Chapter # 1 Constituent and Structures

• Isaac Asimov's book "The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar": "Our Sun is a second-
or third-generation star. All of the rocky and metallic material we stand on, the iron in our
blood, the calcium in our teeth, the carbon in our genes were produced billions of years ago in
the interior of a red giant star. We are made of star-stuff."The solar system is a collection of
planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other objects that orbit around a central star called the
Sun. It is estimated to be about 4.6 billion years old and is located in the Milky Way galaxy,
about 25,000 light-years from the galactic center. The solar system consists of eight planets,
four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and four gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune), as well as dwarf planets and other small bodies. The solar system is also
home to the Kuiper Belt, a region of icy objects beyond Neptune, and the Oort Cloud, a
hypothetical cloud of comets located at the outermost edge of the solar system. The study of
the solar system and its objects is known as planetary science, and it has provided us with
valuable insights into the formation and evolution of our own planet and the universe as a
whole.
Basic Concepts of Universe
Comets
• Objects made up of ice, metals and dust moves around the sun.
• 3 parts solid center, head around center of dust and ice, long tail.
Asteroids (Star Like)
• Comets without ice
• Small rocky objects that revolve around sun, CERES
• Most asteroids are formed between Mars and Jupitar.
Meteoroids
• Small iron and rocky objects resulting from collision of asteroids.
• These are also formed when comets are disintegrated
• When they entre earths atmosphere burning due to friction meteor

•
Nebula
• Greek words means cloud
• In sky, there are cloud like objects composed of gas and dust which are classified as Nebula.
Constellation
• These are groups of star in sky.
UFO: unidentified flaying object
The Universe
• Total of all that exists or has existed before. Universe is composed of billion of galaxies. 10 11
to 10 12
Star
• Astronomical object composed of hot gases that emits electromagnetic radiations, especially
light.
Black Hole
• Theoretical object of extreme density and gravitational field that nothing can escape from it,
therefore, it appears totally black.
Light year
• Distance travelled by light in one year.
Astronomy.
• It is a branch of science which investigates all the matter and energy in the universe.
Cosmology.
• Astronomy also includes cosmology, which is the study of the structure, origin and evolution
of the universe.
Astrology.
• It is the study of the movements and relative position of the celestial bodies.
Astronomical Units
• The astronomical system of units (also known as the cgs system) is a system of units used in
astronomy to measure physical quantities such as distance, mass, and time. It is based on the
centimeter, gram, and second units of measurement. In this system, the basic unit of length is
the centimeter (cm), the basic unit of mass is the gram (g), and the basic unit of time is the
second (s). Other units derived from these basic units include:
o The astronomical unit (AU) is a unit of distance defined as the average distance
between the Earth and the Sun, which is approximately 1.496 x 10^13 cm.
o Light year: As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light year is
the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days) which is
9.4607 x 1012 KM
o The parsec (pc) is a unit of distance commonly used in astronomy to measure distances
to stars and galaxies. It is defined as the distance at which one astronomical unit
subtends an angle of one arcsecond, which is approximately 3.086 x 10^18 cm.
o The solar mass (M☉) is a unit of mass commonly used in astronomy to describe the
mass of stars or other celestial bodies. It is defined as the mass of the Sun, which is
approximately 1.989 x 10^33 g.
o The year (yr.) is a unit of time commonly used in astronomy to describe long periods of
time. It is defined as the time it takes for the Earth to complete one orbit around the
Sun, which is approximately 3.1557 x 10^7 s.
One astronomical unit (AU) represents the mean distance between the Earth and out sun. The
AU is approximately 150 million kilometers or 93 million miles. In 2012. The International
Astronomical Union defined the distance to be 149,597,870,700 meters.
 1 AU = 149,597,870,700 kilometers

Big Bang Theory

• Georges Lemaître, (1894-1966), Belgian cosmologist, Catholic priest, and father of the Big
Bang theory, The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific explanation for the
origin and evolution of the universe. It states that the universe began as a singularity, a point of
infinite density and temperature, around 13.8 billion years ago. The Big Bang theory is
supported by a variety of observational and theoretical evidence, including the cosmic
microwave background radiation and the abundance of light elements in the universe. Here are
some of the key points of the Big Bang theory:
o Origin of the universe: The universe began as a singularity, a point of infinite density
and temperature, in a massive explosion known as the Big Bang.
o Expansion of the universe: The universe has been expanding since the Big Bang, with
galaxies and clusters of galaxies moving away from each other. The expansion is
supported by the observation of redshift in the light from distant galaxies.
o Cosmic microwave background radiation: The cosmic microwave background
radiation (CMB) is a faint, low-energy radiation that permeates the universe. It is
believed to be the residual heat left over from the Big Bang.
o Formation of galaxies and stars: The universe evolved from a hot, dense state to a
cool, diffuse state, allowing the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets. The first
galaxies are believed to have formed around 400 million years after the Big Bang.
o Abundance of light elements: The Big Bang theory predicts the relative abundance of
light elements in the universe, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium. Observations
have confirmed that these elements are present in the universe in the predicted amounts.
o Dark matter and dark energy: The universe contain significant amounts of dark
matter and dark energy, which are still poorly understood but are believed to play a
critical role in the evolution of the universe.
o Future of Universe: There are several theories about the future of the universe, which
are based on our current understanding of the laws of physics and the observations we
have made about the universe.
 The Heat Death: This theory suggests that the universe will continue to expand
and cool until all matter is uniformly distributed and the temperature of the
universe reaches a state of maximum entropy. This would result in a cold, dark,
and lifeless universe.
 The Big Crunch: The Big Crunch theory suggests that if the universe contains
enough matter and gravity, the expansion of the universe will eventually stop
and it will start to contract, ultimately collapsing in a reverse of the Big Bang.
This would result in a high-density singularity that could potentially create a
new universe.
 The Big Rip: The Big Rip theory suggests that the universe will continue to
expand at an ever-increasing rate until the gravitational forces that hold galaxies
 and stars together are overcome by dark energy, a mysterious force that is
causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate. This would result in a
universe that is torn apart at its seams.
 The Oscillating Universe: The Oscillating Universe theory suggests that the
universe goes through a cycle of expansion and contraction, with each cycle
being a new Big Bang followed by a Big Crunch. This theory suggests that the
universe is infinite in time and space, and that it will continue to cycle through
these periods of expansion and contraction indefinitely.
 The Multiverse: The Multiverse theory suggests that our universe is just one of
many in a larger multiverse. In this theory, each universe has different physical
laws and properties, and the fate of our universe may depend on the properties
of the other universes in the multiverse.
Age of the universe and methods to determine it
The time from hot big band theory to the present age 13.8 billion years.
Methods
• Age of galaxies from the travel time to light
• The light from distant galaxies is red shifted.
• Age of the universe from expansion
• An alternative approach to estimating is the age of the universe is to measure the
“Hubble Constant”. The Hubble constant is a measure of the current expansion rate of
the universe.
• If the universe is flat and composed mostly of matter, then the age of the universe =
2/3H
• If the universe has a very low density of matter, then its extrapolated age is larger = 1/H
Composition of the Universe

Dark matter
• Galaxies are rotating with such speed that the gravity generated by this observable matter could
not possibly hold them together; they should have torn themselves long ago. This leads
scientists to believe that something we cannot see at work.
• They think something we have yet to detect is directly giving these galaxies extra mess,
generating the extra gravity they need to stay intact. This strange matter was called Dark
Matter since it is not visible.
Features of Dark Matter.
• Unlike normal matter, it does not interact with the electromagnetic force.
• It does not absorb, emit or reflect sunlight.
 • Scientists are able to infer its existence only from the gravitation effect.
• Places with concentration of dark matter bend light passing nearby. (Interact with gravity).
• It seems to outweigh visible matter roughly 6 to one making up about 27% of the universe.
Dark Energy
• In 1929, Edward Hubble examined how the wavelength of light emitted by the distant galaxies,
shifts towards the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. He found that fainter, more distant
galaxies showed a larger degree of red shit; closer galaxies, not so much. Hubble determined
that his was because the universe itself is expanding.
• Wherever there are empty spaces in the universe, more is forming every second. So, dark
energy is some kind of energy intrinsic to empty spaces.
Ideas to explain Dark Energy
• Empty spaces have its own energy.
• Idea of Einstein in 1917, idea of cosmological constant, a force that counteract force of gravity.
• Idea of virtual particles (form from nothing and then disappear into nothing again) in empty
spaces. The energy from those particles could be dark energy
• It is unknown kind of energy, fluid or field.
Features of Dark Energy
• It makes up approximately 68% of the universe and appears to be associated with the vacuum
in space.
• It is evenly distributed throughout the universe.
• Even distribution means that dark energy does not have local gravitational effect, but rather a
global effect on the universe. This leads to repulsive force, which tends to accelerate the
expansion
Dark Energy

Stars
• We see many twinkling lights in the night sky. Some of these lights come from objects in space
called stars. The Sun is also a star. Beyond the solar system, billions and billions of stars are
present in space. Every star is a ball of glowing gases which emits energy in the form of heat
and light. Astronomers say that our Sun is a medium-sized star. Some stars are much larger and
some are smaller than our Sun
• Colors of Stars
 o We know that stars emit heat and light in different amounts, so stars have different
temperatures. The color of a star is related to its temperature. The coolest stars have
about 2800oC temperature at their surfaces and appear red. The hottest stars
have28000oC or higher temperatures and look blue. The stars with in-between
temperatures have orange, yellow and white colors. The Sun is a yellow star. It has a
temperature of 5,500 to 6000oC at its surface. Stars that are a little colder than the Sun
look orange. Stars that are a little hotter than the Sun appear white.
• Brightness of Stars
o The brightness of a star depends on two factors:
 Distance of the star from the Earth
 Amount of energy the star emits
o Imagine that you are looking at two stars that are exactly the same distance from the
Earth. The star which emits greater amount of energy will seem brighter than the other.
• Birth of a Star
o We have studied that great clouds of gasses and dust are present in galaxies. Each of
these clouds is called a nebula. Stars are born in nebulae (singular nebula). A nebula
collects more dust and gas during its travel through space. The gas and dust particles
are packed into a hot spinning ball of matter. Such a ball of hot matter is called a
protostar. With the passage of time, a protostar becomes hot enough to produce great
amount of energy. At this stage a protostar is called a star. A star like the Sun emits
light and heat all the time.
• Death of a Star
o The matter of a star is converting into energy. This radiant energy is released into
space. Our star (the Sun) is dying. (Fig. 12.12)
• Red Giant Stage
o Our star (the Sun) has passed five billion years while emitting energy. After the next
five billion years, the hydrogen in the core of the Sun may be used up. The Sun will
start to collapse. Its core will become denser and hotter and the Sun will swell in size. It
will become a red giant. The Sun will be a red giant for only about 500 million years.
• Dwarf Stage
o By and by the Sun in the form of red giant will cool and gravity will make it collapse
inward. Our star will become a white dwarf at this stage. Eventually, the Sun will
become a burn-out black chunk of very dense matter. It will not emit light any more.
This last stage of a star’s life is called a black dwarf.
• Formation of Black hole (Life of a Massive star)
o Black holes are formed as a result of the collapse of massive stars. When a star runs out
of fuel for nuclear fusion, it can no longer produce enough energy to counteract the
force of gravity that is pulling it inward. This causes the star to begin collapsing under
its own weight.
o If the star is massive enough (at least three times the mass of our Sun), the gravitational
collapse becomes so extreme that it creates a singularity, a point of infinite density and
zero volume, at the center of the star. This singularity is surrounded by an event
horizon, a boundary beyond which nothing, not even light, can escape the black hole's
gravitational pull.
o As the star collapses, it releases a tremendous amount of energy in the form of
radiation, which is known as a supernova explosion. This explosion can be so bright
that it outshines an entire galaxy for a brief period of time.
 o Once a black hole is formed, it continues to grow as it absorbs matter from its
surroundings. If a star or other object passes too close to the event horizon, it can be
pulled into the black hole and become part of its mass.
o Black holes are some of the most extreme objects in the universe, and their study has
provided valuable insights into the nature of gravity, the behavior of matter under
extreme conditions, and the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.

Black Hole
It is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light cannot get out. Because no light can
get out, people cannot see black hole.
Types of Black Holes
• Black hole equal to size of an atom (has mass of a large mountain)
• Stellar (has mass 20 times more than the mass of the sun)
• Supermassive (has mass more than 1 million suns together)
Singularity,
A singularity or gravitational singularity is a point at the very center of a black hole. It is a one-
dimensional point that contains enormous amounts of mass in an infinitely small space.
Even Horizon
A black holes’ event horizon is its outer most boundary. This is the point at which the gravitational
Effect of the black hole.

What could be inside a Black Hole

 • Between the event horizon and the singularity there’s nothing but empty space, subjected to
tremendously strong gravitational fields. Once the hydrogen [from the collapsed star] went in,
the theory of gravity tells us it got squeezed into a singularity at the center, and nobody known
what it’s really like there – although it’s certainly not hydrogen anymore.
Event Horizon Telescope Project
• Messier 87 Galaxy
• The bright ring visible in all these images is the black hole’ acceleration disk, where gas being
sucked toward the center gets heated until it begins to glow.

• Difference between Star and Planet

Star Planet
A massive, luminous ball of gas A smaller, non-luminous rocky or gaseous
body that orbits a star
Generates its own energy through nuclear Does not generate its own energy
fusion reactions
Emits light and heat Reflects light from its star
Can have planets orbiting around it Orbits a star
Can have a highly elliptical orbit Has a more circular orbit
Can have a magnetic field Can have a magnetic field or not
Can have a highly variable brightness and Has a relatively stable brightness and
temperature temperature
Can vary in size from small to very large Varies in size from small to relatively
large, but much smaller than a star
Can have a lifespan ranging from millions Can have a lifespan ranging from several
to billions of years million to several billion years, but much
shorter than a star
Galaxy
It is the fundamental unit of the universe. It is composed of hundreds of thousands of stars with gas
and dust.
Classification of Galaxies
Elliptical Galaxies
• Most abundant type of galaxies. However, because of their age and dim qualities, they are
frequently outshone by younger, brighter collection of stars.
• E0 to E7
 Spiral Galaxies
o The star, gas and dust are gathered in spiral arms that spread outward from the galaxy’s
center.
o Classification on the basis of how tightly wound their spiral arms are Sa, Sb, Sc

Irregular Galaxies
No particular shape, smallest galaxies and full of dust and gas
Star formation because of the presence of gas and dust
The Milky Way Galaxy
• Spiral Galaxy,
• It is 100,000 light years in diameter
• The Milky Way is not alone in the sky, it’s part of collection of other galaxies called the local
group.
• Its diameter is 150 light years. Star 1011
• More than 200 million stars
• Nearest galaxy to Milky Way is Andromeda Galaxy.

Solar System
Tiny part of Galaxy and consists of a sun and all objects that travel around it.
Earth
• 3rd planet of solar system
• Distance from sun is 1AU
• Diameter of earth is 12756 km
• Rotation period is 23h 56m 4s
• Year consists of 365.25 days
• Average Temperature 15o C
SUN
Largest object in the solar system, mass is more than 99.8% total mass of solar system
 Composition of Sun
70.6% hydrogen + 27.4% helium+2% metals
Radius is 696,340 km
Sun volume = 332.946 Earths
Three parts of sun core, radiative zone and convective zone

Parts of SUN

The Core of the sun considered to extend from the center to about 25% of the solar radius. It has a
density of about 150 times the density of water. The Core is the only section of the sun the produces
heat through fusion. The temperature is 15 million degrees Celsius. At this temperature, nuclear fusion
occurs, turning four hydrogen nuclei into a single helium nucleus plus a lot energy.
The Radiative Zone, from 25% to 70% of the solar radius, its name is derived from the way energy is
carried outward through this layer, carried by photons as the thermal radiation. The radiative material
is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation transfers the intense heat of the core outwards.
The third part of the solar interior is named the
CONVENTIVE (or convection zone), It is also named after the dominant mode of energy flow in
this layer; heat moves through upward convection. The convention plasma is not dense or hot enough
to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward through radiation. As a result, thermal convection
occurs. Convection is an energy transport by the physical motion of hot material. The hot gas rises and
gives up heat to the surrounding cooling gas. The cool gas sinks.
Atmosphere of Sun
Photosphere
This is lower atmosphere of the sun and the part we see. Temperature is 5800K.
Chromosphere
2000Km thick layer its name comes from the Greek root chroma (meaning color), for it appears bright
red when viewed during a solar eclipse. A thin transition region, where temperature rise sharply,
separates the chromosphere from the vast corona above.
Corona
The uppermost portion of the Sun’s atmosphere is called the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter
than the sun’s surface (photosphere).
Sunspots are cool, dark patches on the Sun’s surface. They are caused by disturbance in the sun’s
magnetic field which make them cooler than the surrounding area.
Past paper Questions
• Describe different methods to estimate the age of the universe? (CSS-2018)
• Briefly describe what is big bang theory? (CSS-2011)
• What is galaxy? The earth belongs to which galaxy (CSS-2011)
• Explain the terms Dark Energy and Dark Matter? (CSS-2018)
• Define the term Black Hole. What’s expected inside it?
• (CSS-2007/2018)
• Important features of sun and structure of sun (CSS-2008/2009)
• Differentiate between a star and a planet. What is the magnitude of a star and how the color of
stars is correlated with their temperatures? (CSS – 2021)
• Briefly describe the most popular and accepted theory about the origin of the Universe. (CSS –
2022)
• What is Black Hole? how black hole are formed and discovered? (CSS – 2023)
 Ch # 02 Process of nature
The natural phenomena of solar and lunar eclipses, the rotation and revolution of the Earth, and
weather variables are fascinating and interconnected aspects of our planet and the universe we live in.
Solar eclipses occur when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, blocking the Sun's light
and casting a shadow on the Earth. These celestial events are rare and often awe-inspiring, creating an
eerie and captivating experience for observers. In contrast, lunar eclipses occur when the Earth's
shadow falls on the Moon. During a lunar eclipse, the Moon takes on a reddish-brown hue as it passes
through the Earth's atmosphere, providing another beautiful and mesmerizing celestial event. The
rotation and revolution of the Earth are fundamental processes that govern the behavior of our planet.
The Earth rotates around its axis every 24 hours, causing the alternation of day and night. The Earth's
revolution around the Sun takes approximately 365.25 days, creating the cycle of seasons that is so
important for life on Earth. Weather variables play a crucial role in shaping the natural world.
Temperature, air pressure, humidity, and wind are all factors that determine the state of the atmosphere
at a particular place and time. These variables have a profound impact on our lives, influencing
everything from our daily routines to the survival of entire ecosystems. Overall, these interconnected
phenomena provide an exciting window into the workings of our planet and the universe, inspiring
curiosity and wonder in all those who study and observe them.
Solar and Lunar Eclipses
Eclipse
• Eclipse is the obscuring of one heavenly / celestial body by another, particularly that of the sun
or moon
Solar Eclipse (Sun Eclipse)
• Moon come between the earth and the sun and its shadow obscure the face of the earth from
the light of sun. "The Total Solar Eclipse Guide" by Michael E. Bakich is a well-known
book that provides comprehensive information about solar eclipses. According to the book,
following are the types of solar eclipses:
• Total Solar Eclipse: During a total solar eclipse, the Moon completely blocks the Sun's disk,
creating a spectacular view of the Sun's corona, or outer atmosphere. The Moon's shadow is
known as the umbra, and those in the path of the umbra will experience a total solar eclipse.
• Partial Solar Eclipse: During a partial solar eclipse, the Moon only partially covers the Sun's
disk, creating a partial shadow known as the penumbra. Observers in the path of the penumbra
will experience a partial solar eclipse.
• Annular Solar Eclipse: During an annular solar eclipse, the Moon is farther away from the
Earth and appears smaller, so it does not completely cover the Sun. This creates a "ring of fire"
effect, with the Sun's outer edges visible around the Moon. Observers in the path of the annular
eclipse will experience this unique and fascinating phenomenon.
Lunar Eclipse (Moon Eclipse)
• Earth comes between moon & the sun and its shadow darkens the moon. There are three
types of lunar eclipse as discussed below.
• Total Lunar Eclipse: During a total lunar eclipse, the Earth aligns between the Sun and the
Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon. The Moon passes through the Earth's dark inner
shadow called the umbra. As the Moon enters the umbra, it gradually darkens and takes on
a reddish or coppery hue. This is known as the "blood moon" effect. Total lunar eclipses
can be observed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth where the Moon is visible.
• Partial Lunar Eclipse: In a partial lunar eclipse, the Earth, Moon, and Sun are not perfectly
aligned. Only a portion of the Moon enters the Earth's umbra, resulting in a partial
darkening or shading of the Moon. The rest of the Moon remains unaffected and continues
to appear bright. Partial lunar eclipses are visible from a broader geographic area than total
lunar eclipses.
• Penumbral Lunar Eclipse: A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes
through the outer part of the Earth's shadow called the penumbra. The penumbra is a region
where only a portion of the Sun's light is blocked, resulting in a subtle darkening of the
Moon. Penumbral lunar eclipses are generally faint and may be challenging to distinguish
from a regular full Moon, especially during the early and late stages of the eclipse.

•
Blood moon

One meaning of a “blood moon” is based on its red glow. This blood moon occurs during a total lunar
eclipse. During a total lunar eclipse, Earth lines up between the Moon and the sun. This hides the
moon from the sunlight. When this happens, the only light that reaches the Moon’s surface is from the
edges of the Earth’s atmosphere. The air molecules from Earth’s atmosphere scatter out most of the
blue light. The remaining light reflects onto the Moon’s surface with a red glow, making the Moon
appear red in the night sky. The name “Blood moon” is also sometimes used for a Moon that appears
reddish because of dust, smoke or haze in the sky. And It can be one of the full moons of autumn when
the leaves are turning red.
• Different between Solar and Lunar Eclipse
BASIS FOR SOLAR ECLIPSE LUNAR ECLIPSE
COMPARISON
Meaning Solar eclipse is the one in Lunar eclipse refers to
which sun blocked by the the eclipse in which
moon moon appears dim, as it
passes into earth shadow.
Position Moon lies between sun Earth lies between sun
and earth and moon
Frequency Once in every eighteen Twice a year
months
Occurrence Occurs during day Occurs during night
Phase New moon Full Moon
Duration 5-7 minutes An hour
Appearance Appears in some places Appears in many places.
only

Rotation & Revolution

Rotation
• The earth spins from west to east (CCW). It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 24 seconds to
complete one full turn
Effects of Earth’s Rotation
• Day and Night Cycle: The most noticeable effect of the Earth's rotation is the cycle of day and
night. As the Earth rotates on its axis, different parts of the planet are exposed to the Sun's
light, creating daylight in some areas and darkness in others.
• Coriolis Effect: The rotation of the Earth also causes the Coriolis effect, which is responsible
for the movement of air and water in a curved path rather than a straight line. This effect helps
create global wind patterns, ocean currents, and weather patterns.
• Tides: The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on the Earth's oceans is affected by the
Earth's rotation, which leads to the rise and fall of tides.
• Earth's Shape: The rotation of the Earth causes it to bulge slightly at the equator, making it
slightly flattened at the poles. This is due to centrifugal force, which pushes outward from the
center of the Earth as it rotates.
• Navigation: The rotation of the Earth is used for navigation purposes, as it helps determine
longitude and time. The Earth is divided into 24 time zones, with each zone covering 15
degrees of longitude and having its own unique time based on the rotation of the Earth.
 • Revolution
Earth revolves around the sun the nearly circular orbit (CCW) earth’s revolution around the sun takes
365 days, 5 hours and 48 minutes and 46 seconds.
Formation of the Seasons
• Seasons occur because earth is tilted at 23.5 degrees.
• Solstice (June 21st and 22nd, December 21st and 22nd)
• It is an astronomical event that occurs twice each year in June and December.
The day of the solstice is either the longest day of the year or the shortest day of
the year.
• Equinox (21st March, 23rd September)
• The word equinox is derived from two Latin words – aequus (equal) and nox
(night). Equinox is the date when day and night are the same length.
• Reason for changes of seasons
• The changing of seasons on Earth is primarily caused by two factors: the tilt of the
Earth's axis and its orbit around the Sun.
• The Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbit
around the Sun. This means that different parts of the Earth receive different amounts
of sunlight at different times of the year. During the summer months, the hemisphere
tilted towards the Sun receives more direct sunlight, resulting in warmer temperatures
and longer days. In the winter months, the opposite hemisphere receives more direct
sunlight, while the hemisphere experiencing winter receives less direct sunlight,
resulting in cooler temperatures and shorter days.
• The Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, which means that the Earth is closer
to the Sun during some parts of the year and farther away during others. However, this
factor has less impact on the changing of seasons compared to the tilt of the Earth's
axis.

