th (6d transition series) from 89Ac,104Rf – 112

General Characteristics --
1. They are heavy metals with high M.P & B.P.
2. Most of them form coloured compounds & complexes.
3. They are generally good catalyst.

4. They are generally Paramagnetic (at least one unpaired electron & are slightly attracted under the magnetic field)
5. They exhibit several oxidation states. (Mn shows highest oxidation state of +7 in KMnO4)
D.) f – block elements -- These are the elements in which last electron enters into f -orbital of the anti-penultimate shell.
Their general E.C is (n-2) f 0-14 (n-1) d 0-2 [Link] are classified into two series.
Lanthanide series (4f) - 58 Ce - 71Lu
Th
Actinide series (5f) - 90 - 103Lr

Q.) d – block elements are called as transition elements. why?

Ans. Because they are present in between s- block metals and p- block nonmetals.
Q.) f – block elements are called as inner transition elements. why?
Ans. Because they are present to the inner side of d – block elements.
COMPETITION BOOSTERS
a.) GROUP-15 elements are called as PNICOGENS because they are poisonous suffocating gases and chemical formers.
b.) GROUP-16 elements are called as CHALCOGENS because they are ore formers.
c.) GROUP –17 elements are called as HALOGENS because they are sea salt formers.
d.) Technetium (43) was the first synthetic element.
e.) Promethium (61) – P r was first synthetic radioactive element.
f.) Actinides are radioactive elements so present in very small quantity in earth, so known as Rare Earth elements.
g.) The elements after Uranium (92) are known as trans uranic elements or synthetic elements and were discovered by
SEABERG.
h.) Cu, Ag and Au are Coinage Metals.
i.) p – block elements are called as Representative elements.
ATOMIC RADIUS --
The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons is called as atomic radius.
a.) Covalent Radius -- It is the one half of internuclear distance between two covalently bonded identical atoms.
r covalent = ½ [inter nuclear distance]
For E. g, In Cl2 molecule, internuclear distance is 198 pm therefore the covalent radius is 198/2= 99pm.
b.) Vander waal ’s radius -- It is one half of the internuclear distance between two identical non bonded atoms of
adjacent molecules.
r van. = ½ [inter nuclear distance]

c.) Metallic Radius --It is the one half of the inter nuclear distance between two adjacent metal atoms bonded with
metallic bond.
d.) Ionic Radius -- The distance from centre of nucleus to the outermost point up to which any ion can exert its effect is
called as Ionic radius.

Q.) Why the size of cation is always smaller than its parent atom?
Ans. This is because in a cation, effective nuclear charge (Zeff) will be greater than parent atom and hence will be smaller.
𝟏
At. size 𝜶
𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇

+𝑰.𝑬
For E. g - Na → 𝑵𝒂+ + 𝟏e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
e-=11 e-=10
p+=11 p+=11
𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆
Q.) Why the size of anion is always greater than its parent atom?
Ans. This is because in an anion, effective nuclear charge ( 𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 ) will be smaller than parent atom and hence size will be
greater.
 𝟏
At. Size 𝜶
𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇

For E g - Cl + 1e- → 𝑪𝒍-

−𝑬.𝑨

(2,8,7) (2,8,8 )
e-=17 e-=18
p+=17 p+=17
𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔
TRENDS IN RADIUS --
1. On moving down the group at. radius inc. due to inc. in the no. of shells.
Li Na K Rb Cs ------------------- increases.
2. On moving left to right in any period as the [Link]. inc. due to which 𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇 inc. so at. Radius dec.
Li Be B C N ---------decreases.
Q.) Noble gases have largest size in their respective periods, why?
Ans. This is because Noble gases have Vander waal’s radius which is larger than covalent and metallic radius.
R wander. > R metallic > R covalent
Q.) The atomic radius of Oxygen is greater than Nitrogen atom. Explain
Ans. 7N = 1s2,2s2,2p3 ↑ ↑ ↑
 8O =1s2,2s2,2p4 ↑↓ ↑ ↑
In oxygen electron pairing occurs in p orbital due to which electron – electron repulsion occurs, so size becomes larger
than nitrogen.
COMPETITION BOOSTERS ---
1. Ionic size of alkali metal - Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+
𝟏
2. Hydration 𝜶
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆

3. When a positive ion is surrounded by O2- ion of water and negative ion by H+ ion this process is called as hydration.
4. Size of Hydrated ion in alkali metals - Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
5. Movability of hydrated ions in aqueous solution - Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+
6. In iso electronic species size dec. with inc. of at. No.
N3- > O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
[Link] cation =H+, Largest cation = Cs+
Ionisation Enthalpy (∆ I H) - The minimum amount of energy required to remove most loosely bounded electron
(outermost) from isolated neutral gaseous atom is called as I.E. For E g -
+𝑰𝑬
Na - 1e- → Na+
Successive Ionization Enthalpies - The IE required to remove successive electrons is called successive [Link]. For e g.
Al → Al+ + 1 e - ----∆iH1
 Al → Al2+ + 2e- ---- ∆iH2
Al → Al3+ + 3e- ---- ∆iH3
Q.) The value of successive IEs goes on increasing why?
∆iH1 < ∆iH2 < ∆iH3
Ans. This is because on removing electron, the value of Zeff goes on increasing .so I.E increases.
I.E ∝ Zeff
Factors affecting IE --
1. Effective nuclear charge -- greater the value of Z eff, greater will be I.E and vice versa.
I.E ∝ Zeff
2. Atomic size -- Larger the size of atom, smaller will be I.E and vice versa.
𝟏
I.E ∝
𝒂𝒕.𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆

3. Screening/Shielding effect-- Greater the screening effect, smaller will be I.E and vice versa.
𝟏
I.E ∝
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕

4. Penetration effect-- Greater the penetration effect, greater will be I.E and vice versa.
s > p > d > f
 I.E ∝ P.E
5. Electronic configuration -- The extra stable electronic configuration (exactly half filled or full filled) cannot easily loose
electron, so I.E will be high.
TREND OF I.E - In a group as the no. of shell inc., therefore I.E dec. whereas in a period as the nuclear charge inc. the
valence electrons are tightly bound thus I.E inc.
Q.) First I.E of Nitrogen is greater than Oxygen Explain?
Ans. 7N = 1s2,2s2,2p3 ↑ ↑ ↑
8O = 1s2,2s2,2p4 ↑↓ ↑ ↑
Nitrogen has extra stable exactly half -filled EC so removal of electron will be difficult. Hence high I E but in Oxygen,
removal of electron is easy due to e- - e- repulsion.
Q.) Why 2nd I.E of Oxygen is high?
Ans. After losing one electron oxygen will acquire extra stable exactly half -filled EC due to which removal of 2nd electron
becomes difficult so I. E is high.
Q.) Noble gases have highest I.E in their respective periods Why?
Ans. Noble gases have extra stable exactly completely filled E.C due to which removal of electron will be difficult so
highest I.E.
Q.) Helium has highest I.E Why?
Ans. This is because He is an inert gas & has smallest at. size among inert gases.
 𝟏
I.E ∝
𝒂𝒕.𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆

Q.) Beryllium has greater I.E than Boron why?

Ans. 4Be = 1s2,2s2
5B = 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p1
1. In Beryllium E.C is extra stable completely filled so removal of electron is difficult.
2. The penetration effect will be greater in Be so removal of electron will be difficult.
NOTE - Cs has lowest I.E so it is most electropositive element.
ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY OR ELECTRON AFFINITY (E.A)
The amount of energy released when an electron is added into neutral gaseous atom is called as electron gain enthalpy
and is represented by ∆EG H.
−𝑬𝑨
Cl + 1e- → Cl-
Q.) The second electron gain enthalpy is positive (endothermic) why?
Ans. When the 1st electron is added anion will be produced & energy will be released. now when 2nd electron is added,
the repulsion b/w this anion & electron [Link] addition of 2nd electron is difficult so to add this electron energy is
consumed. Hence the process is endothermic.
Factors affecting E.A ---
1. Effective nuclear charge – Greater the value of Zeff greater will be the energy released.
 ∆EG H 𝜶 Zeff
2. Atomic size – Smaller the atomic size easier will be the addition of electron & greater will be the energy released &
vice versa.
𝟏
∆EG H 𝜶
𝒂𝒕.𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆

3. Screening effect – Greater the screening effect smaller will be the amount of energy released & vice versa.
𝟏
∆EG H 𝜶
𝑺𝑬