• 2

Weather & Climate

Weather
• It consists of the short-term changes in the atmosphere
• The temperature of the day.
Climate
 • Climate refers to the average atmospheric conditions over relatively long periods
of time, usually 3 years.
• Weather Variables
Weather Variables
• Global Temperature
• Pressure
• Circulation
• Precipitation
• Humidity
Global temperature
• Temperature is very important factor in determining the weather, because it influences or
control other elements of the weather.
• Sun being main source of energy provides 97.7% energy for all physical processes on earth.
• Non-uniform distribution of heat heat across the globe is not uniformly distributed which
causes change in global temperature.
Pressure
• Pressure exerted by the molecules of atmosphere on the earth surface.
• Pressure variation due to height
• After every 5.5km pressure become halved.
• High- and low-pressure zones movement of air molecules from high to
low pressure zone weather variation like rapid circulation of air drop the temperature.
Pressure
• The pressure gradient force is the force which results when ther is a difference in pressure
across a surface. The resulting force is always directed from the region of high pressure to
the region of low pressure.
Coriolis force
• Once air has been set in motion by the pressure gradient force, it undergoes an apparent
deflection from its path. This apparent deflection is called Coriolis force.
Precipitation
• It is a term given to moisture that falls from the air to the ground.
• Common form of precipitation includes Rain, Fog, Mist, Haze, Snow, Hail.
• Rain is the liquid precipitation. Mist and fog occur when water droplets hang in the air.
Haze happens when the particles in the atmosphere are pollutants. Snow crystals form
when tiny super cooled cloud droplets freeze. Hai is the form of precipitation which
consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice.
Humidity
• It is the measure of amount of moisture in the air. The air’s capacity to hold vapor is limited
but increases dramatically as the air warms, roughly doubling for each temperature increase of
10 o C. In the winter air is generally cooler and drier, whereas in the summer, when air is
warmer, it can hold more moisture. That’s what gives that sticky, soupy feeling of a very
humid day.
• Difference between Weather and Climate

Basis for comparison Weather Climate

Meaning Weather is everyday Climate refers to the average
atmosphere condition of a atmosphere conditions over
particular region. relatively long periods of
time, usually 30 years.

What is it? Minute by minute state of Average weather in a region.

atmosphere in an area
Represents What is the condition of In what way atmosphere acts
atmosphere in a geographical over typically long period
location, over short period
Variation Varies Constantly. Does not vary constantly
Affected by Temperature, humidity, air Temperature and
pressure, cloudiness, precipitation
precipitation etc
Assessment For short term Over a long period
Study Meteorology Climatology

Past paper Questions

• Difference between the occurrence of lunar and solar eclipse? (CSS-2017)
• Explain the formation of Lunar Eclipse. (CSS-2018)
• Explain the formation of Solar Eclipse. (CSS-2007)
• Briefly explain what effects are produced due to Rotation & Revolution of Earth? (CSS-2017)
• Discuss the various factors which affect the variation in the climate of a place. (CSS – 2022)
 Chapter # 3Natural Hazards & Disasters
•"Natural Hazards and Disasters" by Donald Hyndman and David Hyndman is a well-known book that
provides a comprehensive overview of the various natural hazards that can affect our planet, as well as
the ways in which these hazards can lead to disasters. According to the book, natural hazards are
defined as naturally occurring events or processes that have the potential to cause harm or damage to
people, property, or the environment. These hazards can include earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes,
floods, landslides, wildfires, and tsunamis, among others. Disasters, on the other hand, are defined as
events that result in significant harm or damage to human life, health, property, or the environment.
Disasters are often caused by the interaction of natural hazards with human populations, and can result
in significant social, economic, and environmental impacts.
Earthquakes
• The sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves that create vibration in the earth’s
crust.
Earthquake-Anatomy
• Focus, Epicenter, and Fault
• Focus or hypocenter is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
• Epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the focus.

• Causes of earthquake
• 1. Elastic rebound theory
o Most earthquakes are produces by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that
has been subjected to great forces.
o When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of
an earthquakes.
o Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an undeformed shape.
o Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the fault
2. Plate tectonics
• Pangea: means all earth
• Lithosphere is broken up into what is called plate tectonics.
• 7 major plates.
• Tectonic activity is at boundary of the plates.
Boundaries of plate tectonics
• Convergent boundaries (Crashing)
• Divergent boundaries (pulling apart)
• Transform boundaries (sideswiping)

Convergent boundaries
• when two plates come together, it is known as a Convergent boundary. The impact of the
colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both plates to buckle up into a mountain range or
one of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms
parallel to convergent plate boundaries and power earthquakes around common along these
boundaries.
• All convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crust is often forced down into the mantle where it
begins to melt. Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into granite, the rock
that makes up the continents. Thus, at convergent boundaries, continental crust is created and
oceanic crust is destroyed.
• Continental collision (when two continental plates collide)
• Sub-duction zone (when one plate moves underneath the other)
Divergent boundaries
• A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along
these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s
mantle to the surface, solidifying to create new oceanic crust.
• Mid-oceanic ridges are formed.
Transform boundaries
• When plates are sliding past each other

3. Volcanic eruption
• During volcanic activity magma pushes apart the plate which causes earthquakes
OR
• A volcano is simply an opening or vent on the earth’s surface through which molten magma,
escape on the earth’s surface.
• Process
Types of volcanoes
 Active (at least one eruption during the past 10,000 years)
 Erupting (it is an active volcano that is having an eruption)
 Dormant (it is an active volcano that is not erupting, but supposed to erupt
again)
 Extinct (That has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years)

• Vent / Neck (a sort of pipe in the crust through which hot material and gases come out to the
surface.
• Carter (the opening of the vent on the surface of earth)
• Volcanic Cone (the lava coming out of the carter accumulates around it forms a cone like
structure.
Measuring of earthquakes
• Seismographs (ground monitoring equipment) are instruments that record earthquakes waves.
 •
• Richter Scale
o The Richter scale is a numerical scale used to measure the magnitude, or strength, of
earthquakes. It was developed in 1935 by Charles Richter, a seismologist at the
California Institute of Technology. The Richter scale is based on the amplitude of
seismic waves recorded on a seismograph. Seismic waves are energy waves that travel
through the Earth's crust and can be detected by seismographs. The amplitude of these
waves is measured in microns (millionths of a meter). The Richter scale is logarithmic,
which means that each increase of one on the scale represents a tenfold increase in the
magnitude of the earthquake. For example, an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 is ten
times stronger than an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.0, and one hundred times
stronger than an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.0. The Richter scale has no upper
limit, but the strongest earthquakes ever recorded have had magnitudes of around 9.0.
These extremely strong earthquakes are very rare and can cause widespread damage
and loss of life.

o
What causes a Volcano to Erupt
• The Radioactive substance inside the earth keep generating a lot of heat through decomposition
and chemical reactions.
• In continental-oceanic collision a denser oceanic plate sub-ducts below a continental plate,
which is lighter, and during this subduction process all the rock material in this region
undergoes metamorphism, finally converting itself into molten magma.
Negative impacts of Volcanoes.
• Volcanic Ash and Gas Emissions: Eruptions release large amounts of volcanic ash, which
consists of fine particles of rock and minerals. Volcanic ash can pose significant hazards to
aviation, as it can damage aircraft engines and impair visibility. It can also cause respiratory
problems and impact the health of humans and animals. Volcanic eruptions also release various
 gases, including sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), which can contribute to air
pollution and have potential climate effects.
• Pyroclastic Flows and Lahars: Violent volcanic eruptions can generate pyroclastic flows,
which are fast-moving currents of hot gas, ash, and rock fragments. These flows can devastate
everything in their path, including infrastructure and vegetation, and pose a significant risk to
nearby communities. Volcanic eruptions can also trigger lahars, which are mudflows or debris
flows that occur when volcanic material mixes with water, often from melted snow or heavy
rainfall. Lahars can travel long distances and cause extensive damage.
• Lava Flows and Lava Bombs: Lava flows are streams of molten rock that can damage or
destroy anything in their path, including homes, forests, and infrastructure. The speed and
extent of the lava flow depend on factors such as the type of lava, slope, and topography.
During explosive eruptions, lava bombs—large, solidified lava fragments—can be thrown into
the air and land at considerable distances from the volcano, potentially causing damage and
injury.
• Volcanic Landslides and Avalanches: Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides and
avalanches, particularly in volcanic regions with steep slopes. These events can be extremely
destructive, burying communities, blocking rivers, and altering the landscape. Landslides and
avalanches can also generate secondary hazards such as tsunamis if they impact bodies of
water.
• Climate Effects: Large volcanic eruptions can inject significant amounts of ash and gases into
the atmosphere. Ash particles can reflect sunlight back into space, resulting in a temporary
cooling effect on the Earth's surface. Sulfur dioxide emissions can also combine with water
vapor in the atmosphere to form sulfate aerosols, which can further contribute to cooling.
These climate effects can influence regional and global temperatures, leading to short-term
cooling episodes.
Positive impacts of Volcanoes.
• Fertility of Soil: Volcanic eruptions release minerals and nutrients into the surrounding
environment. Over time, these volcanic materials break down and weather, enriching the soil
with essential nutrients. Volcanic soils, known as volcanic ash or tephra deposits, are highly
fertile and support robust plant growth. In areas with volcanic activity, such as the volcanic
islands of Hawaii or the slopes of Mount Etna in Italy, fertile soils contribute to vibrant
agriculture and thriving ecosystems.
• Geothermal Energy: Volcanic activity can lead to the formation of geothermal resources.
Geothermal energy utilizes the heat stored in the Earth's crust to generate electricity and
provide heating for residential and industrial purposes. Volcanic regions often have enhanced
geothermal potential due to the proximity of magma chambers or hot springs, making them
valuable sources of renewable energy.
• Creation of New Landforms: Volcanic eruptions can create new landforms and shape the
Earth's surface. Volcanic cones, lava flows, and volcanic islands are formed as molten rock
reaches the surface. These landforms can have aesthetic, ecological, and even economic value.
For example, volcanic islands often develop unique ecosystems and can become popular tourist
destinations.
• Mineral Deposits: Volcanic activity can also lead to the formation of valuable mineral
deposits. Volcanic gases and fluids can carry elements such as gold, silver, copper, and sulfur
to the Earth's surface, where they accumulate in hydrothermal systems or mineral veins. Over
time, these deposits can be mined and contribute to economic development in volcanic regions.
 Kashmir Earthquakes 8th October 2005
• 7.6 magnitude earthquake took place on Saturday 8th October at 8.25 local time.
• The epicenter was Muzaffarabad the capital of the Pakistan administered region of Kashmir, 80
Km north-east of Islamabad.
• It was followed by 20 powerful aftershocks.

Pakistan-Afghanistan Earthquakes 2015 26th October 2015

• An earthquake of the magnitude of 7.5 struck Pakistan and Afghanistan, the quake was 196km
deep and centered 82 km of feyzabad in a remote area of Afghanistan in Hindu Kush mountain
range.

TSUNAMI
• Japanese word, tsu means harbor and name means wave.
• Large ocean wave that is caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption and often
causes extreme destruction when it strikes land.
Characteristics
• Wavelength of 100 to 200 km. and may travel hundreds of kilometers across the deep ocean,
reaching a speed of about 805-965 km/h. Height of wave many be up to 30 m high or more.
Just 1m3 of water weighs more than 1 ton. Its destructive force is equals to millions of tons.
Causes.
• Earthquakes: The most common cause of tsunamis is undersea earthquakes. When tectonic
plates beneath the ocean floor shift, they can generate massive amounts of energy, causing the
overlying water to be displaced and triggering a tsunami. Subduction zones, where one tectonic
plate is forced beneath another, are particularly prone to generating powerful tsunamis.
• Submarine Landslides: Underwater landslides, triggered by seismic activity, volcanic
eruptions, or slope instability, can displace large amounts of water and create tsunamis. These
tsunamis are often localized and may travel shorter distances compared to earthquake-
generated tsunamis.
• Volcanic Activity: Explosive volcanic eruptions near or beneath bodies of water can generate
tsunamis. These eruptions can cause the rapid displacement of water due to the explosive force
 and the collapse of volcanic edifices. Tsunamis generated by volcanic activity are typically
localized to the surrounding area.
• Asteroid or Meteor Impacts: Large asteroids or meteorites striking the ocean can result in
significant displacement of water, generating powerful tsunamis. While such events are rare,
they have the potential to cause widespread devastation.
• Underwater Explosions: Detonations of large underwater explosives, either for military
purposes or in mining operations, can also produce tsunamis. These man-made tsunamis tend
to be localized and their impact is generally limited to the immediate vicinity of the explosion
•

Most devastating tsunamis in history

• North pacific coast, Japan – 11 March, 2011
o World bank reported a loss of $235 billion+18000 lives, magnitude 9.0
• Sumatra, Indonesia- 26 December 2004
o World bank reported a loss $ 10billion +230,000 lives magnitude 9.1
Lisbon, Portugal – 1 November 1755
o 8.5 magnitude killed 60,000 in Portugal,
Difference between Tidal wave and Tsunami
• A tidal wave is essentially a high tide that rises fast enough to appear in the form of a
wave. It is solely affected by weather and the gravitational pull from the moon and sun.
a tsunami, on the other hand, occurs when some events disturb the ocean. They are
usually caused by a geological event such as an earthquake, volcano eruption, landslide
or nuclear experiment.
Tidal Wave Tsunami
Definition A shallow-water wave caused by A series of ocean waves generated by underwater
the gravitational interaction disturbances, such as earthquakes, volcanic
between the moon, sun, and eruptions, or landslides.
Earth's tides.
Cause Gravitational forces from Underwater disturbances (earthquakes, volcanic
celestial bodies. eruptions, landslides).
Source Tidal waves are predictable and Tsunamis are infrequent and occur as a result of
occur regularly due to tidal specific events or natural disasters.
forces.
Speed Generally slower, typically Extremely fast in deep water, can travel up to
around 10-20 mph (16-32 km/h). 500-600 mph (805-965 km/h).
Size Tidal waves are generally small Tsunamis can have enormous sizes and high
and have low amplitudes, amplitudes, reaching tens to hundreds of feet or
 typically a few feet or meters. meters.
Warning Tidal waves can be predicted Tsunamis can be more devastating and may not
accurately and are usually not always provide sufficient warning time for coastal
considered dangerous to coastal communities. Early warning systems are in place
areas. to detect and alert about tsunamis.
Local Tidal waves affect the tidal range Tsunamis cause widespread destruction along
Impact and currents in coastal areas. coastlines, with the potential to inundate land
several miles inland. They can lead to loss of life
and property damage.
Examples The Bay of Fundy in Canada The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, triggered by an
experiences large tidal waves earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, caused
due to the tidal forces from the massive devastation in multiple countries.
moon and sun.
Scientific Tidal waves are also known as Tsunamis are referred to as seismic sea waves
Term tidal bores or tidal surges.
Floods
•Natural event, where a piece of land that is usually dry land, suddenly gets submerged
under water. Low-lying area.
How flood develop
• Excessive rain a ruptured dam, rapid ice melting in the mountains or even an
unfortunately placed dam can overwhelm a river and send its spreading over the
adjacent land, called floodplain. Coastal flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami
causes the sea to surge inland.
Types of floods
Flash flood
• Result of heavy rain, dam break or snow melt. Most destructive in nature. There is no
warning, no preparation.
Rapid on-set floods.
• Similar to flash flood, this type takes slightly longer to develop and the flood las tfor a
day or two only. It does not surprise people like flash flood.
Slow on-set floods
• When water bodies over-flood their banks, they tend to develop slowly and can last for
days and weeks. The effect of this kind of floods on people is more likely to be due to
disease, malnutrition etc.
Causes of floods
• Heavy Rainfall: Intense or prolonged rainfall is a common cause of flooding. When
rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil or the drainage capacity of rivers
and other water bodies, water accumulates on the surface, leading to flooding.
• River Overflow: River flooding occurs when the water level in a river exceeds its
capacity. This can happen due to heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or a combination of
both. High volumes of water flow downstream, overwhelming the riverbanks and
causing flooding in adjacent areas.
• Coastal Storm Surges: Storm surges occur along coastal areas during severe weather
events such as hurricanes or cyclones. Strong winds and low atmospheric pressure
cause water to pile up, resulting in a rise in sea level. When these surges coincide with
high tides, coastal flooding can occur.
• Snowmelt and Ice Jams: In regions with cold climates, the melting of snow and ice
during warmer seasons can contribute to flooding. Rapid snowmelt, particularly when
 combined with heavy rainfall, can overload rivers and cause them to overflow.
Additionally, ice jams occur when ice accumulates and obstructs the flow of rivers,
leading to localized flooding.
• Dam or Levee Failure: Failure or breach of dams, levees, or other water control
structures can result in significant flooding downstream. This can happen due to
structural defects, excessive water pressure, or overwhelming water volumes exceeding
their design capacity.
• Urbanization and Land Use Changes: Human activities can exacerbate flood risks.
Urbanization and the paving over of natural surfaces reduce the ability of the land to
absorb rainfall, increasing surface runoff. Poorly planned urban drainage systems can
also contribute to localized flooding. Deforestation and improper land management
practices can similarly worsen flood conditions.
• Climate Change: While floods have always occurred naturally, there is evidence to
suggest that climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of certain types of
floods. Climate change can lead to altered rainfall patterns, more intense storms, sea-
level rise, and changes in snowmelt patterns, all of which can contribute to increased
flood risks.
Effects
• Primary (physical damage, causalities, loss of resources)
• Secondary (soil erosion, land degradation, effect on health, water pollution)
• Tertiary (long-term effects, economic hardships, rebuilding costs, food shortage, poverty
etc.)
Avalanche
• An avalanche is a mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris, which travels down
mountain sides, destroying all in its path.
Causes
• Snowpack Conditions: The condition of the snowpack is a critical factor in avalanche
formation. Weak layers within the snowpack, such as faceted or depth hoar snow, can be
unstable and prone to sliding. These weak layers can form due to various factors, including
temperature gradients, wind deposition, or changes in snowfall patterns.
• Slope Angle and Steepness: Avalanches are more likely to occur on steep slopes with angles
ranging from 30 to 45 degrees. On these slopes, the gravitational force acting on the snowpack
can overcome the friction holding it in place, leading to instability and sliding.
• Snowfall and Snowfall History: Heavy snowfall or rapid snow accumulation can increase the
weight on the snowpack, exceeding its load-bearing capacity and triggering an avalanche.
Additionally, a series of snowstorms or multiple layers of snow deposited over time can create
unstable conditions within the snowpack.
• Weather Conditions: Weather plays a significant role in avalanche formation. Warm
temperatures, rain, or rapid temperature fluctuations can weaken the snowpack by melting or
altering the snow crystals. Conversely, cold temperatures can cause surface hoar, a type of
frost, to form on the snowpack, which can act as a weak layer.
• Wind: Wind can significantly affect the distribution and stability of snow on slopes. Strong
winds transport snow from one area to another, creating wind slabs or wind-loaded slopes.
These wind slabs can be more cohesive or denser than the surrounding snowpack, making them
prone to avalanching.
 • Human Triggers: Humans engaging in recreational activities, such as skiing, snowboarding,
or snowmobiling, can inadvertently trigger avalanches. The additional weight and energy
exerted by humans on a slope can stress the snowpack, causing it to fail and release.
Elements of avalanche (terrain, weather, snowpack)
Types
• Loose snow avalanche: These avalanches occur when individual snow particles or small
groups of particles become dislodged and slide downhill. Loose snow avalanches typically start
at a point and gain momentum as they descend, entraining more snow along the way. While
they can be dangerous, loose snow avalanches are generally smaller and less destructive than
other types.
• Slab Avalanche: Slab avalanches are the most dangerous and destructive type. They involve a
cohesive slab of snow breaking loose and sliding down a slope as a single unit. The slab is
usually formed by wind-deposited snow or the bonding of multiple layers in the snowpack.
Slab avalanches can release on steep slopes, often triggered by a person or natural factors like
wind loading or a weak layer within the snowpack.
• Powder snow avalanche: Loose snow avalanche + slab avalanche speed attained by this
avalanche can cross 190 miles/h
• We snow avalanche: Wet snow avalanches occur when the snowpack becomes saturated with
water, typically due to warming temperatures, rain, or rapid snowmelt. The increased water
content weakens the snowpack's cohesion, reducing its stability and triggering the avalanche.
Wet snow avalanches tend to be slower-moving but can still cause significant damage due to
their higher density.
The most destructive type of avalanche is often considered to be large-scale slab avalanches,
particularly persistent slab avalanches or deep slab avalanches. These avalanches can involve vast
volumes of snow and have the potential to travel long distances, burying entire forests or destroying
buildings and infrastructure. They pose significant risks to human life and can be challenging to
forecast and mitigate due to the persistent weak layers within the snowpack.
 Drought
o Drought is a protracted period of deficient precipitation resulting in extensive damage
to crops, resulting in loss of yield.

Types
Meteorological drought: Happens when dry weather patterns dominate an area.
Agricultural drought: When crops become affected.
Hydrological drought: Low water volumes in streams, rivers and reservations.
Socioeconomic drought: Demand for water exceeds the supply
Effects
• Drying out of water bodies
• Reduction in soil quality
• Unsuitable conditions for plant and vegetation survival
• Reduced crop yield
• Economic losses
• Outbreak of disease
• Migration of people

Wild fire
• A large, destructive fire that spreads quickly over woodland.
• Elements of combustion: Oxygen, heat and fuel
Causes of wildfires
• Human beings (90%)
• Burning debris
• Unattended campfires
• Cigarettes
• Arson (act of setting fire to property, vehicles or any other thing with intention to cause
damage)
Mother nature is responsible for other 10%
• Lightening
• Volcano eruption
Types of Wildfires
Natural wildfires: These are caused by natural phenomena like lightning strikes, volcanic eruptions,
and spontaneous combustion.
Human-caused wildfires: These are caused by human activities like unattended campfires, burning
debris, fireworks, cigarettes, and arson.
Surface wildfires: These are the most common type of wildfires and occur on the forest floor or
grasslands. They move along the surface of the ground, burning leaves, brush, and small trees.
Crown wildfires: These are the most dangerous type of wildfires as they burn the tops of trees and
spread rapidly. They are difficult to control and can cause significant damage.
Ground wildfires: These occur underground, usually in peat bogs, and can be difficult to detect and
control.
Urban wildfires: These are wildfires that occur in urban areas, usually in areas where houses or
buildings are close to wildlands. They are often caused by human activities, such as discarded
cigarettes or fireworks.
Wildland-urban interface wildfires: These are wildfires that occur in areas where wildlands and
urban areas meet. They can be very dangerous as they can spread quickly from wildland areas to urban
areas.
Urban Fire
• Fire that occurs in structural components like homes, industries and other commercial
buildings
Causes
• Careless smoking at home/ industry
• Short circuit
• Gas heaters
Prevention
• Installation of fire extinguishers.
• Smoke or fire alarm in the building
DISASTER & RISK MANAGEMENT
Disaster: A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or society causing wide spread
material, economics, social or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to
cope using its own resources.
Hazard (potential for causing injury to life)
• Natural hazard
• Manmade
Vulnerability (extent to which a particular hazard could do damage)
• Physical
• Socio economic
Capacity (resources which exist to fight against hazard)
• Technical capacity
• Economical capacity
Risk
• It is the measure of the expected losses due to hazardous events occurring in the given area
Disaster risk management cycle
• Mitigation: Mitigation focuses on reducing or eliminating the risks and impacts of
disasters before they occur. It involves identifying potential hazards, assessing
vulnerabilities, and implementing measures to minimize the likelihood or severity of future
disasters. This can include activities such as land-use planning, building codes,
infrastructure improvements, public awareness campaigns, and ecosystem protection.
• Preparedness: Preparedness involves activities and measures taken in advance to ensure
effective response and reduce the loss of life and property during a disaster. It includes
developing emergency plans, establishing early warning systems, conducting drills and
training exercises, stockpiling essential supplies, and ensuring the availability of
emergency services and resources.
• Response: The response phase occurs during and immediately after a disaster. It involves
the mobilization of emergency response efforts to save lives, protect property, and meet
immediate humanitarian needs. Response activities include search and rescue operations,
emergency medical assistance, evacuations, providing shelter and basic necessities,
restoring critical infrastructure, and coordinating various response agencies and
organizations.
• Recovery: Recovery focuses on the restoration and reconstruction of affected
communities, infrastructure, and services following a disaster. It aims to promote the return
 to normalcy and build back stronger and more resilient communities. Recovery activities
can include debris removal, repairing or rebuilding infrastructure, livelihood support,
psychosocial assistance, economic revitalization, and long-term community development
planning.

NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority)

Disaster management in Pakistan
• After the deadly October 8, 2005 earthquake that rocked Pakistan, National Disaster
Management Ordinance 2007, which effectively became a law in 2010 under the National
Disaster management ACT.
• NDMA acts as a coordination and monitoring agency for relief efforts between and among
armed forces, civilian rescue agencies, emergency teams and UN.
• Pakistan is vulnerable to wide-ranging hazards like floods, earthquake related disaster is
causing colossal loss of human life and material.
• Climate change is huge threat to economic prosperity of Pakistan
Global climate risk index Report 2021 (Pakistan – the 8th most effected country from
climate change)
• NDMA lacks ownership from its stakeholders and government is not spending the required
amount on disaster management.
Tropical Cyclone & Hurricane
• Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in tropical areas and coastal regions. All these i.e.
cyclone, typhoon, willy willies and hurricane are same type of storm.

Different names of Tropical Cyclone

• Hurricane: Used in the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the northeastern Pacific Ocean
(east of the International Date Line). Hurricanes are known for their destructive potential.
• Typhoon: Used in the northwestern Pacific Ocean west of the International Date Line.
Typhoons are often powerful and can affect countries like Japan, the Philippines, and China.
• Cyclone: Used in the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. Cyclones can affect countries
such as India, Bangladesh, Australia, and Pacific Island nations.
• Severe Tropical Cyclone: Used in the southwest Pacific Ocean, particularly around Australia
and neighboring islands.
• Bagyo: Used in the Philippines to refer to tropical cyclones affecting the country.
• Willy-willy: Used in Australia to refer to tropical cyclones in the region, particularly in the
western part of the country.
• Tempestade: Used in Brazil to refer to tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean.
• Tropikong Bagyo: Used in the Philippines as a general term for tropical cyclones.
• understanding the concept of difference of radiations received per area
• Tropical region receives the most solar radiation per area and the reason behind that is
income solar radiation that are direct and vertical at the tropical region and as we move
towards polar region the angle of the sun rays are not vertical, they are slanting rays.
Vertical rays of sunlight are more effective in producing light and heat than slanting
rays and that’s the tropical region is warm.
•

• Understanding the concept of wind movement

• Wind movement is determined by low pressure and high-pressure systems. Difference
in atmospheric pressure creates pressure gradient that makes the wind move. Movement
is always from high pressure to low pressure.
• What causes LP
• Low pressure occurs when air is warm, either from being over a warm land or ocean
surface that means low pressure occurs at a place which is warm, that is why tropical
region is a perfect place where low pressure occurs.

• What causes HP (High pressure and Low-pressure belts)

• High pressure occurs when air is cool either from being over a cool land or ocean
surface
• Difference of speed at Equator and at Poles
• Speed is high at poles and low at poles. In northern hemisphere, the change of motion of
air is to the right and to the left in southern hemisphere
• Formation of a Tropical Cyclone
• In every cyclone, there is
• Low pressure area – Eye of Cyclone – (Attracts cool air)
• High pressure area – Eye wall of cyclone – Most dangerous part
• So outer area of cyclone consists of cool air coming from high pressure area which
surrounds the central low-pressure area. This region is called the eye of the storm

• The low-pressure region is a warm region where the air is warm, which expands and then rises.
The cool air from high pressure zones rushes in to fill the void left by the rising warm air. The
warm moist air cools as it rises higher into the atmosphere because temperature drops with
increase in altitude, that is how clouds are formed. As a result, an eye like figure can be seen at
the center of the storm
• Now, the air in the northern hemisphere the cool air rushing towards the center of the storm is
deflected slightly to the right but cool air is keeps getting attracted towards the center because
that’s where the warm low-pressure zone is. This creates a spin in counter clockwise direction
• But when it reaches the land moisture supply is cut-off and the storm dissipates. So, the place
where tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone
 • Definition
• A cyclone is an area of low pressure around which the winds flow counterclockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

DEADLIEST TROPICAL CYCLONES IN PAKISTAN

• 1965 Karachi Cyclone  killed 10,000 people
• Cyclone 2A 1999  killed 6200 people
• Cyclone Yemyin  killed 200 people
• 1993 Pak-India Cyclone  killed 609 people and displaced 200,000 people
• 1964 Indus Valley Cyclone  killed 450 people and displaced 400,000 people
Tropical Storm/ Hurricane Impacts
• Every year, cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes affect dozens of countries around the world.
Losses of life and material damage are significant due to strong winds, heavy rains, large
 swells and storm surges. Hazardous phenomena are not only located on islands and coasts.
Even mitigated, hurricanes often cause damages inland, through floods and landslides,
sometimes hundreds of kilometers from the ocean.
• The record is held by Hurricane Katrina, whose passage over New Orleans in August 2005
left a bill of at least €100 billion. In terms of human lives, the most affected regions
were Bangladesh with the two hurricanes of November 1970 and April 1991, each claiming
more than 200,000 lives, Honduras and Nicaragua with Mitch in October 1998, Burma in
2008 with Nargis ravaging the Irrawaddy Delta, the Philippines with Hayan in 2013, each
causing tens of thousands of deaths.

MIDDLE LATITUDE/EXTRA TROPICAL

• They occur in areas between 30°-60° latitudes both north and south of the equator.

• In between westerly winds are very active in this region and flow is from west towards east.
• Developing the relation between Air movement and Cyclone
• Wind circulation is the main reasons that creates any kind of cyclone and depending on
temperature winds propagate between the surface and the upper atmosphere and upper
atmosphere winds are faster than surface winds because of the friction.
• Movement of Air
• The movement of air movement will be from sub-tropical high to sub-polar low at the
surface level, due to Coriolis effects these are deflected which lead to the prevailing
westerly winds. Also, there are some winds that occurs high in the atmosphere i.e., 12-
15 kilometers above the ground these are called as sub-tropical jet stream. They flow
from west to east and they are the strongest winds on earth. This wind may go up to as
much as 500km/h.

• Formation of Mid-Latitude cyclone

• There has to be a boundary where cold air and warm air meets that boundary is called a
front and that boundary is found near sub-polar region. As the warm air approaches to
cold front-since the cold air is dense and heavy it pushes the warm air upward this
region is usually called low pressure region. The rising warm air then comes in contact
with east flowing jet stream where it splits i.e., one goes east and other goes west. The
cold air stream that comes from the pole, they flow towards the southeastern direction.
Cold air is dense; hence it sticks to the ground and tries to catch it back. So, the flow
become anti-clockwise circulation. Above the cold air there is another belt of cold dry
air that comes from the pole which descends in the upper atmosphere and fills up the
middle region of the cold surface air and warm rising air.
• At the top warm air climbs over the cold air and series of cumulus cloud appears over
the sky and cause rainfall.
• When cold air overtakes warm air, the cyclone disappears.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HURRICANE & MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE
Hurricanes (Tropical Cyclones) Mid-Latitude Cyclones
Formation Form over warm ocean waters with a Form in regions with temperature and
temperature of at least 26.5°C (79.7°F). pressure contrasts, typically at the
boundary between warm and cold air
masses.
Location Form in tropical and subtropical regions, Form in the middle latitudes, typically
generally between 5-30 degrees latitude. between 30-60 degrees latitude.
Structure Have a well-defined eye at the center with Do not have a well-defined eye, but often
a surrounding eyewall containing intense have a frontal system with warm and cold
thunderstorms. fronts.
Wind Speeds Can have sustained winds of 119 km/h (74 Typically have lower wind speeds
mph) or greater. compared to hurricanes, but can still
produce strong winds.
Precipitation Associated with heavy rainfall, often Can produce precipitation in the form of
leading to flooding. rain, snow, or a mix of both, depending on
the season and location.
Duration Can last for several days to weeks. Can persist for several days, but their life
cycle is generally shorter than hurricanes.

Size Tend to be smaller in size, with a typical Can be much larger in size, with a diameter
diameter of a few hundred kilometers. of several thousand kilometers.
Steering Generally steered by easterly trade winds Steered by the prevailing westerly winds in
Factors and other global wind patterns. the middle latitudes.
Seasonality Primarily occur during the hurricane Can occur throughout the year, as they are
season, which varies by region but often not limited to a specific season.
falls between June and November.
Impact Can cause significant damage from strong Can cause damage from strong winds,
winds, storm surge, and heavy rainfall, heavy precipitation, and occasionally
often leading to coastal inundation, tornadoes. They can also disrupt
flooding, and infrastructure destruction. transportation, power supply, and other
services.
TORNADO
• Definition: A tornado is a violent rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the
ground. The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of
up to 300 mph. They can destroy large buildings, uproot trees and hurl vehicles hundreds of
yards.
• Formation of a Tornado
• Favorable Atmospheric Conditions: Tornadoes typically form within severe thunderstorms,
so the first requirement is the presence of conditions that can support the development of these
storms. This includes the availability of warm, moist air at the surface and cooler air aloft.
• Thunderstorm Development: A thunderstorm begins to form when warm, moist air rises
rapidly and condenses into clouds. This can occur when there is instability in the atmosphere,
often associated with a warm front, cold front, or a dryline.
• Updraft Formation: Within the developing thunderstorm, an updraft is initiated. The updraft
is a strong, upward current of air that carries warm, moist air from the surface into the storm.
• Rotation: As the updraft intensifies, wind shear comes into play. Wind shear refers to a change
in wind direction and/or speed with height. This wind shear causes the updraft to start rotating
horizontally, creating a rotating column of air known as a mesocyclone.
• Tornado Vortex Formation: Within the mesocyclone, a smaller, more intense rotating
column of air called the tornado vortex forms. This occurs when the rotating updraft tightens
and narrows, creating a concentrated rotation within the storm.
• Tornado Touchdown: If the conditions are favorable, the tornado vortex can extend
downward from the thunderstorm and make contact with the ground. This is known as a
tornado touchdown. The tornado becomes fully developed and is capable of causing significant
damage as it moves along its path.
 TORNADO IN PAKISTAN
th
• 10 March 1981 killed 56 people and injured 600 people in Punjab
• 10th March 1985 killed 18 people in the northern area
• 28th March 2001 killed 10 people and injured 100 people in Punjab
• 12th October 2006  a tornado formed near Rawalpindi
Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tornadoes

Formation Develop in the middle latitudes (30-60 Form within severe thunderstorms,
degrees) where warm and cold air masses often associated with a combination
converge along fronts. of instability, wind shear, and a
rotating updraft.
Size Can be large-scale weather systems, Are much smaller in scale, typically
spanning several thousand kilometers in only a few hundred meters wide.
diameter.
Duration Can persist for several days, with a life cycle Tend to have a shorter lifespan,
of several days to a week. usually lasting for a few minutes to a
couple of hours.
Rotation Have a broad-scale cyclonic rotation, with Exhibit a strong and focused
counterclockwise circulation in the Northern rotational motion, with a narrow and
Hemisphere and clockwise circulation in the intense vortex.
Southern Hemisphere.
Wind Can produce strong winds, but the peak Can generate extremely high wind
Speeds wind speeds are generally lower compared speeds, with the most intense
to tornadoes. tornadoes reaching speeds above 300
km/h (186 mph).
Precipitation Produce a range of precipitation types, Typically associated with intense
including rain, snow, and a mix of both, thunderstorms and can produce heavy
depending on the location and season. rainfall, but precipitation is not the
primary characteristic.
Impact Can bring a variety of weather conditions, Known for their potential to cause
including strong winds, precipitation, and significant localized damage.
temperature changes. They can cause Tornadoes can produce destructive
widespread impacts such as heavy rain, winds, uproot trees, damage
flooding, and high winds, affecting large buildings, and create a narrow path of
areas. destruction.
Scale Operate on a synoptic or mesoscale, Operate on a mesoscale, impacting a
impacting broad regions and affecting localized area within the broader
weather patterns over a wide area. system of a thunderstorm.
Seasonality Occur throughout the year, as they are not Most common during spring and early
limited to a specific season. summer in temperate regions, but can
occur at any time of the year
depending on the local climatic
conditions.
 Past paper questions
• Very briefly explain the difference between Earthquakes, Volcanic
eruptions, Floods and Tsunamis. (CSS-2012)
• Explain Earthquakes and Volcanoes. How Volcanoes help in the
formationof earth crust. (CSS-1999)
• What is an earth quake? Discuss Richter Scale in this context. What
was the intensity of the earth quake in Pakistan dated 26 October 2015
and where was the locus? (CSS-2016)
• How are EARTHQUAKES caused? (CSS-2008)
• What is tsunami? How the tsunamis generated and what are their
characteristics? (CSS-2016)
• Describe different causes of tsunami. Is there any difference between a
tsunami and a tidal wave? Name the worst tsunami ever recorded.
(CSS-2018)
• What is the most dangerous part of a hurricane and how do cyclones
affect humans? (CSS-2019)
• Differentiate between Middle Latitude Cyclones and Tornadoes. (CSS-
2020)
• On 7th April 2012 an Avalanche hit a Pakistan military base in Gayari
sector trapping 140 soldiers and civilians under deep snow. What is
Avalanche; describe its four types with focus on most dangerous type?
(CSS-2020)
• What do you understand by Global Wind and Pressure patterns? Also
explain wind and pressure features at higher altitude. (CSS-2020)
• World largest earthquake was assigned a magnitude of 9.5 by the
United States Geological Survey on 22 May 1960 in southern Chile
Valdivia. What do you know about earthquake? Also explain shallow-
focus and deep-focus earthquakes. (CSS-2020)
• What do you know about Volcanoes? Discuss the causes and effects of
volcanic eruption. (CSS – 2022)
• What is a Tornado? How is it formed and what are the effects of
tornadoes? Explain briefly. (CSS – 2022)
• What is wildfire? Explain its types, causes, spread and preventions.
(CSS – 2023)
 Chapter # 4 Energy resources
•Energy resources are natural resources that can be converted into usable energy forms to provide
power for various human activities. They are essential for our modern way of life, powering
everything from homes and businesses to transportation and industry. There are many different types
of energy resources, including fossil fuels, nuclear energy, renewable energy sources such as solar,
wind, hydro, geothermal and biomass. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas have been the
primary sources of energy for many years, but they are non-renewable and are being depleted at an
alarming rate. Nuclear energy, although not a fossil fuel, also has limitations, including safety
concerns and waste disposal issues. Renewable energy sources, on the other hand, offer a more
sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional energy sources. Solar energy, for
example, harnesses the power of the sun to generate electricity, while wind energy uses turbines to
convert wind energy into electricity. Hydroelectric power generates electricity using the flow of water,
geothermal energy uses heat from the Earth's core to generate electricity, and biomass energy uses
organic matter such as wood and agricultural waste to produce heat and electricity. The use of energy
resources has a significant impact on the environment, contributing to air and water pollution, climate
change, and other environmental issues. As a result, there is a growing need to shift towards renewable
energy sources and to improve energy efficiency in order to reduce our reliance on non-renewable
resources and mitigate their negative impact on the environment.
Forms of energy
• Kinetic
• Potential
• Mechanical = K. E+ P.E
• Electrical
• Chemical
• Nuclear
Fossils and Importance of Paleontology
Fossils are the preserved remains, impressions, or traces of ancient organisms that provide evidence of
past life on Earth. They are typically found in sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, shale, or
sandstone, and can include the remains of plants, animals, and even microorganisms.
The field of paleontology studies fossils and their interpretation to understand the history of life on our
planet. Some key points highlighting the importance of paleontology are as under:
Understanding Evolution: Fossils play a crucial role in understanding the process of evolution and
the development of different life forms over millions of years. By examining fossils from different
time periods, paleontologists can trace the lineage and evolutionary relationships of organisms,
providing insights into how species have changed and diversified over time.
Documenting Biodiversity: Fossils provide a record of past biodiversity, allowing scientists to study
ancient ecosystems and the variety of life forms that existed in different geological eras. This
knowledge helps in understanding the patterns and dynamics of biodiversity and how it has changed
throughout Earth's history.
Dating Geological Events: Fossils provide important clues for dating and correlating rock layers, as
they are often found in specific geological strata. By studying the fossils within different rock
formations, paleontologists can establish relative and absolute ages of rocks, helping to construct a
timeline of Earth's geological history.
Climate and Environmental Reconstruction: Fossils can provide valuable information about past
climates, environments, and ecological interactions. For example, the study of fossilized pollen and
plant remains can reveal past vegetation types and climate conditions. Fossilized shells and marine
organisms can indicate ancient oceanic conditions. This information is crucial for understanding how
ecosystems have responded to environmental changes in the past and can help in predicting future
ecological shifts.
Resource Exploration: Paleontological studies can assist in identifying potential sources of natural
resources, such as fossil fuels and minerals. Fossils can provide evidence of ancient environments that
may have been conducive to the formation of coal, oil, or natural gas deposits. Understanding the
geological contexts and distribution of fossils can aid in locating and extracting these valuable
resources.
Conservation and Preservation: Paleontology promotes the conservation and preservation of natural
heritage. Fossil sites are protected and studied to ensure the preservation of important scientific
information and to maintain the integrity of unique fossil records. By studying past extinction events,
paleontologists can also gain insights into the impacts of environmental changes on ecosystems, aiding
in modern-day conservation efforts.
Non-renewable energy Resources (conventional energy resources)
• A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale
comparable to its consumption.
• Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are considered nonrenewable because they cannot be
replenished in a short period of time. These are called fossil fuels.
Coal
• Peat
• Lignite
• Bituminous coal
• Anthracite coal
Natural Gas
• For heating, cooking and electricity generation.
• Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane,
but commonly including varing amount of other higher alkenes, and sometimes a small
percentage of CO2, N@, H2S.
Petroleum.
• Crude oil which is obtained under the crust of earth, on fractional distillation it gives
o Diesel
o Gasoline
o Kerosene oil
Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy Resources
• Environmental Pollution: Non-renewable energy sources are major contributors to air, water,
and soil pollution. The extraction, refining, and burning of fossil fuels release harmful
pollutants, including greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
These pollutants contribute to air pollution, smog, acid rain, and respiratory diseases, and they
have detrimental effects on ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Climate Change: The combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to the enhanced greenhouse effect and global
warming. This results in climate change, with adverse impacts such as rising sea levels,
extreme weather events, and altered ecosystems. Non-renewable energy resources exacerbate
the ongoing climate crisis.
• Limited Supply: Non-renewable energy resources are finite and exhaustible. Fossil fuel
reserves are depleting at a rapid rate, and their extraction becomes increasingly challenging and
 costly as accessible reserves diminish. Dependence on non-renewable resources puts future
energy security at risk, leading to potential energy shortages and geopolitical tensions.
• Price Volatility: The prices of non-renewable energy resources are subject to volatility due to
factors such as geopolitical conflicts, market demand, and supply disruptions. This volatility
affects energy costs and can have economic repercussions for individuals, businesses, and
entire industries.
• Unsustainable Extraction Practices: The extraction of non-renewable energy resources often
involves environmentally damaging practices. Coal mining can lead to land degradation, water
pollution, and habitat destruction. Offshore drilling for oil and gas carries the risk of oil spills
and accidents, causing severe harm to marine ecosystems and coastal communities.
• Health Impacts: The combustion of non-renewable energy sources emits pollutants that have
adverse effects on human health. Poor air quality resulting from the burning of fossil fuels is
linked to respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and increased mortality rates.
• Dependency on Imports: Many countries rely on imported fossil fuels to meet their energy
needs, which can make them vulnerable to supply disruptions, price fluctuations, and
geopolitical tensions. This dependency hampers energy independence and can have
implications for national security.
Renewable Energy Resources (non-conventional energy resources)
• Renewable resources are natural resources-sunlight, wind, rain, tides, are geothermal-that can
be replenished in a short period of time
Hydro-electric power: The process starts with the construction of a dam on a river or a reservoir
where water can be stored. When the dam gates are opened, gravity causes the water to flow downhill
or fall from a height. This flowing or falling water has a lot of kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of the water is used to turn large turbines, which are essentially giant wheels with
blades. As the water flows through the turbines, it causes them to rotate. The spinning turbines are
connected to generators, which are devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
rotating turbines transfer their mechanical energy to the generators, which produce electricity. The
electricity generated is then transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and industries for
various uses.

Wind Energy: Wind power is harnessed using wind turbines, which are tall structures with large
blades. When the wind blows, it causes the blades to rotate. The spinning motion of the blades is
connected to a generator, which converts the mechanical energy from the wind into electrical energy.
The strength and speed of the wind determine the amount of electricity generated. Wind turbines are
typically installed in locations where there is a consistent and strong wind flow, such as open plains or
coastal areas. As the wind passes over the curved blades of the turbine, it creates a difference in air
pressure. This pressure difference causes the blades to spin. The spinning motion is then transmitted to
the generator, where it is converted into electrical energy.
Bio Mass Energy: Energy from biomass is derived from organic matter, such as plants, wood,
agricultural waste, and even certain types of organic waste. It involves converting this biomass
material into usable energy, typically in the form of heat or electricity. Biomass energy can be
obtained through different processes, including combustion, fermentation, and conversion to biofuels.
One common method is the burning of biomass, which releases heat that can be used for heating
spaces or generating steam to produce electricity.
In combustion, biomass is burned in specialized power plants or furnaces. The heat produced by
burning biomass can be used directly or can be used to generate steam, which drives a turbine
connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Another way to obtain energy from biomass is through fermentation. This process involves breaking
down organic materials, such as agricultural waste or certain crops, in the presence of microorganisms.
The fermentation process produces biogas, primarily composed of methane, which can be used as a
fuel for heating or for generating electricity.

Geo-thermal Energy: Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that harnesses the heat stored
within the Earth's crust to generate electricity or provide heating and cooling for buildings. It takes
advantage of the natural heat from the Earth's interior. The Earth's crust contains hot rocks, magma,
and hot water reservoirs beneath the surface. Geothermal power plants utilize this heat by drilling deep
wells into the ground to access these hot resources. In areas with high geothermal activity, such as
geothermal hotspots or geologically active regions, the hot water or steam trapped below the surface
can be tapped into. When the hot water or steam is brought to the surface, it releases its thermal
energy. In a geothermal power plant, the hot water or steam is used to rotate turbines, which are
connected to generators. As the turbines spin, they generate electricity. The electricity is then
transmitted through power lines to be used by homes, businesses, and industries.

Solar Energy: Solar energy can be harnessed using solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV)
cells. These panels are made up of multiple small units called solar cells, which are typically made of
silicon. When sunlight shines on the solar panels, the solar cells absorb the energy from the sunlight.
The absorbed sunlight excites the electrons in the silicon, creating an electric current. This current is
then captured and converted into usable electricity. The electricity produced by solar panels can be
Civil Services Preparatory School
used to power homes, businesses, and even entire communities.
• Photovoltaic cell
•Advantages of renewable energy resources: Renewable energy resources offer several positive
impacts on both the environment and society. Here are some of the main positive impacts of renewable
energy resources:
• Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions: One of the most significant positive impacts of
renewable energy resources is their ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By replacing
fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, we can decrease our reliance on carbon-intensive
energy sources, such as coal and oil, and lower the amount of greenhouse gases that are
released into the atmosphere.
• Improved air and water quality: Renewable energy resources do not produce air or water
pollutants, unlike traditional non-renewable energy sources. This can lead to improved air and
water quality, which can have significant benefits for both human health and the environment.
• Economic benefits: Renewable energy technologies can create new jobs and stimulate
economic growth in the renewable energy sector. Additionally, using renewable energy
resources can reduce energy costs over time, as the cost of renewable energy technologies
continues to decrease.
• Energy security: By diversifying our energy sources and relying more on renewable energy
resources, we can improve our energy security and reduce our dependence on foreign oil and
gas.
• Improved public health: The use of renewable energy resources can lead to improved public
health, as the reduction in air and water pollutants can lower rates of respiratory illness, heart
disease, and other health problems.
•Limitations of renewable energy resources: While renewable energy resources offer many benefits
over traditional non-renewable energy sources, there are also some limitations to their use. Here are
some of the key limitations of renewable energy resources:
• Intermittency: Renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power are dependent on
weather conditions and are intermittent in nature. This means that they cannot provide a
constant and reliable source of energy without the use of energy storage systems or backup
power sources.
• Land use: Some renewable energy technologies, such as large-scale solar and wind farms,
require large amounts of land for their installation. This can be a challenge in areas where land
is limited or expensive.
 • Environmental impact: While renewable energy resources are generally considered to be
more environmentally friendly than non-renewable sources, their installation and operation can
still have negative environmental impacts. For example, hydroelectric dams can alter river
ecosystems, and wind turbines can pose a threat to birds and other wildlife.
• Cost: While the cost of renewable energy technologies has been decreasing in recent years,
they still tend to be more expensive than traditional non-renewable energy sources. This can
make them less competitive in some markets and limit their widespread adoption.
• Energy storage: As mentioned earlier, the intermittent nature of some renewable energy
sources requires the use of energy storage systems to ensure a reliable and constant supply of
energy. However, current energy storage technologies are still limited in terms of their
efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Resources
Renewable Energy Resources Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Definition Energy sources derived from natural Energy sources that are finite in supply and
processes that are constantly cannot be replenished within a human lifespan,
replenished, such as sunlight, wind, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
water, biomass, and geothermal heat. and nuclear fuels (uranium and plutonium).