4. Penetration effect – Greater the value of P.E greater will be E.A.

∆EG H 𝜶 P.E
5. Electronic configuration – Exactly half filled or full filled EC are extra stable so addition of electron will be difficult &
hence less energy will be released.
TRENDS OF E.A – In a group value of EA dec. as at. Size inc. whereas in a period the value of EA [Link] the at. Size dec.
due to inc. in Zeff.
Q.) Halogens have highest (most negative) value of EA Why?
Ans. Halogens have ns2, np5 configuration and increased Zeff so they easily gain one electron to complete their p orbital
(extra stability) So their EA will be highest.
Q.) Noble gases have positive EA (lowest value) why?
Ans. Noble gases have completely filled EC so addition of electron will be Impossible so they have positive EA.
Q.) The electron gain enthalpy of Nitrogen, Oxygen & Fluorine is less than their corresponding elements Phosphorus,
Sulphur & Chlorine respectively why?
Ans. In Fluorine the incoming electron is added into 2p orbital while in Cl it goes to 3p orbital but 2p orbital has small
size and high electron density so addition of electron becomes difficult due to electron -electron repulsion so EA
becomes less than Cl.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY-
It is the tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair (bond pair) of electrons towards itself in a covalent bond. It is
represented by x(kii). For E g
F O Cl N Br I C H
4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.1
Trends of Electronegativity-
In a group EN dec. whereas in a period it inc.
𝟏
EN ∝ ∝ 𝒏𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚
𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚

Factors affecting Electronegativity-

1. Hybridisation - C-C= SP3 Hy. (25% s-character)
C=C – Sp2Hy. (33.33% s- character)
C≡ 𝑪 – Sp Hy. (50% s- character)
Greater the percentage of s- character greater will be electronegativity.
[Link] state- It is defined as a residual charge which an atom acquires when all its surrounding atoms are removed
as ions.
Greater the oxidation state greater will be electronegativity. For E g. Fe3+ > Fe2+
1.96 1.83
Some physical and chemical behaviours-
a) OXIDES-
1. Down the group basic character of oxides Increases.
Li2O < Na2O < K2O < Rb2O < Cs2O
2. Along the period acidic character increases.
Na2O < MgO < Al2O3 < SiO2 < P2O5 < SO3 < Cl2O7
Strongly basic Basic amphoteric acidic strongly acidic
b) HYDROXIDES-
1. Down a group basic character inc.
Li OH < NaOH < KOH < Rb OH < Cs OH
2. Along a period basic character decrease (acidic character increases)
NaOH > Mg (OH)2 > Al (OH)3 > Si (OH)4 > H3PO4 > H2SO4 > HClO4(per chloric acid)
St. base amphoteric St. acidic
c) HYDRIDES
1. Acidic character & reducing power of Hydrides inc. down the group. for E g.
a) HF < HCl < HBr < HI
b) NH3 < H2O < HF
basic neutral acidic
COMPETITION BOOSTERS
a) Ra (88) is 𝜶 emitter & produces two noble gases, He & Rn.
b) All natural radioactive elements finally produce Pb (82).
c) Bismuth (Bi) is the heaviest non -radioactive element
d) Group 3 elements are bridge elements.
e) Only Hg (80) is liquid at 25℃ & 1 atm.
f) He has highest IE.
g) Highest density(liquid)=Hg.
h) Highest density(solid)= Osmium
i) Highest M.P (metals)=W [3410℃]
j) Highest oxidation state= Osmium (+8)
k) Highest M.P(non -metals) =Carbon (3737℃)
l) Lowest B.P = Helium (4.2K)

DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP-
The elements of any group (period 2nd & 3rd elements) resemble in their properties in a diagonal way is called Diagonal
relationship.
CAUSE-
The elements which are present diagonally to each other has smaller ionic & atomic radius so their physical & chemical
properties become similar. For E g.
2nd ---- Li Be B C
3rd---- Na Mg Al Si P
OXIDATION & REDUCTION
Oxidation – Loss of Electron Reduction – Gain of Electron
Reductant—Loses electron Oxidant--- Gains Electron
& itself oxidises & itself reduces.
Oxidation—Increase in Oxidation no. Reduction—Decrease in Oxidation no.
0 +2 +2 0

For E g. Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

 OHR-- Zn - 2e- → Zn2

RHR-- 2H+ + 2e- → H2

-----------------------------

Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
Q.) Major difference between Metals & Non- metals-
Ans.
METALS NON-METALS
1. They are located on the left side of PT They are located on the right side of PT.
2. They have 1,2 or 3 valence electrons They have 5,6 or 7 valence electrons.
3. They are usually solid at room temperature with high They are usually gases or liquids at room temperature
M.P & B.P. with low M.P & B.P.
4. They are good conductor of heat & electricity. They are poor conductor of heat & electricity.
5. They are good reducing agents. They are good oxidising agents.