Availability Abundant and widely available in Limited and depleting as they are extracted and
varying degrees across the globe. consumed faster than they can be replenished.

Environmental Generally low carbon emissions and High carbon emissions and environmental
Impact minimal pollution during operation. pollution during extraction, processing, and
Renewable energy sources are combustion. Non-renewable energy sources
considered cleaner and have lower contribute to air and water pollution,
environmental impact compared to deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions,
non-renewable sources. leading to climate change and environmental
degradation.
Sustainability Can be sustained indefinitely as they Finite resources that will eventually run out,
rely on natural processes for leading to energy scarcity and the need for
replenishment. alternative sources.
Energy Promotes energy independence and Often reliant on imports and subject to
Independence reduces dependence on fossil fuel geopolitical risks and price fluctuations due to
imports, as renewable resources are limited global reserves.
typically available domestically.
Cost Costs have been decreasing over time Costs can vary, but non-renewable energy
as technology advances, making sources may require expensive exploration,
renewable energy more economically extraction, and refining processes.
competitive.
Energy Enhances energy security by May pose energy security risks due to reliance
Security diversifying energy sources and on limited reserves and geopolitical factors.
reducing reliance on imported fuels.
Examples Solar energy, wind energy, Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear
hydroelectric power, biomass energy, power.
geothermal energy.
 Nuclear Energy
History
• It all started in 1940s, after the shock and horror of the war and the use of the atomic bomb.
Nuclear energy promised to be peaceful spin-off of the new technology helping the world get
back on its feet. One thing was certain; the future of atomic. Just a few years later, there was a
sort of nuclear age hungover; age it turned out, nuclear power was very complicated and very
expensive. Turning physics into Engineering was easy on paper, but hard in real life. But there
were many people who didn’t just want to abandon the promise of the atomic age; and exciting
new technology; the prospect of enormously cheap electricity and the prospect of being
independent of oil and gas imports. Nuclear energy finest hour came in the early 1970s, when
war in Middle East caused oil prices to skyrocket worldwide. After that a surprising
underdoing candidate won the day: the light water reactor.
• Energy from 1gm Uranium= 3 million times energy by burning the coal
• Production of Nuclear Energy: In nuclear power plants, the process of nuclear fission is used
to generate electricity. This involves the splitting of atoms, typically uranium or plutonium, in
a controlled manner. When the atomic nuclei are split, a tremendous amount of energy is
released in the form of heat. The heat generated from nuclear fission is used to produce steam,
which drives a turbine connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it generates electricity.
This electricity is then transmitted through power lines to be used by homes, businesses, and
industries.

Nuclear Energy and the Developed World

• This continued growth of world’s population and gradual increase of people’s living standard
in developing counties have speed up the exhaustion of fossil fuels.
• Non-continuous supply of wind and solar power generation, resources constraint for
hydropower and biomass etc. these set barriers on fulfilling world’s energy demand in near
future.
Factors that favor Nuclear Energy.
• High Energy Density: Nuclear energy has an extremely high energy density, meaning that a
small amount of nuclear fuel can produce a large amount of energy. This makes it a highly
efficient source of energy compared to other conventional sources like fossil fuels.
• Base Load Power: Nuclear power plants are capable of providing a steady and reliable supply
of electricity, making them well-suited for meeting the base load power demands of a grid.
They can operate continuously for long periods without interruption, unlike some renewable
sources that are intermittent and depend on weather conditions.
• Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power generation produces very low greenhouse
gas emissions during electricity production. It does not emit carbon dioxide (CO2) or other air
 pollutants associated with fossil fuel combustion. This makes nuclear energy attractive from an
environmental standpoint and in the context of mitigating climate change.
• Energy Security: Nuclear energy reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels as it can be
produced domestically. This enhances energy security by reducing dependence on foreign
sources and mitigating the impact of price volatility and geopolitical factors associated with
fossil fuel imports.
• Large-Scale Power Generation: Nuclear power plants are capable of generating a significant
amount of electricity, making them suitable for large-scale power generation. This can help
meet the energy demands of densely populated areas and support industrial development.
• Technological Advancements: Continued advancements in nuclear technology have focused
on safety, waste management, and efficiency. Newer reactor designs, such as Generation IV
reactors, aim to improve safety features, minimize waste, and increase fuel efficiency, further
enhancing the attractiveness of nuclear energy.
Nuclear Energy and Pakistan
• Nuclear Power Plants: Pakistan operates several nuclear power plants for electricity
generation. The country's first nuclear power plant, Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP),
started operating in 1972. Currently, there are four operational nuclear power plants in
Pakistan: KANUPP, Chashma-1, Chashma-2, and C-3. These plants contribute a significant
portion of Pakistan's electricity generation capacity.
• Energy Generation: Nuclear power plays a vital role in Pakistan's energy mix, aiming to
reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels and diversify its energy sources. The nuclear
power plants in operation have a combined capacity of over 1,400 megawatts (MW), providing
a reliable and stable supply of electricity to the grid.
• Future Expansion: Pakistan has plans for further expansion of its nuclear power capacity to
meet its growing energy demands. Additional nuclear power plants are under construction,
including Chashma-3 (C-3) and Chashma-4 (C-4). These plants will contribute additional
electricity generation capacity, further strengthening Pakistan's nuclear energy infrastructure.
• Nuclear Cooperation: Pakistan has engaged in international cooperation for nuclear energy
development. It has collaborated with countries like China, Russia, and Argentina to establish
nuclear power plants and enhance its capabilities in the nuclear energy sector.
• Safeguards and Non-Proliferation: Pakistan is a nuclear-armed country and has taken
measures to ensure the safety, security, and non-proliferation of its nuclear technology and
materials. It has adopted comprehensive safeguards and implemented international non-
proliferation agreements, including being a member of the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA).
Biotechnology
Biotechnology
• It is a process of using living organism or their enzyme or their molecule to obtain products or
to develop processes for welfare of mankind
Or
• Biotechnology is the use of technology to modify or manipulate any biological system or living
system for the development and improvement of products of various purposes.
Principle of Biotechnology
Genetic Engineering
• The principle of genetic engineering is to modify the existing organisms by changing the
genetic material in them. It mainly includes the recombinant DNA technology.
OR
 • It is ability to isolate gene from organisms and transfer it into host to change the genetic
material of the host organism.
Chemical Engineering (maintenance of sterile products)
• Modern biotechnology raised the pharmaceutical industries to the peak point. Its application
resulted in many biotechnological products both in terms of quantity and quality. It improved
the method of manufacturing, storage, and maintenance. Antibiotics, enzymes, vaccines, etc.
are few examples.
Application of Biotechnology
Agriculture
• Herbicides (weed killing chemicals) and pesticides (insect killing chemicals) are used to
eliminate the crops enemies (weeds and insects). Such chemicals also cause damage to the crop
plants. Using biotechnology, scientists insert weed resistance and pest resistance genes into the
plants. The major crops the have been modified are maize, wheat, rice, canola, potato, soya
bean, cotton etc.
Health
• Biotechnology techniques are also used for curing diseases and improving health. The diseases
for which previously no adequate treatment was available can now be treated using
biotechnology techniques. Various biotechnology products which are used to save lives
include:
• Inulin: useful for diabetics
• Vaccine: used against many infectious diseases
• Growth hormone: useful for stimulating growth
• Beta-endorphin: A pain killer drug
• Interferon: anti-proteins
Environment
• Environmental problems, like pollution, degradation of land and sewage water, etc. are also
resolved using biotechnology. Microorganisms, e.g., genetically modified bacteria are used to
treat swage and refuse. They may also be used to clear spilled oil. Microbes which are as bio-
pesticides, bio-fertilizers, biosensors, etc., are being developed using biotechnology techniques.
Current and Future perspective of Biotechnology in Pakistan
• Biotechnology is a rapidly growing field in Pakistan, with significant potential for growth in
the future. According to a report by the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology, the
biotechnology industry in Pakistan is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 20% between 2020 and 2025 (1). This growth is being driven by the increasing
demand for biotech products and services in agriculture, healthcare, and industry.
• In agriculture, biotechnology is being used to develop new crop varieties that are resistant to
pests and diseases, have higher yields, and are more resilient to changing climate conditions.
For example, researchers at the National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
in Faisalabad have developed a new variety of cotton that is resistant to bollworm and other
pests (2).
• In healthcare, biotechnology is being used to develop new drugs, vaccines, and diagnostics for
a range of diseases. Pakistani biotech companies are involved in the production of a range of
biological drugs, including insulin, erythropoietin, and interferon (3). Additionally, the Pakistani
government is investing in the development of a biotech park in Islamabad, which will provide
state-of-the-art facilities for biotech research and development.
 • In industry, biotechnology is being used to develop new products and processes for a range of
applications, including food and beverage production, waste management, and energy
production. Pakistani biotech companies are involved in the production of enzymes, biofuels,
and other bioproducts (4).
• Despite the growth potential, there are also several challenges facing the biotechnology
industry in Pakistan, including the lack of skilled human resources, limited infrastructure, and a
weak intellectual property rights regime (5). To address these challenges, the Pakistani
government is investing in the development of a biotech policy, which will provide a
framework for the development of the biotech industry in the country.
1. Pakistan Council for Science and Technology. (2020). Biotechnology. Retrieved from
[Link]
2. Saeed, U. (2018). Pakistani Scientists Develop New Cotton Variety Resistant to Pests. Voice of
America. Retrieved from [Link]
develop-new-cotton-variety-resistant-pests
3. Pakistani Biological Drugs Manufacturers Association. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved from
[Link]
4. Khawar, R. (2019). Biotechnology Industry in Pakistan. BioTech Times. Retrieved from
[Link]
5. Shahzad, K., et al. (2019). Biotechnology in Pakistan: Current Status and Prospects. Journal of
Biotechnology Research and Innovation, 1(1), 17-21.
Biofuel
• Biofuel is liquid, gas and solid fuels that are primarily originated from biomass (biomass
energy is an industry term that refers to obtaining energy by burning wood, plants, and
other organic matter. Manure, for example, is Organic material). Biofuel has oxygen level
of 10-45% making the chemical properties of biofuel very different from those of
petroleum.
• Examples: bio-ethanol, bio-methanol, bio-diesel, biogas, biosynthetic gas, bio-oil, bio-
hydrogen etc.
Classification of biofuels according to their source.
• Forest biomass, agriculture biomass, fishery products or municipal waste biomass etc.
Classification of biomass basis on their physical state.
• Solid pellets i.e. fuelwood, charcoal, and wood pallets
• Liquid such as ethanol, biodiesel etc.
• Gaseous such has biogas.

Biofuel
Classification based on processed form or in the unprocessed form
• Primary biofuels are used in an unprocessed form primarily for heating, cooking or electricity
production. These fuels include wood pellets, lumbar, charcoal, corn, sugarcane. And others
 • Secondary biofuels are generated by processing of plants / crops biomass that can be used in
vehicles and various industrial processes.

Advantages
o Cost benefit: biofuels have the potential to be significantly less expensive than gasoline
and other fossil fuels.
o Easy to source: gasoline is refined from crude oil, which happens to be non-renewable
resource. Biofuels are made from many different sources such as manure, waste from
crops and plants grown specifically for fuel.
o Renewable: most of the sources like manure, corn, switchgrass, soya bean, waste from
crops and plants are renewable and are not likely to run out.
o Reduce GHGs:
o Lower level of pollution
Disadvantages
o Energy output: biofuels have lower energy outputs than traditional fuels and therefore
require greater quantities to be consumed in order to produce the same energy level.
o Increased food prices.
o Waster use
 Massive quantity of water is required for proper irrigation of biofuels crops.
Future of Biofuels.
o Ex – PM’s (Imran Khan) special Assistant on Energy Nadeem Baber said the ratio of
renewable energy in the energy mix was only six percent and the new policy was aimed
to increase this ratio up to 20 percent by 2025. He said electricity generation from
renewable energy was the main purpose under the new policy where provision of
cheapest electricity to people could made possible. He also informed the meeting that
efforts were being made to utilize solar, wind, municipal waste, hydrogen, biogas,
biofuel and waves of Ocean like renewable resources to produce energy, adding new
methods would also be used for storage of this energy.
o Pakistan’s 2030 vision is aimed at a smooth transition to the alternative renewable
energy (ARE) goal of 60% at the end of 2030 by phasing out dependence on fossil fuel
and increasing the ratio of electric vehicles to 30%. It was highlighted at the Future
Energy Asia Conference 2023, organized by USAID in Bangkok and attended by a
delegation from Pakistan. The delegation, led by Federal Minister of Energy Khurram
Dastgir, comprised Power Division Additional Secretary Amjad Majeed Khan, Private
Power and Infrastructure Board (PPIB) Managing Director Shah Jahan Mirza and
Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) Director Syed Aqeel Hussain Jaffri.
The agenda of the conference was “Emerging Clean Energy Investment Opportunities
in Pakistan”. The energy minister highlighted Pakistan’s transition to clean energy and
 the goals set in the National Electricity Policy 2021. These goals are to be achieved by
2030 and are in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Past paper questions
o Explain renewable energy resources. (CSS-2011/2008/2013).
o Differentiate between the renewable and non-renewable sources of energy giving
examples of each one of them. (CSS-2019).
o Why nuclear energy is preferred in developed countries. (CSS-2013)
o What is the current status and future perspectives of Biotechnology in Pakistan (CSS-
2015)
o Give a brief account of Biotechnology? (CSS-2019)
o Define the term “Biofuel” How it is helpful to promote clean energy? (CSS-2018)
o Differentiate between the renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Briefly explain
Geothermal Energy and Hydro Electricity. (CSS-2020)
o What are the Fossils? Discuss the importance of paleontology. (CSS – 2020)
o What are the advantages and limitations of renewable energy resources? Briefly explain
the prospects of non-conventional energy resources in Pakistan. (CSS – 2021)
o Differentiate between renewable and non – renewable sources of energy. Briefly
explain wind energy, solar energy and biofuels. (CSS – 2022)
o Define the term Biosphere? Write a note on the energy resources available in the
biosphere. (CSS – 2023)
 Chapter # 05 Atomic Structure and EMR
•Atomic structure and electromagnetic radiations are two fundamental concepts in the field of physics.
Atomic structure is the study of the arrangement and behavior of atoms, which are the basic building
blocks of matter. Electromagnetic radiations are waves of energy that travel through space at the speed
of light and include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-
rays, and gamma rays. In atomic structure, the main focus is on the structure of the atom, including the
arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the nucleus and the electron shells surrounding the
nucleus. The study of atomic structure has played a crucial role in the development of modern
technology, including nuclear power, quantum mechanics, and semiconductor technology. On the
other hand, electromagnetic radiation is the result of the movement of charged particles, such as
electrons. The characteristics of electromagnetic radiation depend on its wavelength and frequency.
The different types of electromagnetic radiation have different wavelengths and frequencies and are
responsible for various phenomena in nature, such as photosynthesis, vision, and communication
technology.
• Atom: Smallest particle that cannot be further sub-divided.
• Fundamental particles of an atom: Proton, electron and proton
• Atomic Number (Z): Total number of proton or electron in an atom.
• Atomic Mass(A): Total number of proton and neutron in an atom
• Shell: K, L, M, N

Why do atoms form bonds?

Atoms form bond to make complete their Octet rule or Duplet rule. In other words, to make
themselves stable.
Octet Rule
• The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence
shell.
Duplet rule
• The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have two electrons in the valence
shell
Atomic Numbers of important Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Number
Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2
Carbon C 6
Nitrogen N 7
Oxygen O 8
Florine F 9
Sodium Na 11
Chlorine Cl 17

Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bond: Complete transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another.
• Example of NaC1.
Covalent Bond: Type of bond involves sharing of electrons between atoms.
Types of covalent bond
• Single covalent bond
• Example of hydrogen molecules

Double Covalent Bond

• Example of Oxygen Molecule

Triple Covalent Bond

• Example of nitrogen Molecule

Molecular Orbital Theory

• It is a method of describing electronic structure of molecule
• Example of NH3 and H2O
• Structure of H2O
 • Structure of NH3

Co-ordinate Covalent Bond/ Dative Bond: A coordinate bond is a covalent bond between two atoms
where one of the atoms provides both electrons that form the bond.
• Concept of donor and accepter.
• Example of {NH4} + Ion .

Electromagnetic Radiations
• Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that is all around us and takes many forms,
such as RMIVUXY.
• ionizing and non-ionizing.
o X-ray and Gamma rays are ionizing due to their high energy and high frequency/
• Spectrum

Characteristics of EMR
o Amplitude, Frequency and speed.
o EMR does not need medium for their propagation.
o They travel with the speed of light.
o The electric and magnetic waves have oscillations that are oriented 90 degrees from
each other and 90 degrees the direction of travel of the wave.
 Applications of EMR
Type of Production Applications Issues
wave
Radio Accelerating charges Communications, Remote Requires control for
controls, MRI band use
Microwaves Accelerating charges Communications, Ovens, Radar,
and thermal agitation Cell phone use
Infrared Thermal agitation and Thermal imaging, Heating Absorbed by
electronic transitions atmosphere,
Greenhouse effect
Visible light Thermal agitation and Photosynthesis, Human vision
electronic transitions
Ultraviolet Thermal agitation and Sterilization, Vitamin D Ozone depletion,
electronic transitions production Cancer causing
X-rays Inner electronic Security, Medical diagnosis, Cancer causing
transitions and fast Cancer therapy
collisions
Gamma rays Nuclear decay Nuclear medicine, Security, Cancer causing,
Medical diagnosis, Cancer Radiation damage
therapy
• Artificial and Natural Radioactivity
o Natural radioactivity, occurs when unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously decay,
emitting particles or electromagnetic waves. This process occurs naturally in the Earth's
crust, in the atmosphere, and in living organisms. Examples of naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes include uranium, radium, and carbon-14.
o Artificial radioactivity, on the other hand, is induced through the bombardment of
stable atomic nuclei with high-energy particles or radiation. This process can be
achieved through nuclear reactions in a laboratory or in a nuclear reactor. The resulting
isotopes are unstable and can emit particles or electromagnetic waves until they reach a
stable state. Examples of artificially induced radioactive isotopes include iodine-131,
cobalt-60, and technetium-99m.
Category Natural Radioactivity Artificial Radioactivity
Origin of isotopes Occurs spontaneously in Induced through human
nature intervention
Source of radiation Naturally occurring Induced isotopes created in
isotopes a laboratory or nuclear
reactor
Examples of isotopes Uranium, radium, carbon- Iodine-131, cobalt-60,
14 technetium-99m
 Amount of radiation Constant rate of emission Controlled amount and type
emitted of radiation emitted
Uses Radiometric dating, Cancer treatment, medical
medical imaging, nuclear imaging, scientific research
power

Past paper Questions

• Explain the shape of water molecule with the help of Molecular Orbit Theory, also
draw its orbit diagram. (CSS-2016)
• What are the gamma rays? Explain their applications. (CSS – 2016)
• Why do atoms form bonds? Name three major types of chemical bonds (CSS-2019)
• What is natural radioactivity? How it is different from the artificial radioactivity? (CSS
– 2020)
• What is Radioactivity. Differentiate between Artificial and Natural Radioactivity. (CSS
– 2022)
• Write two applications of the each of the following EMR. (CSS–2023)
o Ultraviolet
o Infra – red
o Microwave
o Radio waves
o X–rays
Chapter # 6 Modern Materials
CERAMICS
A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of clay that have been shaped and then
hardened by heating to high temperature. It includes materials like bricks, plates, glasses, etc.
Definition of Ceramics and Nano – ceramics
• Ceramics: According to the book "Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers" by
James F. Shackelford, ceramics are nonmetallic and inorganic materials that are made
from compounds of a metal and a nonmetal. They are typically formed by shaping and
then heating the material to a high temperature, causing it to become dense and hard.
Ceramics are known for their high melting points, hardness, and resistance to wear,
corrosion, and high temperatures. Examples of ceramics include pottery, porcelain, and
refractory materials used in furnaces and kilns.
• Nano-ceramics: Nano-ceramics are a type of ceramic material that has been engineered
at the nanoscale level, meaning that it has dimensions on the order of nanometers (one
billionth of a meter). According to the book "Nanostructured Materials and
Nanotechnology" by Carl C. Koch, nano-ceramics exhibit unique properties that are not
found in conventional ceramics, such as increased strength, toughness, and resistance to
fracture. They also have potential applications in fields such as electronics, energy, and
biomedicine. Examples of nano-ceramics include alumina, zirconia, and silicon nitride
nanoparticles.
Property Ceramics Nano-ceramics
Material Composition Nonmetallic and Same as ceramics, but
inorganic compounds of a engineered at the
metal and a nonmetal nanoscale level
Structure Crystalline or amorphous Crystalline with grain
sizes in the nanometer
range
Mechanical Properties Hard, brittle, and strong Stronger, tougher, and
in compression more resistant to fracture
Thermal Properties High melting points and Improved thermal shock
thermal stability resistance
Electrical Properties Insulators or Improved dielectric
semiconductors properties
Optical Properties Translucent or transparent Enhanced optical
properties, including
color and luminescence
Applications Pottery, porcelain, Electronics, energy,
refractory materials, and biomedicine, and
advanced ceramics advanced materials
Reasons for better properties of Nano – Ceramics from Ceramics: Nano-ceramics can
exhibit superior properties compared to their conventional ceramic counterparts due to their
unique structure and properties at the nanoscale. Some reasons why nano-ceramics may have
better properties than conventional ceramics are:
 • Increased surface area: Nano-ceramics have a higher surface area to volume ratio than
conventional ceramics, which allows for more effective interactions with other materials
and improved reactivity.
• Enhanced mechanical properties: Nano-ceramics have smaller grain sizes, which leads to
improved mechanical properties such as higher strength, toughness, and resistance to
fracture. This is due to the reduction of flaws and defects at the nanoscale.
• Improved thermal and electrical properties: Nano-ceramics exhibit improved thermal
and electrical conductivity due to the reduced size of grains and defects that limit the
flow of energy or charge carriers.
• Enhanced optical properties: Nano-ceramics can exhibit enhanced optical properties,
including color and luminescence, due to their unique structure and properties at the
nanoscale.
How ceramics are made
• Traditional: firing is the traditional method.
• First step is digging ground for clay then mixing it with water.
• Then material is forced into shape with the help of extrusion machines (forcing a material
into shape by squeezing it like toothpaste through a shaped tool).
• Material are laid in a automatically rotating mold: jiggering (laying the material
automatically into a rotating mold).
• Powered Ceramic material is then heated and pressed to fuse the material into shape: Hot
pressing (forcing a powdered form of the ceramics into a mold then simultaneously
heating it and pressing it to fuse the material into shape).
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
• They are hard, extremely strong and wear resistant.
• Durable.
• Refractory materials: can tolerate high temperature.
• Corrosion resistant.
• Inert to chemical reactions.
• Thermal, electrical insulators and nonmagnetic.
• Oxidation resistant.
• Brittle.
CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS BASED ON APPLICATION
PLASTICS
Plastic are synthetic organic materials that can be shaped into variety of products under heat. In
general, that are made up of long, chain like molecules called polymers.
General Properties
• They are lighter than many materials of comparable strength.
• Do not rust or rot.
• Corrosion resistant and can be produced in many colors or transparent.
• Lower density than of metals.
• Electrical insulators.
• Withstand temperatures.
• Chemically stable and not brittle.
TYPES OF PLASTICS & HAZARDS
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling. Examples
include Polyethylene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene etc.
Thermosetting Plastic
Those plastics which can be molded once and cannot be remolded again and again. Examples
include Epoxy, Unsaturated Polystyrene, Phenolic etc.
Limitation/ Hazards of Plastics
• Chemicals in plastics are absorbed by human bodies.
• Plastic debris, often ingested by animals: wildlife poisoning.
• Plastic buried deep in landfills can leach its chemicals in groundwater.
• Oil is used which leads to environmental pollution.
• Burning plastics can result in toxic fumes.
Advantages of Plastics
Polyethylene
It is mostly used in plastic because it is inexpensive, flexible, tough and chemical resistant. It can
be molded into bottles, plastic toy, bags etc.
PVC
It is used to form pipe, compact discs and computer casings.
Polystyrene
It is used to form toys, model aircraft kits and ball points etc.
Epoxy
It has great importance in the aerospace industry because they are tough and extremely weather
resistant and do not shrink as they dry.
Unsaturated polystyrene
They can be molded into products such as shower floors, small boats hulls and roofing
materials.
Phenolic
They are excellent electrical resistant, so they are used in producing things like electrical circuit
boards, electrical switches, radio and television casings.
Semiconductors
Definition: Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between that of
conductors (like metals) and insulators (like rubber or plastic). They are crucial components in
electronic devices and form the foundation of modern electronics.
In semiconductors, the electrical conductivity is determined by the movement of charge carriers,
which are either electrons or electron deficiencies known as "holes." The behavior of these
charge carriers is influenced by impurities intentionally added to the semiconductor material.
This intentional doping process creates two main types of semiconductors: p-type and n-type.
P-type Semiconductors: In a p-type semiconductor, the material is doped with impurities that
introduce electron deficiencies or "holes" as charge carriers. This is achieved by adding trivalent
impurities, such as boron or aluminum, to a pure semiconductor material, such as silicon or
germanium. The trivalent impurities have one less valence electron than the atoms they replace
in the crystal lattice structure, creating vacant spots or holes. These holes act as positive charge
carriers and can move through the material when an electric field is applied. The majority charge
carriers in p-type semiconductors are holes, while the minority charge carriers are electrons.

N-type Semiconductors: In an n-type semiconductor, the material is doped with impurities that
introduce additional free electrons as charge carriers. This is achieved by adding pentavalent
impurities, such as phosphorus or arsenic, to a pure semiconductor material. The pentavalent
impurities have one extra valence electron compared to the atoms they replace in the crystal
lattice structure, creating excess electrons. These excess electrons act as negative charge carriers
and contribute to the material's conductivity. In n-type semiconductors, the majority charge
carriers are electrons, while the minority charge carriers are holes.
Applications of Semiconductors – Brain and Heart of Modern Electronics
• Integrated Circuits (ICs): Semiconductors are used to fabricate ICs, which are
miniature electronic circuits that can contain thousands to billions of transistors, resistors,
and other components. These ICs perform a wide range of functions, from basic logic
operations to complex data processing. They are used in almost every electronic device
we use today, including computers, smartphones, televisions, and automotive electronics.
• Transistors: Transistors are fundamental building blocks of modern electronics and are
made from semiconducting materials. They act as switches or amplifiers and are used to
control the flow of electrical current within electronic circuits. Transistors enable the
manipulation and processing of signals, allowing for the creation of digital logic circuits,
analog amplifiers, and memory elements.
• Digital Logic: Semiconductors are used to implement digital logic circuits, which form
the basis of modern computing systems. Digital logic circuits process and manipulate
binary information (0s and 1s) and are responsible for tasks such as arithmetic
calculations, data storage, and control functions.
• Memory Devices: Semiconductors are used to create various types of memory devices,
such as RAM (Random Access Memory) and non-volatile memory (e.g., Flash memory).
These memory devices store and retrieve data in electronic devices, enabling the storage
of programs, data files, and other information.
• Sensing and Control: Semiconductors are used in sensors and control systems to detect
and measure various physical quantities, such as temperature, pressure, light, and motion.
They convert these physical signals into electrical signals that can be processed and used
for control and feedback purposes.

IMMUNIZATION / VACCINATION
A method of stimulating resistance in the human body to specific diseases is called vaccination.
Whereas, a vaccine is a biological preparation that improve immunity to a particular disease.
WORKING OF A VACCINE
Vaccine work by stimulating our immune system to produce antibodies without actually
infecting us with the disease. Vaccine triggers the immune system to produce its own antibodies
against disease as though the body has been infected with it. This is called “Active Immunity”. If
the vaccinated person, then comes into contact with the disease itself, their immune system will
recognize it and immediately produce the antibodies they need to fight.
DELIVERY SYSTEM
There are several new delivery systems in development in the hope of making vaccines more
efficient to deliver. The latest development in vaccine delivery technologies have resulted in oral
vaccine.
OBJECTIVE: In 1885, Louis Pasture created the first successful vaccine against rabies for
young boy who has been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
TYPES OF VACCINES
Inactivated Vaccines: These vaccines contain killed or inactivated forms of the disease-causing
organism, such as viruses or bacteria. Examples include the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and
the hepatitis A vaccine.
Live Attenuated Vaccines: These vaccines contain weakened forms of the disease-causing
organism. They closely resemble the natural infection and can stimulate a strong immune
response. Examples include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and the oral polio
vaccine (OPV).
Subunit, Recombinant, and Conjugate Vaccines: These vaccines use specific pieces of the
disease-causing organism, such as proteins or polysaccharides, to stimulate an immune response.
They do not contain the whole organism. Examples include the hepatitis B vaccine, the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, and the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine.
mRNA Vaccines: These vaccines use messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to produce a
harmless piece of the virus or bacteria. The immune system recognizes this piece as foreign and
mounts an immune response. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines are
examples of mRNA vaccines.
Vector Vaccines: These vaccines use a harmless virus or bacterium, called a vector, to deliver a
piece of the disease-causing organism into the body. The vector acts as a vehicle to stimulate an
immune response. The Oxford-AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccines use
viral vectors.
DNA Vaccines: These vaccines use a small, circular piece of DNA containing genes that encode
proteins from the disease-causing organism. The DNA is taken up by cells, which then produce
the encoded proteins to stimulate an immune response. DNA vaccines are still in the
experimental stage.
ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics (Anti means against; Bios means life) are chemical compounds used to kill or inhibit
the growth of infectious organisms.
HOW DO ANTIBIOTIC WORKS
• They kill bacteria y disrupting one of the processes they need to survive.
• They stop bacteria from reproducing and multiplying.
Side effects of antibiotics
The most common side effect of antibiotics is its effect on digestive system. These occur in
aournd 1 in 10 people. Side effects of antibiotics that effect the digestive system includes.
• Feeling sick
 • Diarrhea
• Bloating and indigestion
• Abdominal pain
• Loss of appetite
TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS
Penicillin: to treat certain infections such as skin infections, chest infections and urinary tract
infections.
Cephalosporin: to treat serious infections.
Aminoglycosides: tend to only be used in hospital to treat very serious illnesses, as they can
cause serious side effect, including hearing and kidney damages.
Tetracycline: can be used to treat wide range of infections.
Macrolides: Used in treating lungs and chest infections.
Fluoroquinolones: Broad spectrum antibiotics that can be used to treat wide range of infections.
EFFECT OF INDISCRIMINATE / CASUAL USE OF ANTINIOTICS
Self-medication of antibiotics leads to nausea, vomiting and diarrhea and other severe problems.
Antibiotics also kill useful bacteria present in intestine. This disturbs the natural balance of
intestinal bacteria fauna.
Indiscriminate use of antibiotics makes the pathogens resistant.
Taking antibiotics too often or for the wrong reasons can change bacteria so much that
antibiotics don’t work against them. This is called bacterial resistance or antibiotic resistance.
Using antibiotics to treat minor conditions that would have got better anyway. It has led to the
emergence of “Superbugs”- these are strains of bacteria that have developed resistance to many
different types of antibiotics and are causing deaths worldwide.
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

DIFFERENCE B/W ANTIBIOTICS & VACCINES

VACCINE ANTIBIOTICS
Vaccines are dead or inactivated organisms or Antibiotics are small molecules or
compounds that are used to provide immunity compounds that are effective in treating
to a particular infection or disease infections caused by organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and protozoa
Vaccine kills virus Antibiotics kills bacteria
Vaccine is taken once and has permanent Antibiotics work during the time of disease
effect
 Vaccine can give orally or through injection Antibiotics are available in different forms
like tablets drops etc
Vaccines are preventive method that is taken Antibiotics are taken after getting infected
before getting infected
Some vaccines may cause allergic reactions. Some antibiotics may have side effects like
diarrhea nausea and allergic reactions.
Fertilizers
Definition: Fertilizers are substances or mixtures added to soil or plants to provide essential
nutrients that are necessary for plant growth and development. They can help improve soil
fertility and ensure optimal plant nutrition.
Primary and secondary fertilizers are classifications based on the essential nutrients they provide
to plants.
Primary Fertilizers: Primary fertilizers are those that supply the three primary macronutrients
required in large quantities by plants: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These
nutrients are often referred to as NPK.
• Nitrogen Fertilizers: Nitrogen fertilizers primarily provide nitrogen to plants. Examples
include ammonium nitrate, urea, and ammonium sulfate. Nitrogen is vital for promoting
vegetative growth, leaf development, and protein synthesis in plants.
• Phosphorus Fertilizers: Phosphorus fertilizers mainly supply phosphorus to plants.
Examples include superphosphate, triple superphosphate, and diammonium phosphate.
Phosphorus is essential for root development, flowering, fruiting, and energy transfer
within plants.
• Potassium Fertilizers: Potassium fertilizers predominantly provide potassium to plants.
Examples include potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, and potassium nitrate.
Potassium is crucial for water regulation, nutrient uptake, enzyme activation, and overall
plant health.
Secondary Fertilizers: Secondary fertilizers are those that supply secondary macronutrients and
micronutrients required by plants in smaller quantities.
• Secondary Macronutrients: The secondary macronutrients include calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). While these nutrients are required in lesser amounts
compared to NPK, they play important roles in plant growth and development.
o Calcium Fertilizers: Calcium fertilizers, such as calcium carbonate and calcium
nitrate, supply calcium to plants. Calcium is essential for cell wall structure, cell
division, and nutrient uptake.
o Magnesium Fertilizers: Magnesium fertilizers, such as magnesium sulfate,
provide magnesium to plants. Magnesium is a key component of chlorophyll, the
pigment responsible for photosynthesis, and is vital for enzyme activation and
energy production.
o Sulfur Fertilizers: Sulfur fertilizers, including elemental sulfur and ammonium
sulfate, supply sulfur to plants. Sulfur is involved in protein synthesis, enzyme
functions, and plays a role in chlorophyll production.
• Micronutrient Fertilizers: Micronutrients are required by plants in trace amounts. They
include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum
 (Mo), and others. Micronutrient fertilizers ensure that plants receive adequate amounts of
these essential elements, which are necessary for various biochemical and physiological
processes.
Advantages of Fertilizers:
• Improved Plant Growth and Yield: Fertilizers provide essential nutrients that may be
lacking in the soil, helping to support optimal plant growth, development, and increased
crop yield.
• Nutrient Management: Fertilizers allow farmers and gardeners to precisely manage
nutrient levels in the soil, ensuring that plants receive the right amount of nutrients for
their specific requirements.
• Addressing Soil Deficiencies: Fertilizers can rectify nutrient deficiencies in the soil,
which may hinder plant growth and productivity. They can replenish nutrient levels and
correct imbalances, leading to healthier plants.
• Increased Nutrient Efficiency: Fertilizers can enhance nutrient uptake and utilization by
plants, improving the overall efficiency of nutrient utilization. This can result in reduced
fertilizer wastage and cost savings.
• Rapid Response: Fertilizers can provide quick nutrient availability to plants, allowing
for faster growth responses and addressing immediate nutrient deficiencies.
Dark Side of the Excessive use of Fertilizers:
• Environmental Pollution: When excess fertilizers are applied to fields or gardens, they
can leach into groundwater or runoff into nearby water bodies. This can lead to water
pollution, particularly through the release of nitrogen and phosphorus, causing
eutrophication of lakes, rivers, and streams. Eutrophication can result in oxygen
depletion, harmful algal blooms, and negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
• Soil Degradation: Overuse of fertilizers can disrupt the natural balance of nutrients in
the soil. Excessive nitrogen application, for example, can lead to soil acidification,
nutrient imbalances, and reduced soil fertility over time. It may also negatively affect soil
organisms and microbial activity, leading to long-term soil degradation.
• Health Risks: Improper and excessive use of fertilizers can pose risks to human health.
When fertilizers contain high levels of contaminants such as heavy metals or pathogens,
they can enter the food chain through plant uptake. Consuming crops contaminated with
these substances can have adverse health effects.
• Economic Costs: Excessive use of fertilizers can be economically unsustainable. Over-
fertilization leads to wastage of resources as the excess nutrients are not effectively
utilized by plants. It also increases input costs for farmers and gardeners without a
proportional increase in crop yield.
• Negative Impact on Biodiversity: Excessive fertilization can alter soil and ecosystem
conditions, favoring certain plant species over others. This can lead to changes in
biodiversity, including the loss of native plant species and increased dominance of
nutrient-demanding weeds.
PESTICIDES
An insect, animal, fungi, weed etc. are called Pests when their number increases to such an
extent that they start that they start economic losses to human being. Pesticide is any substance,
which is used to destroy the action pests.
Classification on the basis of target
Insecticides: used to destroy the insects
Rodenticides: used to kill rodents like rats, mouse etc.
Nematodes: used to kill nematodes.
Fungicides: used to kill fungi.
Weedicides: used to kill weeds.
Herbicides: used to kill unwanted plants.
Classification on the basis of chemical nature
Organic pesticides: carbon as the basis of their molecular structure and these are complex in
nature.
Inorganic pesticides: Sulphur and lime as the basis of their molecular structure and these are
simple in nature.
Hazards of Pesticides
• Pesticides kill beneficial insects.
• Groundwater contamination.
• There is possibility of pesticides in human food, either by direct application onto the
food.
• It can cause skin cancer.
• Some pesticides are not easily degradable, so they remain in the environment for longer
period of time.
• Insecticides can enter into the fruits which in turns can enter into the bodies of human
beings.
• Pesticides have negative impact on human health ranging from short-term reproductive
problems and endocrine disruptions.
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
• Define the term Ceramics. (CSS-1996, CSS-2001).
• Write a brief note on CERAMICS. (CSS-2007, CSS-2008).
• Is plastic a natural or an artificial polymer? Describe various types of plastics and their
uses (CSS-1986, CSS-2002, CSS-2011).
• What are PLASTICS? Describe briefly their characteristics and Limitation (CSS-2008).
• Why an indiscriminate / casual use of Antibiotics may prove dangerous? (CSS-2009).
• What’s the different between vaccines and antibiotics? How do antibiotics vaccines
contribute to health (CSS-2019).
• What’s the different between Antibiotics and vaccines? (CSS-2008).
• Write a note on vaccine. (CSS-2001, CSS-2002, CSS-2007, CSS-2015).
• Write a short note on Vaccine (CSS-2001, CSS-2007)
• Write a short note on Pesticide (CSS- 2001, CSS-2003)
• What are pesticides? Explain how these are dangerous to human beings? (CSS-2010).
• Write all that you know about Pesticides. How are the classified by agronomists? (CSS-
2013).
• Why the excessive use of chemical fertilizers should be avoided? (CSS – 2019)
• What are Pesticides? Explain their different types; why persistent pesticides are more
lethal for mankind? (CSS- 2020)
• What are vaccines? Classify these and discuss DNA vaccines in detail. (CSS – 2016)
• “Semiconductors are the Brains of Modern Electronics”. Explain in detail what this
quotation means. (CSS – 2021)
• Discuss Vaccination, types of Vaccines, their side – effects and effectiveness. (CSS –
2022)
• Define Ceramics and Nano – Ceramics materials. Why the Nano – Ceramics show better
properties than their Ceramic counterparts? Write the application of Ceramics materials.
(CSS – 2023)
 Chapter # 07 The Basis of life

History of Cell
Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
Cytology is the study of all aspects of cell.
Main points of Cell Theory by Scheilden and Schwann
Cell is composed of Three parts
Outer membrane
Cytoplasm (the fluid surrounding the nucleus)
Nucleus (present at the center of cell)
Different types of Cells
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Types of Cell
Prokaryotes
(Pro-KAR-ee-ot=es) (from Old Greek pro-before + Karyon or kernel, referring to the cell
nucleus + suffix-otos, pl, - otes; also spelled procaryotes:) are organisms without a cell nucleus
(=karyon), or any other membrane-bound organelles. In prokaryotic, genetic information might
be bundled up into a section of the cell called a nucleoid and it’s not membrane-bound
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bounded nucleus and numerous membrane-
enclosed organelles (mitochondria, lysosomes, golgi apparatus etc.)
Not found in prokaryotes. So, the genetic information would be inside a membrane bound
nucleus.

Cell Organelles
Plasma Membrane
• Outer most boundary of the cell. Covered by cell wall in plant cells.
• Structure of plasma membrane.
o Composed of four different types of molecules: Phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins, Carbohydrates.
Fluid Mosaic model
o Cell membrane is not solid rather like a vegetable oil with individual molecules
floating. So, all individual molecule is just floating in a fluid medium.
o It is also a mosaic of above mentioned four types of molecules.
Functions of plasma membrane
o Helps in transport of material: barrier between cell contents and environment.
o Semi permeable membrane: only selective substances can pass through
o Lipid and protein molecule helps in performing transport movement.
Plasma Membrane

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm
• Living content of the protoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus is
cytoplasm. The living contents (Nucleus and Cytoplasm) collectively form
protoplasm.
• Cytoplasm has two parts: cytosol and Organelles.
• Cytosol: soluble part chemically 90% water, having all fundamental molecules in
two forms:
o True solution: small molecules and ions form true solutions
o Colloidal solution: large molecules and ion form a colloidal solution either
sol (non-viscous) or gel (Viscous)
Functions of Cytoplasm
o Storage house for compounds like starch
o Metabolic processes occur in cytoplasm.
o Streaming movements of cytoplasm helps free floating organelles like
mitochondria to move in cytoplasm

• Nucleus
 Dark, prominent body, having spherical or irregular shape called nucleus
was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
 • It is made up of four parts: nuclear membrane, nucleolus, nucleoplasm and chromosomes.

Nuclear Membrane.
• Nuclear membrane separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm.
There are nuclear pores present in nuclear membrane, through which
exchange of material take place between cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
• It is the liquid material present inside the nuclear membrane.
Nucleolus
• It is darkly stained body within the nucleus. It is without any
membranous boundary, which separates it from the other nuclear
material.
Chromosomes.
• Nucleus contains chromatin material which changes into
chromosomes at the time of cell division.
Functions of Nucleus.
• It controls all the activities of cell
• It controls the transfer of hereditary characters from parents to offspring
• Three types of RNA’s are synthesized in the nucleus i.e., mRNA, tRNA. These RNAs are
involved in the synthesis of proteins.
Mitochondria
• They are known as Power House of the Cell
• Their number is different in different cells, depending upon the
naute of cell.
• They have two membranes; outer an inner membrane.
• Inner membrane forms finger like folding called Cristea.
• Inside the mitochondria, there present a liquid material called
Matrix.
• Chemically mitochondria is composed of lipids and proteins and
its matrix contains a lot of enzymes, co enzymes, organic and
inorganic salts, which are used in the formation of ATP?
Functions of Mitochondria
• Activities like aerobic respiration and fatty acid metabolism take
place in mitochondria.
• They synthesize ATP (adenosine tri-Phosphate), which is used to
provide energy in cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is network of channels extending from nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. The
walls of these channels are called Cisternae.
Types
• Rough ER: On which ribosomes are attached. They are involved in synthesis of proteins.
• Smooth ER:These are without ribosomes. These are involved in metabolism lipids, and
transport of material from part of cell to other parts.
Functions of ER.
 Mechanical support: so that the shape of the cell is maintained.
 Transport of materials: SER transports material within cell.
 Synthesis of proteins: RER
 Storage of Compounds: like proteins
 Metabolism of lipids:
 Detoxification of drugs
Golgi Apparatus
It consists of membrane bound sacs called Cisternae and vesicles.
Secretory vesicles are tiny little packages in which certain cell secretions can be

transported.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
o Protein, which is synthesized on RER, is transferred to Golgi apparatus, where it
is converted into finished product and are exported outside the cell or within the
cell where it is necessary.
o They add carbohydrates to protein and lipids.
Lysosomes
o Isolated by De Duve in 1949, “Lyso” means dissolution and “some” means body.
Found only in eukaryotic cells.
o Structure: It is a single membrane bound simple sac contains several hydrolytic
enzymes
Formation:
o Enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes present on RER.
o Transferred to Golgi apparatus where they are processed and packed into vesicles.
These packed vesicles are called as lysosomes.
Functions of lysosomes
o Phagocytosis: any foreign product that enters in the cell is engulfed by lysosome
and is broken down into digestible pieces.
o Intracellular digestion: Lysosomes contain enzymes which can digest the food.
o Autophagy: self-eating of old or broken up parts of cells like old mitochondria.
Plastids
• They are only present in plant cell. They are of three types
Chloroplast
• These are green plastids have owed their color to the presence of chlorophyll.
These occur abundantly in green leaves. It synthesizes carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts
• They are present in petals of flower. This plastid contains pigments other than
green.
• These imparts various color effects to flowers and fruits. These attract insects and
other animals to ensure pollination and dispersal.
Leucoplasts
• They are present in underground parts of plant. They colorless. They help to store
food.

Difference between Plant and Animal Cell

Aspect Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell Wall Absent Present (composed of cellulose)
Shape Irregular shape Fixed, rigid shape
Vacuoles One or more small vacuoles Large central vacuole (occupies most of the
(often temporary and related to cell volume, used for storage, maintenance of
specific functions) turgor pressure, and waste management)
Chloroplasts Absent Present (contain chlorophyll and are involved
in photosynthesis)
Lysosomes Generally abundant Rare or absent
Centrioles Present (involved in cell Absent (except in some lower plant forms like
division) algae)
Plasmodesmata Absent Present (channels connecting adjacent plant
cells, facilitating communication and
transport)
Cilia or Flagella May be present on some cell Generally absent (rarely present on certain
types (e.g., sperm cells) plant sperm cells)
Glyoxysomes Present in some animal cells Present in some plant cells (involved in lipid
(involved in lipid metabolism) metabolism)
Storage May contain glycogen as a May contain starch as a storage
Organelles storage polysaccharide polysaccharide
Cell, Tissue and Organ
• Cells are the basic building blocks of living organisms. Tissues are groups of
similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. Organs are groups
of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function.
• For example, the heart is an organ made up of different types of tissues, such as
muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue. The muscle tissue contracts
 and relaxes to pump blood, the connective tissue provides support and structure,
and the nervous tissue controls the heartbeat. These different tissues work
together to allow the heart to function as an organ.
• Similarly, the stomach is another organ made up of different types of tissues, such
as muscle tissue, epithelial tissue, and glandular tissue. The muscle tissue
contracts and relaxes to mix and move food, the epithelial tissue lines the inside
of the stomach and secretes digestive enzymes, and the glandular tissue secretes
mucus and other substances to aid in digestion. These different tissues work
together to allow the stomach to function as an organ.
• In turn, organs work together to form organ systems, such as the digestive system
or the cardiovascular system. These organ systems work together to perform
complex functions necessary for life, such as transporting nutrients and oxygen,
eliminating waste products, and regulating body temperature. Overall, cells,
tissues, organs, and organ systems are all interconnected and work together to
maintain the health and function of the organism.
Past Paper Questions
• Explain with examples the relationship between cells, tissues and organs. (CSS – 2021)
• Explain the differences in structure & function between a cell wall and a cell membrane.
(CSS – 2021)
• Describe the ‘Cell Structure’. Write down at least three differences between an animal
cell and plant cell. (CSS – 2018)
• Comment, ‘liver is the chief chemist in human body’. (CSS – 2016)

Chapter # 8 Human Physiology

• Introduction:
o Human physiology is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms that
make the human body work. It is a branch of biology that focuses on the physical,
chemical, and biochemical processes that occur within the body to maintain
homeostasis, or a state of balance and stability. Human physiology covers a wide
range of topics, from cellular and molecular physiology to the functions of the
major organ systems of the body. These systems include the nervous system,
endocrine system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, digestive system,
urinary system, and reproductive system. At its core, human physiology is
concerned with how the body works, and how it responds to different internal and
external stimuli. For example, it explores how the body maintains a constant body
temperature, how the heart pumps blood to the organs and tissues, how the lungs
exchange gases with the environment, and how the kidneys filter waste products
from the blood.
Human physiology includes following topics
• Endocrine Glands
• Circulatory system
• Digestive System
• Excretory system
• Central Nervous System
Glands
Gland is a group of cells which secrete special chemicals called hormones.
Types of glands
• Endocrine Gland: They secrete hormones directly into the blood stream for
example thyroid gland
• Exocrine Gland: They release their products onto body surfaces like the skin
such as sweet glands, salivary glands.
Major Endocrine Glands.
o Pituitary gland
o Thyroid gland
o Parathyroid gland
o Adrenal Gland
o Pancreas
o Gonads
o Pineal Gland
Major Endocrine Gland

Hypothalamus
• It is part of forebrain. It secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which
are stored in the posterior part of pituitary gland. It controls all endocrine glands.
Pituitary Gland
• Pituitary Gland is very small (equal to the size of pea). It is also called master
gland because it controls the secretion of other glands.
• It is divided into two sections an anterior (meaning front) and posterior (meaning
back)
Hormones released from the anterior pituitary are
o Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 o Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
o Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
o Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
o Prolactin (PRL)
o Growth Hormone (GH)
o Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Hormones released from the posterior pituitary are
o Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
o Oxytocin
Thyroid Gland
o It is in the center of the neck, at the front, below the Adam’s Apple. It is made of
two lobes joined in the center.
o It secretes major hormones – thyroxin and Calcitonin
o The body needs a substance called iodine which is found mainly in salt.
o Deficiency of iodine can lead to swelling of thyroid gland; a condition termed as
Goiter.
Parathyroid Gland
• These glands are present on the thyroid gland. These are 4 in numbers. Their secretion is
called para-thyroxin or para-hormone.
• It increases the concentration of Calcium ion in the blood.
Adrenal Glands
o Adrenal gland also known as suprarenal glands are yellow pyramid-shaped glands
located at the top of the kidney. Each adrenal gland has 2 parts
 Adrenal medulla (inside)
 Adrenal Cortex (Outside)
 Adrenal Cortex secretes two hormones called Cortisol and Aldosterone.
 Adrenal medulla secretes two important hormones named as adrenalin and
Gonadorelin.
 These are released during fight, flight and fear.
Pancreas
o It is only gland in the body which acts as both exocrine and endocrine at the same
time.
o It secretes two hormones, insulin and glucagon.
o The effects of glucagon are opposite to those of insulin. It raises the level of
glucose in the blood while insulin reduces the level of glucose.
Pineal Gland
 The Pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped gland in the brain. It produces serotonin
(Modulates sleep Patterns), and Melatonin (regulates melanin production in the
body).
Human Coordination System

 Nervous system is our body’s decision and communication center

 It is made up of two parts
 o Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord.
o Peripheral nervous system: Cranial and spinal nerves.

Nervous System
o Whenever a person gets injury on his foot while walking, he feels pain and his
hand immediately reaches the injured site. Who asked the hand to reach the site?
In fact, there is an organ system in our body which carries messages form one part
of the body to another and coordinates body functions. This system is called
nervous system. Human nervous system consists of central nervous system (CNS)
and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system is composed of
brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system consists of a network of nerves
which connect the central nervous system to all parts of the body.

• Neuron or Nerve Cell

o Neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. All parts of the nervous system, i.e., brain, spinal cord and nerves are
made up of neurons. Neurons transmit messages in the form of electrochemical
waves called nerve impulses.
The part of a neuron which contains nucleus and most of the cytoplasm is called
cell
o body. The fine projections of the cell body which receive messages are called
dendrites. A long projection of the cell body which conducts messages away from
the cell body is called axon. Terminal ends of the axons transmit the messages to
the next cells.

• Nerve
 o A nerve is cable-like bundle of axons enclosed in a common sheath. Nerve
transmits messages from one part of body to another.
• Types of Neurons
o On the basis of their functions, neurons are of three types, i.e., sensory neurons,
motor neurons and inter-neurons. Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from
sense organs (ears, eyes, skin, tongue, nose, etc.) to the central nervous system.
Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from central nervous system to effectors
(muscles and glands), i.e., the parts which respond. Inter-neurons are present in
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). They form a link between sensory
and motor neurons.

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

o Central nervous system acts as a control center of the whole nervous system. It
comprises brain and spinal cord.
• Spinal Cord
o Spinal cord is an extension of medulla oblongata (Figure 1.5). It runs backwards
inside the backbone up to its lower end. It is also made up of inter-neurons. Spinal
cord creates a link between brain and different body parts. It also controls some
reflex actions (immediate and involuntary actions) and some other involuntary
actions.
• Peripheral Nervous System
o Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of a network of nerves which are spread
in the body to connect all the body parts to the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord). The nerves which arise from brain are called cranial nerves. The
nerves which arise from spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of
cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves in human body.
 • Working Model of the Nervous System
o Nervous system coordinates all body functions. It also detects the changes in
environment and produces response to the changes. The working of the nervous
system has been depicted in Figure.

• Any change in the environment (external or internal) that can be detected by a receptor to
initiate a nerve impulse is called stimulus (Plural: stimuli). Heat, cold, pressure, sound
waves, etc. are the examples of stimuli. The special organs, tissues or cells which detect
stimuli are called receptors.
• The sensory neurons carry the messages regarding stimuli in the form of nerve impulses
from receptors to central nervous system.
• The central nervous system processes the messages and transmits the nerve impulses to
motor neurons.
• The motor neurons carry the nerve impulses to the parts of the body which produce
responses. Such parts are called effectors. Muscles and glands in the body act as
effectors.
Human Brain

Brain has three parts.

  Forebrain: the thalamus, limbic system, cerebrum
 Mid brain
 Hind brain: cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Forebrain
 The thalamus
o It transfers sensory information to the limbic system. Sensory information
includes auditory and visual information. IT also transfer information from skin
to limbic system.
 Limbic system (hypothalamus, amygdala, Hippocampus
o Hypothalamus it controls body temperature, hunger menstrual cycle, water
balance and the sleep-wake cycle.
o Amygdala it produces sensation of pleasure, punishment, feeling of fear and rage.
o Hippocampus it controls long term memory and is required for learning.
• Cerebrum
o It is the largest part of brain. It is divided into two halves, called hemisphere
which are connected with each other through a band of neurons called Corpus
callosum. Left hemisphere controls right side of the body, while right hemisphere
control left side of the body.
o Outer region of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex. It receives sensory
information, processes them and stores them in memory for future use. It also
controls voluntary movements, and is responsible for thinking.
• Midbrain
o It connects forebrain with the hind brain. It contains reticular information, which
is important in screening the input information, it contains relay center for
auditory information.
• Hindbrain
o Medulla (it controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and swallowing)
o Pons (it controls transitions between sleep and wakefulness)
o Cerebellum (it is important in coordinating movements and maintaining position
of the body. It is also involved in learning and memory storage.
Excretory system
• The system in which metabolic waster products are excreted out of the body is called
excretory system. A pair of kidneys is preset for the excretion of metabolic waste
products.
• Structure of kidney.
o Each kidney is bean shaped. Its weights is less than 1% of the total weight of the
body. In each kidney there is lighter outer region which is called cortex. The inner
pale region is known as Medulla. There are cone shaped structure present in
medulla which are known as pyramids. There is a funnel like space into which
pyramids project, called Pelvis.
Structure of Nephron
• Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. Nephrons are arranged along the
both cortex and medulla region. There is a cup shape structure present at proximal end of
each nephron called Bowman’s capsule. From Bowman’s capsule there arises a long
narrow tube, which is further divided into three parts.
o Convoluted part known as proximal tubule.
o Long U-shaped part called Loop of Henle.
o Convoluted part known as Distal tubule.
• Distal tubule opens into a duct called collecting duct. Afferent artery enters into the
Bowman’s capsule and divide repeatedly to form a ball like structure glomerulus. Walls
of the glomerulus are porous. From glomerulus there arises efferent arteriole which forms
a network of capillaries around the proximal, loop of Henle and distal tubule.

Working of Nephron
Filtration
• Impure blood enters into glomerulus through afferent arteriole in very high
pressure, due to high pressure, impure blood get filtered in glomerulus and
impure substances from impure blood passes the wall of glomerulus and
Bowman’s capsule. The substance which passes the wall of glomerulus
and bowman’s capsule are called filtrate. Filtrate composed of glucose,
salt, urea, vitamins and excess water.
Reabsorption
 • When filtrate goes to distal tubule, important substances from filtrate like
glucose, vitamins and some salt get absorbed by blood through osmosis.
Secretion
• The inner layer of the nephron also secretes nitrogenous waster products
into the lumen of nephron.
Circulatory system
• The system in which gases are circulated throughout the body is called
circulatory system. It consists of three parts, blood, blood vessels, dan
heart.
• Blood.
o Blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45 blood cells.
o Plasma (8% solid, 2% gases, 90% water)

Blood Vessels
• Arteries: These carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. These carry
blood from heart and distribute it to other prats of body. Blood pressure in arteries
is more as compared to other blood vessels.
• Veins: these carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins. These carry
blood from body to heart. Blood pressure in veins is low as compared to arteries.
• Capillaries: These carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Blood pressure
in capillaries is least. The wall of capillaries is only one cell thick.
•

Double Circulation
• Double circulation is a type of circulatory system found in some vertebrates, including
mammals and birds, where the blood flows through the heart twice in each complete
circuit of the body.
• In mammals, the heart has four chambers: the right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium,
and left ventricle. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through
 the superior and inferior vena cava. The blood then flows into the right ventricle, which
pumps it to the lungs to be oxygenated. The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium
through the pulmonary veins, and then flows into the left ventricle. The left ventricle
pumps the oxygenated blood out to the rest of the body through the aorta.
• This double circulation system allows for the efficient separation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood, which is necessary for the high metabolic demands of mammals.
The oxygenated blood from the lungs is pumped to the body at a high pressure, ensuring
that the organs receive an adequate supply of oxygen. The deoxygenated blood from the
body is also pumped at a high pressure to the lungs, where it can be oxygenated and
returned to the heart for distribution to the body.
•

Digestive System
The system in which breakdown of larger food particles to smaller absorbable food particles take
place is called digestive system
It consists of following parts.
• Oral cavity
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
 • Pancreas
• Liver
• Large intestine
Oral cavity (Mouth)
• In oral cavity three structure are present, teeth, tongue, and salivary glands.
• Teeth helps in grinding the food, tongue helps in mixing food with the saliva of salivary
glands.
• Components of Saliva
o Water: lubricates the food
o Sodium bicarbonate: it helps to stabilize the PH of food.
o Amylase enzyme: it acts on starch and glycogen and converts them into maltose.
Wen food leaves the oral cavity then it is in the form of small ball like structure
called bolus. This bolus then enters into the next part of digestive system called
esophagus.
Esophagus
• Esophagus is like a pipe which starts from the oral cavity and ends at the stomach.
Its walls are composed of muscles. These muscles help in movement of the bolus
from the esophagus. The movement of food from the esophagus and the whole
digestive system is called peristalsis movement.
During peristalsis movement muscle squeezes just behind the bolus and push it
forward.
Stomach
• The stomach muscle churn and mix the food with acids and enzymes, breaking it
into much smaller digestible pieces. Glands in the stomach- lining produce about
2.8 liters of digestive juices each day. Gastric juice contains very strong acid HCI,
digestive enzyme-pepsin. Acid attacks on microbes and kill them and helps in
combustion of food. While pepsin acts on proteins and break them into smaller
units.
• Before the food leaves stomach, it changes into semi-fluid like structure chime,
which enters into small intestine.
Small intestine
It has 3 parts, duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Duodenum
• It is the first part of small intestine. When food enters into duodenum it causes the
release of section from pancreas and liver. Both pancreas and liver pour their
secretion directly into duodenum. Duodenum itself only secretes one enzyme
called enter kinase which helps in the activation of trypsinogen into trypsin.
Jejunum
• It is the second part of small intestine. Food is completely digested in jejunum. It
contains 5 enzymes, which converts molecule into smaller parts.
Ileum
 • It is the third portion of small intestine. Absorption of food take place in ileum.
Internal surface of ileum has finger like projections called villi. Each villus is
richly supplied with blood vessels, which absorb the food from ileum. Undigested
food is not absorbed in ileum and is forward in large intestine.
Large intestine.
• The large intestine forms an inverted U over the coil of the small intestine. It
starts on the lower right-hand side of the body and ends on the lower left-hand
side.
• The large intestine serves important functions.
o It absorbs water.
o It dissolves salts from the residue passed on by the small intestine.
o Bacteria in large intestine promote the breakdown of undigested material.
• The large intestine moves its remaining contents towards the rectum.
Liver – as a Chief Chemist of Human Body
• The liver is often referred to as the "chief chemist" of the human body because of its
central role in numerous biochemical processes. It performs a wide range of functions
that are essential for maintaining overall health and metabolic balance. Here are some
reasons why the liver is considered as the chief chemist of the human body:
• Metabolism: The liver plays a key role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats. It helps regulate blood sugar levels by storing glucose as glycogen or converting
glycogen back into glucose when needed. It also synthesizes amino acids and processes
dietary proteins, and it participates in lipid metabolism, including the synthesis,
breakdown, and transport of fats.
• Detoxification: The liver is responsible for detoxifying various harmful substances that
enter our body, such as drugs, alcohol, environmental toxins, and metabolic waste
products. It breaks down these substances into less toxic forms that can be eliminated
from the body.
• Bile production: The liver produces bile, a substance that aids in the digestion and
absorption of fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine
when needed to emulsify fats, facilitating their breakdown by enzymes.
• Nutrient storage: The liver stores essential nutrients like vitamins (A, D, E, K, and B12),
minerals (iron and copper), and glucose (as glycogen). It releases these stored nutrients
into the bloodstream as needed to support various bodily functions.
• Protein synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, including albumin (which
helps maintain osmotic pressure in the blood), clotting factors (essential for blood
coagulation), and various enzymes and hormones involved in different physiological
processes.
• Immune function: The liver contains immune cells called Kupffer cells, which help
defend against pathogens and remove foreign particles, bacteria, and dead cells from the
bloodstream.
• Regulation of cholesterol: The liver plays a crucial role in regulating cholesterol levels
in the body. It synthesizes cholesterol and also removes excess cholesterol from the
bloodstream, helping to maintain a balance.
• Past paper questions
• What is the endocrine system? Write the names and functions of endocrine glands (CSS-
2000)
• Briefly explain the function of following in human body.
a kidney b thyroid gland c pituitary gland.
• Discuss the function of kidneys in human body.
• How the urine is formed. Discuss the role of kidney in excretion. (CSS – 2023)
• Write a note on Liver Juice ‘Bile’. (CSS – 2023)
• How the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are digested in humans? (CSS – 2023)
• What is meant by the term double circulation? Briefly describe how the heart is adapted
to keep blood flowing in a double circulation. (CSS – 2021)
 Chapter # 9 Kingdom plantae and Animal Kingdom
Plantae is the plant kingdom which includes all plants on the earth. They are multicellular
eukaryotes. Typically, they consist of a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane
called the cell wall. Plants also have a green colored pigments called chlorophyll that are
quite important for photosynthesis. Hence, they have an autotrophic mod of nutrition.
Plant kingdom is a vast group; therefore, the kingdom is further classified into subgroups.
Level of classification is based on the following 3 criteria:
• Plant Body: Whether the body has well-differentiated structures or not.
• Vascular system: Whether the plant has vascular system for transportation of
substances or not
• Seed formation: Whether the plants bear flowers and seed or not, if it does, then
whether it is enclosed within fruits or not.

Thallophyte
 • These are the lowermost plants of the plant kingdom, without a well-differentiated body
design. This means the plant body is bot differentiated as roots, stem, and leaves.
• They are commonly called Algae and aquatic.
Bryophyta
• These are small terrestrial plants. They show differentiation in the body design with stem,
leaf-like structure, and root-like structure.
• They do not have any specialized tissue to conduct water and other substances.
• They are amphibians of plant kingdom.
• Mosses and Marchantia belong to this group.
Pteridophyte
 These are supposed to be the oldest vascular plants.
 The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves, aprt from
having a specialized tissue for conduction.
 Xylem and phloem are present for the translocation of water and food
respectively.
 These plants have naked embryos called spores.
 Fern is a common example.
Phanerogam
 These are seed bearing plants. The plant body is differentiated into roots,
stem and leaves.
 These are well differentiated reproductive tissues that produce seeds.
 They also have well developed vascular system.
 They are further classified into Gymnosperm and Angiosperm.
Gymnosperms
 These have well-differentiated plant body; vascular system and they bear
seed.
 The term is derived from Greek words, Gymno means naked and seed.
Which means their seed is not enclosed within fruit.
 Pines, deodar, redwood are few examples.
Angiosperms
o These have well-differentiated plant body; vascular system and they bear seed.
o Seeds develop inside tissue that get modified to form the fruit of the plant.
o This term comes from the Greek words angeion (“case” or “casing”) and sperma
(“seeds)
o Mustard plant and pea plant.
• Transportation in Plants: Plants do not have a circulatory system like humans and
animals, but they too need to move water and food from one part to the other. How do
plants transport materials? Plants transport water and minerals from roots to leaves
through xylem vessels. Phloem transports prepared food from leaves to all other parts.
o Absorption of Water in Plants Through Roots: The water enters the plant body
through its roots. There are thousands of tiny root hairs on each root. The soil
surrounding the roots has higher amount of water and minerals than inside the
root cells. Water and dissolved minerals from the soil absorb into the root hairs by
 diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of a substance from where it is in large
amount to where it is in small amount. As water in roots increases, a pressure is
produced in the root cells to push water and minerals up in the plant. But this
pressure of roots can only lift water up to a certain height. How does water reach
in leaves of tall trees?
o Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which water is lost from plants in
the form of water vapor through the stomata (pores) in their leaves. This process
is essential for plants as it helps to move water from the roots, through the stem
and into the leaves, where it is used for photosynthesis and other metabolic
processes. The structure of the leaf plays a crucial role in the process of
transpiration. Leaves are specialized organs that have a flattened shape, which
provides a large surface area for photosynthesis and transpiration to occur. The
outermost layer of cells in a leaf is called the epidermis, which contains small
openings called stomata. Stomata allow gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen
to enter and exit the leaf, and also allow water vapor to escape during
transpiration. The significance of leaf structure in the process of transpiration is
that it provides a mechanism for regulating the loss of water from the plant. The
stomata can open and close to control the rate of transpiration, depending on the
plant's needs. For example, in hot, dry conditions, the plant will close its stomata
to reduce water loss and prevent dehydration. However, this can also limit the
amount of carbon dioxide that can enter the leaf for photosynthesis, which can
limit the plant's growth. The internal structure of the leaf also plays a role in
transpiration. Leaves have a network of veins that transport water and nutrients
throughout the plant. The cells within these veins are specialized to conduct
water, and are arranged in a way that helps to minimize water loss. The cells on
the upper surface of the leaf are also typically more tightly packed than those on
the lower surface, which helps to reduce water loss by limiting the number of
stomata. In summary, transpiration is the process by which water is lost from
plants through the stomata in their leaves. The structure of the leaf, including the
presence and regulation of stomata, the arrangement of cells in veins, and the tight
packing of cells on the leaf surface, is crucial in controlling the rate of
transpiration and ensuring that the plant can balance its need for water with the
risk of dehydration.
Animal Kingdom
 The animal kingdom includes eukaryotic multicellular organisms. Which exhibit
heterotrophic nutrition. They are commonly known as animals and differ
characteristically from the other major groups of plants, in their capacity to be able to
move.
 Animals are classified into: non-chordates and the Chordates.
Non-Chordates.
 Non-chordates are animals without notochord – the rod like elastic structure the
support the body.
Chordates
  Animals characterized by the presence of notochord.

General Characteristics of Non-chordates.

 They are cylindrical, triploblastic, coelomate, coelomate animals.
 Respiration in these animals takes place through gills.
 Most of the times, sexes cannot be distinguished among the members.
 Modes of reproduction involve sexual and asexual
 Fertilization is external, though internal fertilization also occurs in some species.
 The body of non-chordates generally includes an open type of circulatory system.
 Examples of this phylum include Balanoglossus and Saccoglossues.

General Characteristics of chordates.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, and coelomate with the organ
system level of organization.
 They hold a post-anal tail.
 The body includes a closed circulatory system.
 In chordates, four common features appear at some point during development: a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits (Pharyngeal) slits are
openings in the pharynx (the region just posterior to mounth0 that extend to the
outside environment), and a post-anal tail (the post-anal tail is a posterior
elongation of the body, extending beyond the anus).
 Invertebrate Vertebrate
Animals without a backbone Animals with vertebral column
Examples are insects, flatworms etc Examples are parrots, humans and snakes
They have less developed internal skeleton and Vertebrates have well-developed internal
brain skeleton and brain
According to latest research, these are Vertebrates are classified under chordates and
classified into 36 phyla. divided in five classes: fish, amphibian,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
They are slow moving organisms They are fast moving organisms.

Class Pisces (Fishes)

 They are clod-blooded, aquatic animals, having a streamlined body and a pair of
fins which are used for swimming. Tail fin help in changing of direction and
exoskeleton is the form of scales. They also have without syelids. Examples of
class Pisces include dogfish and rahu.
Class Amphibia
 They usually comprise of those organisms which are cold-blooded and are the
habitat of the freshwaters or terrestrial. These organisms are characterized by the
two pairs of limbs, smooth and moist skin for reparation. They have protruding
eye which are provided with eyelid and eardrum. Examples are rog, toad and
salamander.
Class Amphibia
 They compromise those organisms which are cold blooded, crawling on the
ground with their dry skin bearing scales or bony plates. They are characterized
by the presence of neck and the absence of external ear. Digits are provided with
claws. Examples are tortoise, wall lizard and snake.
Class Ave (Birds)
 They are warm blooded animals having streamlined body to lower air resistance
during flight and their forelimbs are modified into wings. They are characterized
by digits which are clawed and covered with scales, exoskeleton in the form of
feathers and the presence of a neck and beak. Examples are parrots, pigeon, duck
etc.

Class Mammalia
• Mammals are a class of warm-blooded vertebrates that are characterized by several
distinctive features. Here are some of the key characteristics of mammals:
o Hair or fur: Mammals have hair or fur covering their bodies, which helps to
insulate them and regulate their body temperature.
o Mammary glands: Mammals have specialized glands that produce milk to nourish
their young.
 o Live births: Most mammals give birth to live young, rather than laying eggs like
reptiles and birds.
o Three middle ear bones: Mammals have three middle ear bones (the malleus,
incus, and stapes), which help to transmit sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.
o Diaphragm: Mammals have a muscular diaphragm that separates the chest cavity
from the abdominal cavity, which helps to facilitate breathing.
o Four-chambered heart: Mammals have a four-chambered heart with two atria and
two ventricles, which helps to facilitate efficient oxygen delivery to the body.
o Endothermy: Mammals are warm-blooded, which means that they maintain a
relatively constant body temperature even in changing environmental conditions.
o Diverse lifestyles: Mammals are found in a wide variety of environments and
have adapted to many different lifestyles, including herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores, burrowers, climbers, swimmers, and flyers.
o Examples of mammals include humans, dogs, cats, elephants, whales, dolphins,
bats, monkeys, and many more. Mammals play important roles in ecosystems as
predators, prey, pollinators, seed dispersers, and more, and are valued by humans
for their economic, cultural, and ecological importance.
o Bats and whales are considered mammals because they have several
characteristics that are unique to mammals. These include:
 Mammary glands: Both bats and whales are able to produce milk to feed
their young.
 Hair: Bats and whales both have hair on their bodies, although in the case
of whales, it is usually in the form of bristles.
 Three middle ear bones: Bats and whales both have three middle ear
bones, which are a key feature of all mammals.
 Warm-blooded: Both bats and whales are warm-blooded, meaning that
they can regulate their own body temperature.
 Live births: Both bats and whales give birth to live young, rather than
laying eggs.
o Bats are unique among mammals in that they are capable of true flight. They are
the only mammals that can fly and have wings that are formed from modified
forelimbs.
o Whales, on the other hand, are unique among mammals in that they are aquatic
and have adapted to living in the ocean. They have streamlined bodies, flippers
instead of legs, and a blowhole for breathing air at the surface.
• Exception to mammals:
o Monotremes: These are a group of mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth
to live young. The only surviving species of monotremes are the platypus and the
echidnas, both of which are found in Australia.
o Marsupials: These are mammals that give birth to relatively undeveloped young,
which then develop further in a pouch outside the mother's body. Examples of
marsupials include kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, and opossums.
 o Cetaceans: These are a group of aquatic mammals that includes whales, dolphins,
and porpoises. While they share many of the characteristic features of mammals,
such as warm-bloodedness and milk production, they have evolved a number of
adaptations for life in the water, such as streamlined bodies, blubber for
insulation, and the ability to hold their breath for long periods of time.
Past Paper Questions
• Do the mammals also lay eggs? If yes, where in the world do they live? Write the name
of some of them. (CSS – 2019)
• What is meant by transpiration? Explain in detail the significance of leaf structure in the
process of transpiration (CSS – 2021)
• Why the Bats and Whales are considered as mammals? (CSS – 2023)
• What do you think cold – blooded animals are slowed down by low temperature. (CSS –
2023)
 Chapter # 10 Common Diseases and Epidemics

Polio: Polio, short for poliomyelitis, is a highly contagious viral disease caused by the
poliovirus. It primarily affects children under the age of 5, but it can also affect older children
and adults. Polio is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, typically entering the body through
contaminated food, water, or surfaces.
Causes of Polio:
• Poliovirus: The disease is caused by three types of polioviruses, known as serotypes 1, 2,
and 3. These viruses belong to the Enterovirus genus and can infect the gastrointestinal
tract, from where they can enter the bloodstream and attack the nervous system.
Prevention of Polio:
• Vaccination: The most effective way to prevent polio is through vaccination. The polio
vaccine is typically given as part of routine immunization schedules for infants and
children. There are two main types of polio vaccines:
o Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV): This vaccine is given as an injection and
contains killed poliovirus. It provides immunity against all three serotypes of the
poliovirus.
o Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV): This vaccine is administered orally and contains
weakened, live poliovirus. It also offers immunity against all three serotypes.
• Vaccination Campaigns: National and global immunization campaigns aim to reach all
children, particularly those in areas with limited healthcare access. These campaigns
provide supplementary doses of polio vaccines to ensure maximum population coverage
and interrupt the transmission of the virus.
• Improved Sanitation and Hygiene: Maintaining good sanitation practices, such as
proper disposal of human waste and access to clean drinking water, can help reduce the
risk of polio transmission. Improved hygiene, including handwashing with soap, is also
important in preventing the spread of the virus.
• Surveillance and Outbreak Response: Countries conduct surveillance to monitor polio
cases and identify areas where the virus is circulating. Rapid response to outbreaks
involves implementing vaccination campaigns in affected areas to prevent further
transmission.
• Travel Precautions: People traveling to areas where polio is endemic or where
outbreaks have occurred should ensure they are adequately vaccinated against polio
before traveling. This can help prevent the importation and spread of the virus to other
regions.
Malaria: Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites that are
transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
Causes of Malaria:
• Plasmodium Parasites: Malaria is caused by infection with one of several species of
Plasmodium parasites. The most common ones affecting humans are Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale. These
 parasites are carried by infected mosquitoes and are introduced into the bloodstream
during a mosquito bite.
Dengue: Dengue fever is caused by the dengue virus, which is transmitted to humans through
the bites of infected Aedes mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti.
Causes of Dengue:
• Dengue Virus: Dengue is caused by any of the four serotypes of the dengue virus,
known as Dengue virus 1, Dengue virus 2, Dengue virus 3, and Dengue virus 4. These
viruses belong to the Flaviviridae family and are transmitted to humans through the bites
of infected mosquitoes.
Prevention of Malaria and Dengue:
• Vector Control: The primary method of preventing malaria is controlling the mosquito
vectors. This can be achieved through the following measures:
o Eliminate Breeding Sites: Reduce or eliminate stagnant water sources around
your living areas, as Aedes mosquitoes breed in clean water. Empty, clean, or
cover containers that can collect water, such as buckets, flower pots, discarded
tires, and water storage containers.
o Insecticide-Treated Bed Nets (ITNs): Sleeping under insecticide-treated bed
nets helps prevent mosquito bites, especially during nighttime when mosquitoes
are most active.
o Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS): Spraying insecticides on the interior walls of
houses can kill mosquitoes and reduce their population.
o Environmental Management: Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as
stagnant water sources, can reduce the number of mosquitoes in an area.
• Antimalarial Medications:
o Chemoprophylaxis: Travelers visiting areas with a high risk of malaria may need
to take antimalarial medications to prevent infection. The choice of medication
depends on the specific region and the drug resistance patterns of the malaria
parasites in that area.
o Intermittent Preventive Treatment in Pregnancy (IPTp): Pregnant women in
malaria-endemic regions are often given antimalarial medication as a preventive
measure to protect themselves and their unborn babies from malaria.
• Personal Protective Measures:
o Use of Repellents: Applying insect repellents containing DEET (N,N-diethyl-
meta-toluamide), picaridin, or other recommended ingredients on exposed skin
and clothing can help repel mosquitoes.
o Protective Clothing: Wearing long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and socks can
provide an additional physical barrier against mosquito bites.
o Avoidance of Peak Mosquito Hours: Minimizing outdoor activities during dawn
and dusk when mosquitoes are most active can reduce the risk of mosquito bites.
• Prompt Diagnosis and Treatment: Early diagnosis and treatment of malaria cases are
crucial to prevent severe illness and the spread of the disease to others. If you develop
symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue after visiting a
malaria-endemic area, seek medical attention and mention your travel history.
Hepatitis: Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, which can be caused by various factors,
including viruses, alcohol, toxins, and autoimmune diseases. Viral hepatitis is the most common
form and is caused by specific viruses.
Causes of Viral Hepatitis:
• Hepatitis A Virus (HAV): HAV is transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated
food or water. It is typically found in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene practices. It
can also spread through close contact with an infected person.
• Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): HBV is transmitted through contact with infected blood,
semen, or other body fluids. It can be spread through sexual contact, sharing needles or
syringes, or from an infected mother to her newborn during childbirth. It can also be
transmitted through non-sterile medical or dental equipment.
• Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): HCV is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected
blood. It commonly occurs through sharing needles or other drug-injecting equipment,
receiving contaminated blood transfusions or organ transplants, or through inadequate
sterilization of medical equipment.
• Hepatitis D Virus (HDV): HDV only occurs in individuals already infected with HBV.
HDV is transmitted through contact with infected blood or other body fluids.
• Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): HEV is transmitted through the consumption of contaminated
water or food, especially in areas with poor sanitation. It is most common in developing
countries.
Prevention of Viral Hepatitis:
• Vaccination: Vaccination is an effective preventive measure for hepatitis A and hepatitis
B. Vaccines are available for both viruses and are recommended as part of routine
immunization schedules, particularly for individuals at higher risk, such as healthcare
workers, travelers to endemic areas, and individuals with specific medical conditions.
• Safe Injection Practices: To prevent the transmission of viral hepatitis, it is important to
use sterile needles and syringes for injections. Needle-sharing should be avoided, and
healthcare settings should adhere to strict infection control practices.
• Safe Sexual Practices: Practicing safe sex by using barrier methods, such as condoms,
can reduce the risk of sexually transmitted hepatitis viruses, particularly HBV and HCV.
• Blood and Organ Safety: Screening donated blood and organs for hepatitis viruses is
essential to prevent the transmission of hepatitis through blood transfusions and organ
transplants.
• Good Hygiene Practices: Practicing good hygiene, such as handwashing with soap and
water, especially before handling food or after using the toilet, can help prevent the
spread of hepatitis A and other gastrointestinal infections.
• Safe Food and Water: Consuming safe and clean food and water is important, especially
when traveling to areas with poor sanitation. It is advisable to drink bottled water, avoid
raw or undercooked foods, and maintain proper food hygiene practices.

Past Paper Questions

 • What are causative organism and vector for dengue, enlist possible ways of prevention
from dengue. (CSS – 2016)
• Describe different causes and preventions of ‘Polio’. (CSS – 2018)
• What do you know about Hepatitis? Describe its types and write down preventive
measures. (CSS – 2020)
• What is ‘Polio’? discuss its symptoms, causes of spreading, prevention and vaccine. (CSS
– 2022)
• What is hepatitis, its types, causes, prevention, and cure? (CSS – 2023)

Chapter # 11 Environment

The Atmosphere
Atmosphere
The envelope of gasses surrounding the earth.
Gasses in atmosphere (N=78%, O= 21%, Trace gasses)
Composition of atmosphere
o The Earth's atmosphere is divided into different layers based on variations in
temperature, composition, and other physical properties
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
Composition of Atmosphere
Troposphere
o 12-16KM thick
o Clouds, commercial airplanes, parachute, weather and climate
o Density of gases decrease with height air become thinner temperature
decrease
o Temperature -15 to -50oC, decrease in temperature.
Stratosphere
o Till 50 kms.
o 35 kms thick
 o Lower (below Ozone) tropopause, Upper (above ozone)
o Supersonic planes, weather planes
o -50oC to -3oC, increase in temperature.
Mesosphere
o 50-80 Km
o Decrease in temp as altitude increases
o Coldest layer (temp drops to -101 to -100oC)
o Meteors or rock fragments burns and radio waves travels.
Thermosphere
o Above 50 KM
o Temp about 1200oC
o Satellite, space craft, radio signals
o The Northern Lights (also known as Aurora Borealis) and the Southern Lights
(also known as Aurora Australis) are natural light displays that occur in the polar
regions of the Earth.
o The Northern Lights are visible in the night sky in the Arctic regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, such as Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Canada, and
Alaska. The lights are caused by charged particles from the sun colliding with
gases in the Earth's atmosphere. These collisions cause energy to be released in
the form of light, creating the vibrant colors and patterns that are associated with
the Northern Lights.
o Similarly, the Southern Lights are visible in the polar regions of the Southern
Hemisphere, such as Antarctica, New Zealand, Australia, and South America.
Like the Northern Lights, the Southern Lights are caused by charged particles
from the sun colliding with gases in the Earth's atmosphere, creating stunning
displays of light and color in the night sky.
o
Exosphere
o Region beyond thermosphere. Extends about 9600 KM
o It is the outer limit of the atmosphere
o Contains light gases like hydrogen and helium, and satellites orbits the earth.
Electrical Properties
o Neutral atmosphere
o Below 60 km, no electrical properties
Ionosphere (60km-1000 km)
o UV rays, X-rays, and electrons from Sun ionize the atmospheric layers electricity
conduction
o Radio waves reflect back
Atmospheric Layer Temperature Activities Thickness
Troposphere Decreases Weather phenomena, aviation, human 7-16 km (4-11 mi)
activities
Stratosphere Increases Ozone layer, commercial jets, 16-50 km (11-31
stratospheric research mi)
Mesosphere Decreases Meteoric activity, mesospheric research 50-85 km (31-53
mi)
Thermosphere Increases Ionization of gas molecules, auroras, 85-600 km (53-
satellite operations 372 mi)
Exosphere Wide range Transition to space, satellites orbiting Extends to space
Earth

Lithosphere
Litho means rocky and sphaira means sphere.
Layers classified on
Physical
Chemical
Physical

Earth

Crust (40km deep) Mantle (2900km deep, 2800km thick)

Core (3500km Thick)
solid solid/plastic

oceanic continental upper (1670 lower (1230 outer (2250 km inner (1250km
(thin) (Thick) km thick) km thick) thick) liquid thick) solid
 Layers of Earth

Physical
o Radius of earth: 6400Km
o Lithosphere: 100 km thick (crust + portion of upper mantle) brittle
o Asthenosphere: remaining upper mantle (solid but ductile)
o Mesosphere solid: lower mantle
o Centrosphere: inner core

Chemical
o Crust: Alumina-silicate
o Mantle: silicon, magnesium, iron-silicate
o Core: nickel, iron
o Difference between lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Characteristic Lithosphere Asthenosphere
Location Outermost layer of Beneath the lithosphere
Earth's interior
Composition Rigid, solid rock Partially molten, plastic
material
Depth Extends to a depth of Extends to a depth of
about 100 km about 700 km
Temperature Cool and relatively Hotter and more variable
stable
Movement Rigid and does not flow Capable of flowing and
deforming
Tectonic Plate Includes Earth's tectonic Tectonic plates move on
Movement plates top of it
Strength Strong and brittle Weak and ductile
Seismic Waves Faster and travel through Slower and travel through
it more easily it more slowly

Rock type: There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Each
type is formed through different processes and has distinct characteristics.
Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma
or lava. This can occur either on the Earth's surface or deep underground. Igneous rocks can be
further classified based on their texture and mineral composition.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks: These rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's
surface, allowing sufficient time for large mineral crystals to develop. Examples of intrusive
igneous rocks include granite and gabbro.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks: These rocks form when lava erupts onto the Earth's surface and cools
rapidly. The quick cooling prevents the growth of large crystals, resulting in a fine-grained
texture. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt and obsidian.

Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and cementation of
sediments, which are derived from the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks or organic
materials. Sedimentary rocks often contain distinct layers or strata, and they can preserve fossils
and provide valuable information about Earth's history. Examples of sedimentary rocks include
sandstone, shale, and conglomerate, limestone, gypsum, and rock salt.

Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed from the transformation of pre-existing
rocks due to high temperatures, pressures, and/or chemical changes. These changes occur deep
within the Earth's crust or in the vicinity of tectonic plate boundaries. Examples of metamorphic
rocks include slate, schist, and gneiss, marble and quartzite.
ROCK Cycle
Plate Tectonics: The development of the theory of plate tectonics revolutionized our
understanding of Earth's geological processes and the dynamic nature of our planet's surface.
Here is a brief history of the key discoveries and milestones that led to the establishment of plate
tectonics:
o Continental Drift: The concept of continental drift emerged in the early 20th century,
proposed by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener suggested that the
continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea, which subsequently
broke apart and drifted to their current positions. Despite presenting evidence such as
matching coastlines, fossil distributions, and geological similarities, Wegener's
hypothesis faced skepticism and was not widely accepted at the time.
o Seafloor Spreading: In the 1960s, new evidence emerged from studies of the ocean
floor, leading to the development of the theory of seafloor spreading. Scientists
discovered a system of underwater mountain ranges known as mid-ocean ridges, where
new oceanic crust was being continuously formed. This process involved the upwelling
of molten material from the Earth's mantle, which pushed apart the adjacent oceanic
plates. The confirmation of seafloor spreading provided support for the concept of
continental drift.
o Magnetic Anomalies: During the exploration of the ocean floor, scientists also observed
peculiar patterns of magnetic anomalies in the rocks. It was discovered that the Earth's
magnetic field had undergone periodic reversals in the past. By studying the magnetic
properties of the oceanic crust, researchers realized that the magnetic anomalies were
symmetrically mirrored on either side of the mid-ocean ridges. This finding further
supported the idea of seafloor spreading and provided a mechanism for the movement of
tectonic plates.
o Plate Tectonics Theory: The integration of these discoveries and observations led to the
development of the theory of plate tectonics in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The theory
proposed that the Earth's lithosphere, which consists of rigid plates composed of both
continental and oceanic crust, was broken into several large and smaller fragments. These
plates were in constant motion, driven by the convective currents in the underlying
asthenosphere. The interactions between the plates resulted in various geological
phenomena, including earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and the
formation of ocean basins.
o Lithosphere is broken up into what is called plate tectonics.
 o 7 major plates.
o Tectonic activity is at boundary of the plates.
o Pangea: mean all earth
Types of plate tectonics
o Convergent boundaries
o Divergent boundaries
o Transform boundaries

Hydrosphere
o The hydrosphere is the part of the earth that contains water.
o All of the water fond on earth in oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams is called
hydrosphere.
Distribution of water on earth
Earth Water

Saline 97% Fresh 3%

Ice Caps and Ground Water Surface Water

Others 0.9%
Glaciers 68.7% 30.1% 0.3%

Lakes 87% Swamps 11% Rivers 2%

The hydrologic cycle

Water never leaves the earth. It is constantly being cycled through the atmosphere, ocean, and
land. This process, known as the water cycle. It is the circulation of water b/w the different
compartments or reservoirs of the earth’s hydrosphere, is driven by energy from the sun. The
water cycle is crucial to the existence of life on our planet.
The Water Cycle
Evaporation: The sun heats up liquid water and changes it to a gas by the process of
evaporation. Molecules having higher K.E leaves the surface of earth. 90% water by evaporation.
The process of evaporation from plants is called Evapo-Transpiration. 10%
Condensation: As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in the atmosphere, it starts to cool and
become a liquid again. This process is called condensation. When a large amount of water vapor
condenses, it results in the formation of clouds.
Precipitation: When the water in the clouds gets too heavy, the water falls back to the earth.
This is called precipitation.
Collection:
o Surface run-off: Run-off to oceans and rivers etc.
o Infiltration: Movement of water from surface to ground.

Importance of Water Cycle: The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, is the
continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. It is a vital process
that plays a crucial role in the functioning of the Earth's ecosystems, the maintenance of the
global climate, and the provision of freshwater resources to humans and other living organisms.
• Provides freshwater: The water cycle is the primary mechanism by which freshwater is
replenished on Earth. Rainfall and snowmelt provide a renewable source of water for
drinking, agriculture, and industrial use.
• Regulates the climate: The water cycle plays a critical role in regulating the Earth's
climate by distributing heat from the equator to the poles. Water evaporates from the
ocean and other bodies of water near the equator, and then condenses into clouds as it
moves towards the poles. This process helps to transport heat from the warm equatorial
regions to the colder polar regions, helping to maintain a stable climate.
• Supports ecosystems: The water cycle is essential for supporting the diversity of life on
Earth. It provides water for plants to grow, which in turn supports the animals that feed
on them. It also maintains the health of aquatic ecosystems, such as lakes, rivers, and
wetlands.
 • Controls erosion: The water cycle helps to control erosion by transporting sediment and
other materials downstream. This helps to maintain the integrity of river channels,
prevent flooding, and support healthy ecosystems.
Biosphere
o Earth’s organisms live in the biosphere.
o The life supporting zone of the earth where atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere
meet, interact and make life possible is biosphere.

Abiotic component (non-living component): Hydrosphere + atmosphere + lithosphere

Biotic component (living component): Animals + plants+ microbes
Level of organization
Individual Species Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere
o Population: A group of individual living in a specific area at a given time
period of a given specie.
o Community: Different population living together in a specific area at a
given time period.
o Ecosystem: All communities living with their abiotic environment at a
given time period.
o Biome: A set of ecosystems sharing similar properties of their abiotic
factors.
Biosphere: Sum of all ecosystems established.

Biomes
A group of ecosystems that have similar climates and organisms is called a biome.
Types of Biomes: Biomes are large geographic regions characterized by a particular climate and
a distinct assemblage of plants and animals. There are several types of biomes on Earth, each
with its own unique set of environmental conditions, species, and ecological functions.
• Tropical rainforest: Characterized by high rainfall, high humidity, and warm
temperatures year-round, tropical rainforests are the most biodiverse biome on Earth,
with an incredible array of plant and animal species.
• Temperate deciduous forest: Found in regions with moderate rainfall and seasonal
temperature variations, temperate deciduous forests are characterized by trees that lose
their leaves in the fall and regrow them in the spring.
• Boreal forest (taiga): Found in high-latitude regions with long, cold winters and short,
cool summers, boreal forests are dominated by coniferous trees and support a variety of
mammals, birds, and other wildlife.
• Grassland: Characterized by tall grasses and few trees, grasslands are found in regions
with moderate rainfall and seasonal temperature variations. They support a variety of
grazing animals and are often used for agriculture.
• Desert: Characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures, deserts are home to a
variety of unique plants and animals adapted to survive in arid conditions.
• Tundra: Found in high-latitude regions with cold temperatures and low rainfall, tundras
are characterized by short grasses, mosses, and lichens, and support a variety of cold-
adapted mammals and birds.
• Aquatic biomes: Includes freshwater biomes, such as rivers, lakes, and wetlands, as well
as marine biomes, such as oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. These biomes support a
tremendous diversity of aquatic plant and animal life and play important roles in global
nutrient cycles.
Past Paper Questions
• Explain the structure of earth and its atmosphere. (CSS-2003/1997)
• Write briefly (not more than three to four sentences) on Igneous rocks. (CSS-2009)
• What is hydrological cycle? Discuss its importance. (CSS-2016)
• Briefly describe the various segments of atmosphere. How these segments are
maintaining the Earth Radiation Balance? (CSS – 2020)
• What is the Difference between asthenosphere and lithosphere? Explain various
components of lithosphere. (CSS-2021)
• Describe water cycle and briefly explain the major processes involved in water cycle?
(CSS – 2021)
• What is the sequence of strata of atmosphere and on what factors does it depends? (CSS –
2021)
• What are the different layers of the atmosphere? On what basis these layers are
classified? In which layer “Auroras” are formed and where do satellites orbit? (CSS –
2023)
Chapter # 12 Atmospheric pollution
Pollution and pollutants
Polluted air, pollution and pollutants: When air contains gases, dust or odor in harmful
amount then it is called polluted air and the phenomenon through which air polluted is called air
pollution. The sub stain that causes air pollution is called pollutants.
Primary pollutants: Directly get into air without any chemical reaction e.g., CO and SO2
Secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants undergo chemical reaction e.g., HS2O4, O3 etc.
Sources and effects of pollutants.
Carbon monoxide
Natural
o From volcanic eruption
o Natural gas emission and oxidation of methane
Human activities
o Fuel burning contributes of 75%
o Forests fire and combustion of agricultural products
o Incomplete combustion of carbon.
Effects
o Suffocation if inhaled
o Breathing problem
o Can cause headache, unconsciousness and eventually death
Nitrogen Oxide (NO NO2)
Natural
Bacterial activities
Human Activites
Produces by burning of coal, fuel, oil etc.
Effects
Residence time 2- and 4-days Acid Rain
Sulphur Oxide
Natural
 Volcanoes produce 67%
 Oxidation of Sulphur by decomposition of matter
Human Activities
o Combustion of fuel
Effects
o Dangerous for people especially who have asthma
o Pungent odor is irritating and suffocating
o Acid rain
VOCs
Those organic compounds that easily become vapors or gases.
Sources
o Paints, wood preservatives emit organic compounds like formaldehyde,
benzene and methyl chloride.
o Forest fire and volcanoes produce benzene.
Effects
o Exposure causes dizziness, vomiting, and rapid heart beat
o High exposure may cause death.
Example: Formaldehyde, Methyl chloride
Particulate matter
o Mixture of liquid drops and solid particles
o Coarse material
o 2.5 um to 10um. Formed from dust, construction sites.
Fine particle
o Diameter < 2.5 um
o Effects
o Fine particle can get into our blood streams
o Breathing problem, irregular heartbeat, asthma
Organic Particulate Matters (OPM): Organic particulate matter, also known as organic
aerosols, refers to tiny solid or liquid particles that are suspended in the air and contain organic
compounds. Organic compounds are carbon-based compounds that are derived from living or
once-living organisms, such as plants, animals, and microbes. Organic particulate matter can
enter the atmosphere through both natural and human activities. Here are some ways in which it
can be generated and released:
 o Natural sources: Organic particulate matter can be generated from natural sources such
as wildfires, dust storms, volcanoes, and vegetation. For example, wildfires can release
large amounts of organic particulate matter into the atmosphere, which can then be
transported long distances by winds.
o Human activities: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, biomass, and waste can
also release organic particulate matter into the atmosphere. For example, the burning of
wood, crop residue, and other biomass for cooking and heating purposes can generate
significant amounts of organic particulate matter. Industrial processes such as paper
manufacturing, printing, and chemical production can also release organic particulate
matter into the air.
o Transportation: Vehicles that burn fossil fuels can also contribute to the release of
organic particulate matter into the atmosphere. This is because the combustion of fossil
fuels produces a variety of emissions, including organic particulate matter.
Impacts of OPM: When inhaled, organic particulate matter can penetrate deep into the lungs
and cause respiratory problems. Organic aerosols can also affect the Earth's climate by scattering
and absorbing sunlight, which can contribute to climate change. Furthermore, organic aerosols
can interact with other air pollutants and form secondary organic aerosols, which can further
impact human health and the environment.
Tropospheric ozone
o Stratosphere; protects us from UV rays
o Troposphere; near surface of earth is considered as dangerous.
o Sources
o Burning of coal, gasoline, fossil fuel nitrogen oxide
o Home and industries VOCs
o VOCs + Nitrogen oxide = Ozone
Effects
o Asthma, breathing issue, cough, sore throat, blood cells
Dioxin
o General form that describes a group of hundreds of chemicals that are highly persisted in
the environment
Sources
o Burning of chlorine with hydrocarbons.
o Pesticides manufacturing
o Paper mills emit it
Effects
o Can cause cancer
o Can damage immune system
o Birth defects
o Decrease fertility sperm count
Smog
o Smog is an air pollution that reduces visibility. This term was first coined in the early
1900s.
o Smog = smoke (usually come from burning coal) + Fog
 Smog Fog
Definition Air pollution combined with foggy Suspension of water droplets near
conditions ground
Composition Contains pollutants, such as ozone, Consists of water droplets or ice
NOx, VOCs, and particulate matter crystals
Formation Result of pollutant emissions and Forms when moist air near the
atmospheric conditions, often in ground cools rapidly, causing water
urban areas vapor to condense
Visibility Reduces visibility, causing a hazy Reduces visibility but not necessarily
appearance hazy
Characteristics Often associated with urban areas Can occur in both urban and rural
and high levels of pollutants areas, without pollution
Effects on Can cause respiratory issues and Generally, does not pose significant
Health other health problems due to the health risks, unless it combines with
presence of pollutants pollutants
Seasonal More prevalent in summer Can occur throughout the year,
Patterns (photochemical smog) particularly in autumn and winter
Location Commonly found in highly Can occur in various geographical
populated areas with heavy traffic locations, including coastal areas and
and industrial activities valleys
Control Focuses on reducing pollutant Primarily involves monitoring
Measures emissions, implementing stricter visibility and providing appropriate
regulations, and promoting cleaner driving conditions, with no direct
technologies control over natural fog
o Types of Smog
o Classical smog (London smog, Industrial smog): also referred to as "winter
smog" or "sulfurous smog," is associated with areas where coal or fossil fuels are
burned for industrial purposes. Industrial smog is typically found in regions with
cooler climates.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) + Particulate Matter = Classical Smog
o Photochemical smog (LA Smog): Photochemical smog, also known as "summer
smog," typically forms in urban areas with high levels of sunlight and a
significant presence of vehicular emissions.
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) + Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) +
Ground-Level Ozone + Particulate Matter = Photochemical Smog
Effects of smog
o Chest infections / irritation
o Eye irritation
o Damage in crops
o Worsening of asthma
o Premature birth
Prevention
o Following rules of environmental protection agency (EPA)
o Industrial area must be placed at away from residential area.
Acid rain
o Definition: Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, having
elevated levels of hydrogen ion; low pH (less than 5.6)
o Production of Acid Rain:
o Emission of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): The burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal
and oil, in power plants, industrial processes, and residential heating, releases
sulfur dioxide into the air. Additionally, volcanic eruptions can also emit
significant amounts of sulfur dioxide.
o Emission of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): The combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles,
power plants, and industrial facilities produces nitrogen oxides. These include
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The primary source of nitrogen
oxides is from human activities, such as transportation and industrial processes.
o Atmospheric Reactions: Once released into the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides undergo complex chemical reactions with water, oxygen, and
other compounds.
 Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen and atmospheric moisture to form sulfur
trioxide (SO3). This reacts further with water to create sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), a major component of acid rain.
 Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, can react with atmospheric
moisture to form nitric acid (HNO3), another significant contributor to
acid rain.
o Adverse effects
o Surface water and aquatic animals: At pH lower than 5, most fish eggs will not
hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish, fish’s reproduction reduced. Biodiversity is
reduced. Bio accumulation of acids. Water bodies becomes acidic and unfit for
life and usage.
o Soil: Soil structure destroyed vital nutrients and substances washed away
o Forests and other vegetation: Acid rain can leach nutrients from the soil,
making it difficult for plants to absorb essential minerals. It can also damage plant
leaves and affect their growth and reproductive processes.
o Human Health Effects: While direct exposure to acid rain does not pose
immediate health risks, the pollutants that cause acid rain, such as sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides, can contribute to respiratory problems and other health issues
when inhaled
o Buildings, monuments, minarets, gravestones: Buildings made of rocks such as
limestone and marble (having CaCO3) acids react with CaCO3 to form powdery
gypsum CaSO4 that is washed away by rain.
Solutions
o Reduce emission of Sulphur and nitrogen dioxide
o Energy efficient products
o Alternative power sources: Geothermal, solar, wind and water.
Ozone Depletion
Ozone layer and its importance: The ozone layer is a protective layer of ozone (O3) molecules
located in the Earth's stratosphere, approximately 20 to 30 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
It plays a crucial role in shielding life on Earth from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
emitted by the Sun. The ozone layer acts as a natural sunscreen, absorbing the majority of the
Sun's harmful UV-B and UV-C rays. UV radiation is known to cause various detrimental effects
on human health, including skin cancer, cataracts, and immune system suppression.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
o CFCs account for 80% ozone depletion, one CFC molecule destroys 100,000 Ozone
molecules
o Halons (very stable, used in fire-extinguisher),
o HFFCs (transitional substitute for CFCs, less destructive but still potent)
o Methyl chloroform (aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives, chemical processing)
o Carbon tetrachloride
Process of ozone depletion

Impacts of ozone depletion

o UV on human Beings: Increase skin cancer, sunburns, premature aging of the skin,
increases cataract, damages DNA, damages cornea and retina, and suppresses human
immune system, mutation.
o UV on plants: inhibits photosynthesis, inhibits metabolism, represses growth, destroys
cells, causes mutation, declines forest productivity, crops and vegetables yield reduces.
o UV on non-living things: U accelerate breakdown of paints, polymers and plastics,
affects temperature gradients in the atmosphere, and affects atmospheric circulation
pattern and climate changes.
Actions taken for prevention of ozone layer
 o Montreal protocol on substances the deplete the ozone layer, 1987
o The London agreement, June 1990,
o Copenhagen Treaty, 1992,
Climate change & Global Warming
Global warming: Slow increase in the avg. temperature of the earth’s atmosphere because an
increased amount of the energy striking the earth from the sun is being trapped in the atmosphere
and not radiated back.

Greenhouse effect
o The trapping of heat to keep the earth warm is called greenhouse effect.
o Earth atmosphere always acted like a greenhouse to capture the sun rays.
o Without our atmosphere Greenhouse the earth would be very cold
Greenhouse Gases (Kyoto Protocol Annex A)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Green House Effect as a blessing: The greenhouse effect, when operating within natural and
balanced parameters, can be considered a blessing for the Earth's climate and ecosystem. It plays
a vital role in maintaining the planet's temperature within a habitable range and supporting life as
we know it.
o Maintenance of average temperature of the earth i.e., 15oC: The CO2 forms a layer
around the Earth like an envelope. It allows the heat rays of the Sun to pass through it and
reach unto the Earth. These rays are reflected from the Earth surface and go back to upper
atmosphere. Normal concentration of CO2 layer retains enough heat to keep the
atmosphere warm. So, normal concentration of CO2 is necessary and beneficial for
keeping the temperature warm. Otherwise, the Earth would have been uninhabitable. The
Earth’s average temperature would be about -20°C, rather than presently average
temperature 15°C.
o It creates a stable climate that allows for the existence of diverse ecosystems and enables
the growth of vegetation through photosynthesis.
o The greenhouse effect also contributes to the water cycle, as it helps to maintain the
required temperature for evaporation and condensation, facilitating the distribution of
freshwater resources across the planet.
Relation between Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming: The enhanced
greenhouse effect and global warming are closely related phenomena, with the former being a
contributing factor to the latter.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect is a natural process where certain gases
in the Earth's atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide
(N2O), trap and re-radiate heat, keeping the planet warm. However, human activities, primarily
the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation, and industrial
processes, have significantly increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
This intensification of the greenhouse effect is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect or
anthropogenic greenhouse effect.
Global Warming: Global warming refers to the long-term increase in the average temperature
of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere. It is primarily driven by the accumulation of
greenhouse gases, which trap more heat within the Earth's system. When the enhanced
greenhouse effect traps more heat, it leads to an imbalance in the Earth's energy budget, causing
a net increase in temperature. This increase in temperature affects various aspects of the Earth's
climate system, including changes in weather patterns, melting of ice caps and glaciers, rising
sea levels, and shifts in ecosystems.
Greenhouse effect

Climate Change Causes

o Burning of Fossil Fuels – Black carbon deposit: The burning of fossil fuels,
such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for energy production, transportation, and
industrial processes, is the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. These
activities release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, which is the most
significant greenhouse gas. The use of fossil fuels for energy accounts for the
majority of human-induced CO2 emissions.
o Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Deforestation, especially in tropical
regions, contributes to global warming. Trees absorb CO2 as part of
photosynthesis, acting as a carbon sink. When forests are cut down or burned, the
stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO2. Additionally, land use
changes, such as converting forests into agricultural or urban areas, can alter the
balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
o Industrial Processes: Various industrial processes release greenhouse gases,
including CO2, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Examples include
cement production, chemical manufacturing, and the extraction and processing of
raw materials. These activities contribute to the emissions of greenhouse gases
through energy use, chemical reactions, and waste management practices.
o Agriculture and Livestock: Agricultural activities, such as rice cultivation and
the use of synthetic fertilizers, release significant amounts of methane and nitrous
oxide. Livestock farming, particularly cattle and sheep, produces methane through
 enteric fermentation and manure management. Methane is a potent greenhouse
gas with a higher warming potential than CO2.
o Volcanic eruption
Some Facts Related to Climate Change
o AGGI Index: Annual Greenhouse Gas Index—reports the combined warming influence
of all long-lived greenhouse gases as a fraction of their influence in 1990. The AGGI in
2022 was 1.49, which means that we’ve turned up the warming influence from
greenhouse gases by 49% since 1990.
o Arctic sea ice extent: The downward linear trend for Arctic Sea ice extent in April over
the 45-year satellite record is 37,000 square kilometers (14,300 square miles) per year, or
2.5 percent per decade relative to the 1981 to 2010 average (Figure 3). Based on the
linear trend, since 1979, April has lost 1.65 million square kilometers (637,000 square
miles) of ice. This is roughly equivalent to twice the size of Ukraine.

o
o Atmospheric carbon dioxide: Since the middle of the 20th century, annual emissions
from burning fossil fuels have increased every decade, from close to 11 billion tons of
carbon dioxide per year in the 1960s to an estimated 36.6 billion tons in 2022 according
to the Global Carbon Budget 2022.
o Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers
Why Carbon Dioxide Matters?
o Carbon dioxide is Earth’s most important greenhouse gas: a gas that absorbs and radiates
heat. Unlike oxygen or nitrogen (which make up most of our atmosphere), greenhouse
gases absorb heat radiating from the Earth’s surface and re-release it in all directions—
including back toward Earth’s surface. Without carbon dioxide, Earth’s natural
greenhouse effect would be too weak to keep the average global surface temperature
above freezing. By adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, people are
supercharging the natural greenhouse effect, causing global temperature to rise.
According to observations by the NOAA Global Monitoring Lab, in 2021 carbon dioxide
alone was responsible for about two-thirds of the total heating influence of all human-
produced greenhouse gases.
o Another reason carbon dioxide is important in the Earth system is that it dissolves into
the ocean like the fizz in a can of soda. It reacts with water molecules, producing
carbonic acid and lowering the ocean's pH (raising its acidity). Since the start of the
 Industrial Revolution, the pH of the ocean's surface waters has dropped from 8.21 to
8.10. This drop in pH is called ocean acidification.
Negative Impacts of Global Warming and Climate Change
o Rising Temperatures: Global warming leads to higher average temperatures, resulting
in heatwaves and extended periods of extreme heat. This can have direct consequences on
human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.
o Melting Glaciers and Ice Caps leading to Sea Level Rise: As global temperatures rise,
melting land ice and the thermal expansion of seawater contribute to rising sea levels.
This poses risks to coastal cities, infrastructure, and low-lying island nations.
o Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Global warming alters rainfall patterns, causing
shifts in the frequency, intensity, and distribution of precipitation. This can result in more
frequent and intense droughts, floods, and changes in water availability for agriculture
and human consumption.
o Ocean Acidification: The absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans leads to ocean
acidification, affecting marine ecosystems. Acidic waters can harm coral reefs, shellfish,
and other marine organisms, disrupting the entire marine food web.
o Ecosystem Disruption: Climate change can disrupt ecosystems by affecting the timing
of natural events, species interactions, and habitat suitability. This can lead to species
extinction, changes in species distributions, and loss of biodiversity.
o Increased Intensity of Extreme Weather Events: Global warming contributes to more
frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, cyclones, heatwaves, and
heavy rainfall events. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure,
agriculture, and human lives.
o Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security: Changes in temperature, precipitation
patterns, and extreme weather events can negatively impact agricultural productivity,
leading to reduced crop yields, livestock losses, and increased food insecurity.
o Health Impacts: Global warming affects human health through heat-related illnesses,
increased prevalence of vector-borne diseases, air pollution, and food and waterborne
diseases. Vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, children, and those with pre-
existing health conditions, are particularly at risk.
o Socioeconomic Consequences: The impacts of global warming can have wide-ranging
socioeconomic consequences. Disruptions to infrastructure, displacement of populations,
increased resource competition, and the costs of adapting to and mitigating climate
change can strain economies and livelihoods.
Sunny side of global warming
• Increased agricultural productivity: In some areas, a warmer climate may result in
longer growing seasons and higher crop yields. However, this would only be the case
if other factors, such as water availability and soil quality, are not affected by climate
change.
• Reduced cold-related deaths: Warmer temperatures could lead to a reduction in the
number of deaths related to cold weather, such as those caused by hypothermia.
• Increased tourism: Some regions that are currently too cold to attract tourists could
become more popular as the climate warms. However, this would only be the case if
 other negative effects of global warming, such as rising sea levels and more frequent
extreme weather events, do not make those regions less attractive.
• Increased Fresh water Reserves
• Increased cooperation at global level
• Assistance to Developing Countries
Recommendation to avert the negative impacts of Global Warming and Climate Change
o Transition to Renewable Energy: Shifting from fossil fuel-based energy sources to
renewable energy, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power, can
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
o Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and
industrial processes can reduce energy consumption and associated carbon emissions.
o Forest Conservation and Reforestation: Protecting existing forests and undertaking
reforestation efforts can help absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, mitigating the
effects of global warming.
o Sustainable Agriculture: Adopting sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic
farming, agroforestry, and precision farming techniques, can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, enhance soil health, and increase resilience to climate change.
o Waste Management: Implementing effective waste management strategies, including
recycling, composting, and waste-to-energy initiatives, can reduce methane emissions
from landfills.
o Transition to Low-carbon Transportation: Promoting electric vehicles, improving
public transportation systems, and investing in sustainable infrastructure can help reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
o Carbon Capture and Storage: Developing and deploying technologies that capture and
store carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and industrial facilities can help
mitigate global warming.
o International Cooperation and Policy Frameworks: Encouraging international
cooperation and implementing strong climate policies, such as carbon pricing
mechanisms and emissions reduction targets, are crucial for addressing global warming
on a global scale.
UNFCCC
• United Nations Frame work convention on climate change established in 1992, its
enables representatives from different countries to meet and discuss scientific and
political actions.
• Each year, the nation’s meet to discuss climate change strategies. These meeting are
called COP (Conference of the parties).
• The nations the signed the UNFCCC agree not to hinder food production or economic
interests of other countries as well as to support sustainable development within their
own countries.
• Outline the need to reduce GHGs emissions as a global response to Climate Change.
Kyoto Protocol- 1997
• Kyoto protocol (Dec, 1997) currently 192 parties. (Important 1st step in global climate
diplomacy), COP-3.
 • Marrakesh accords, 2001 (1st commitment period 2008-2012; 5% *1990level). Doha
amendment to the Kyoto protocol 2012 (2nd commitment period 2013-20;18% *1990)
• “Common but differentiated responsibility” – main responsibility on developed countries.
• Flexible mechanism (emission trading, clean development mechanism and joint
implementation)
• Each country is given an emission target quota (1Kyoto Unit = 1 carbon)
• Joint Implementation (A – 6): This mechanism allows countries with emissions
reduction targets to work together on projects to reduce emissions in one country and
earn credits towards their own targets. For example, Country A could invest in renewable
energy projects in Country B and earn emissions reduction credits towards its own target.
• Clean Development Mechanism (A – 12): This mechanism allows developed countries
to invest in emissions reduction projects in developing countries and earn credits towards
their own targets. For example, a company in Country A could invest in a renewable
energy project in Country B and earn emissions reduction credits towards Country A's
target.
• Emissions Trading (A – 17): This mechanism allows countries with emissions reduction
targets to trade emissions credits with one another. For example, if Country A exceeds its
target and reduces emissions beyond what is required, it can sell its excess emissions
credits to Country B, which is struggling to meet its emissions target

Principles
o Commitments to reduce GHGs
o Implementation of Kyoto protocol objective through policies, measures and
means.
o Minimizing impacts on developing countries b establishing adaptation fund for
Climate Change
o Accounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Kyoto protocol
o Ensure compliance and enforce commitments to the protocol
Criticism
o Result-too little, too late.
o CO2 levels continued to increase.
 o Global temperature continues to rise.
o Countries benefiting from the loophole.
o USA-the most responsible state has not ratified it.
o No monitoring mechanism
Analysis
o If the Kyoto protocol is to achieve its goal of reducing global emissions, it will
have to be changed to include all countries of the world each contributing
accordingly.
o At present, no penalties exist for the countries that ratify the Kyoto protocol but
fails to meet its reduction targets. (Financial penalties, trade sanctions, emission
penalties etc.).

Montreal Protocol 1987

Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer
o Agreed in Vienna in 1985, MEA.
o Framework for int. efforts to protect ozone layer, not legally binding.
Montreal Protocol is a protocol to Vienna Convention for the protection of ozone layer
o Set a mandatory timetable for the phase out of ozone depleting substances such as
CFCs, halons etc. for both developed and under developed substances.
o Targets 96 chemicals in 240 industrial sectors.
o Technology and Economic Assessment Panel.
o Most importantly it is doing its job well. The ozone layer is expected to return to
1980 levels between 2045-2060
o One of the reasons for the protocol’s successful implementation has been its
compliance procedure. Developing countries work with a UN agency to prepare
an action plan to get themselves back into compliance.
o KIGALI amendment to Montreal Protocol, 2016
 HFCs to be reduced by roughly 80-85% till 2045
Protocol and Treaties
The London Agreement, June 1990, 93 nations:
o Meeting called for the announcement of global depletion and the realization the
Montreal protocol would be achieve targets fast enough. Agreement on total ban
of all major depletes (CFCs and halons) by 2000.
• Copenhagen Treaty, Nov 1992, 87 nation’s realization that depletion was proceeding
faster and more seriously than anticipated.
o Actions also taken to prevent ozone formation in troposphere.
MEAs Ratified by Pakistan
Signatory to and ratified 15 MEAs in 5 clusters
o Bio-diversity related conventions
o Climate change
o Land Convention/ env cooperation convention
o Chemical and hazardous waste conventions
o Regional seas conventions and related agreements.
 Past paper Questions
• Write short notes on the following (CSS-1996)
o Acid rain
o Greenhouse effect
o Ozone depletion
• What is an Acid Rain and how it is produced. Briefly describe the dangers associated
with it? (CSS-2017)
• What is ‘Acid Rain’. Describe its causes and how it can be prevented? (CSS-2018)
• What do you mean by Ozone depletion and how we can prevent its depletion? (CSS-
2017)
• Comment, Green House Effect is a blessing. Also discuss Enhanced Green House Effect
and its relation with global warming. (CSS-2016)
• Write a comprehensive note on Smog. (CSS-2018)
• What are the factors responsible for environmental pollution? (CSS-2017)
• What were the main objectives of clean Development Mechanism? Also explain the
reasons for the criticism on Kyoto protocol by the developed countries. (CSS-2016).
• What does Ozone depletion mean and how can we protect the ozone layer? (CSS – 2019)
• How the organic particulate matter enters in the atmosphere. Also describe the sources?
(CSS – 2020)
• Discuss the possible negative impacts that Pakistan may face due to Global Warming and
Climate Change. What steps may be helpful to control the climate change? (CSS – 2022)
• What is the difference between fog and smog? What are the causes of smog and its
effects on human health? Write short note on an of the latest technologies to eliminate
smog to avoid atmospheric pollution. (CSS – 2023)
Chapter # 13 Water pollution and pollutants
Water pollution: According to the United Nations (UN), water pollution is defined as the
introduction or presence of harmful substances or pollutants into water bodies, such as rivers,
lakes, oceans, and groundwater, making the water unfit or harmful for human use, aquatic life,
and ecosystem health.
Major Water Pollutants
• Synthetic organic chemicals are a major category of water pollutants that can have
significant impacts on human health and the environment. These chemicals are
human-made and include a wide range of compounds, including pesticides,
pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals.
o Pesticides: Pesticides are used to control pests in agriculture and can enter water
sources through runoff from fields or leaching from soils. These chemicals can
have harmful effects on aquatic organisms and can also pose a risk to human
health if they are consumed in contaminated drinking water.
o Pharmaceuticals: Pharmaceuticals can enter water sources through wastewater
treatment plants, septic systems, and landfills. These chemicals can affect aquatic
organisms and can also lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
o Industrial chemicals: Industrial chemicals such as solvents, plastics, and flame
retardants can enter water sources through industrial discharge, runoff, and
leaching from landfills. These chemicals can have harmful effects on aquatic
organisms and can also pose a risk to human health if they are consumed in
contaminated drinking water.
o Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): PCBs are synthetic chemicals that were
widely used in electrical equipment, such as transformers and capacitors, until
they were banned in the 1970s. PCBs can enter water sources through industrial
discharge and can have harmful effects on aquatic organisms and human health.
• Oxygen-demanding wastes are a major category of water pollutants that can have
significant impacts on aquatic ecosystems. These wastes include organic matter such as
human and animal waste, as well as plant and animal remain. When these wastes enter
water sources, they decompose and consume oxygen in the water as part of the natural
process of biological oxygen demand (BOD). Here are some examples of oxygen-
demanding wastes that are commonly found in water sources:
o Municipal wastewater: Municipal wastewater, which includes human and
household waste, can contain high levels of organic matter that can contribute to
oxygen demand in water sources. Wastewater treatment plants are designed to
remove as much organic matter as possible before releasing the water back into
the environment.
o Agricultural waste: Agricultural activities such as livestock farming and crop
production can generate large amounts of organic waste, which can enter water
sources through runoff or leaching from soils. This waste can contribute to
oxygen demand in water sources and lead to the development of harmful algal
blooms.
 o Industrial waste: Industrial activities such as food processing, pulp and paper
production, and chemical manufacturing can generate large amounts of organic
waste that can contribute to oxygen demand in water sources.
o Oil and gas spills: Oil and gas spills can also contribute to oxygen demand in
water sources by introducing organic matter into the water.
• Plant nutrients are a major category of water pollutants that can have significant
impacts on aquatic ecosystems. These nutrients include nitrogen and phosphorus, which
are essential elements for plant growth, but can become pollutants in excess amounts.
Here are some examples of plant nutrients that are commonly found in water sources:
o Agricultural runoff: Agricultural activities such as the use of fertilizers and
manure can lead to excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water sources through
runoff or leaching from soils. This can contribute to eutrophication, which is an
overgrowth of algae and aquatic plants that can reduce oxygen levels and harm
aquatic organisms.
o Municipal wastewater: Human and household waste can contain high levels of
nitrogen and phosphorus that can contribute to eutrophication in water sources.
Wastewater treatment plants are designed to remove as much nitrogen and
phosphorus as possible before releasing the water back into the environment.
o Stormwater runoff: Stormwater runoff can pick up nitrogen and phosphorus
from urban and suburban areas, such as lawns, gardens, and parks, and carry it
into water sources. This can contribute to eutrophication and harm aquatic
ecosystems.
• Infectious agents are a major category of water pollutants that can have significant
impacts on human health. These agents include bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can
cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and giardiasis. Here are some examples of
infectious agents that are commonly found in water sources:
o Fecal coliform bacteria: Fecal coliform bacteria are found in the feces of warm-
blooded animals and are often used as an indicator of the presence of other
disease-causing organisms in water sources. High levels of fecal coliform bacteria
in water sources can indicate the presence of other infectious agents.
o Viruses: Viruses such as norovirus and hepatitis A can be transmitted through
contaminated water sources. These viruses can cause gastrointestinal illness,
jaundice, and liver damage.
o Parasites: Parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia can be found in water
sources and can cause gastrointestinal illness.
o Fungi: Certain types of fungi, such as those that cause histoplasmosis and
aspergillosis, can be found in water sources and can cause respiratory illness.
Solutions
• Control of water Pollution
• Chemical treatment Non-toxic
• Less stable chemicals in manufacture of insecticides
• Oxidation ponds to reduce radioactive waste
 • Thermal pollution reduced by: colling ponds, evaporative ponds, dry cooling
towers
• Domestic and industrial water stored in shallow ponds: natural decomposition by
bacteria in sunlight.
• Polluted water reclaimed by sewage treatment and reused in industrial processes
• Three stages: Primary Secondary Tertiary
• Primary: Screening step
• Secondary: Coagulation
• Tertiary: Use of Chlorine as a disinfectant
• Strict legislation
Water logging and salinity
Water logging: crop root-zone deprived of proper aeration due to the presence of excessive
moisture or water content – saturation of soil with water (water table high)
Salinity: accumulation of salts in soil impacting human and natural assets
o Types of salinity:
o Primary – natural
o Secondary – anthropogenic (urbanization, agriculture)
Cause of water logging and salinization in Pakistan
o High water table: (capillary action)
o Hot dry climate
o Inadequate irrigation supplies:
o Inadequate drainage.
o Seepage from canals.
o Over-irrigation of fields

Effects of water logging

o Creation of anaerobic condition in the crop root-zone
o Growth of water-loving wild plants
o Impossibility of tillage (the preparation of land for growing crops) operations
o Accumulation of harmful salts
o Lowering of soil temperature
o Reduction in time of maturity
Water logging and salinity in Pakistan
o Affects 25% of irrigated lands
o Punjab and Sindh: 48% saline; 18% strongly saline
o 3.0 million acres has become uncultivable
o Each year, 0.1 million acres becoming affected
Remedial measures
o Primary method – permit 10-20% of the irrigation water to leach the soil, be
drained and discharge through an appropriate drainage system. Salt import = salt
export
o Drainage: (channels, perforated pipes)
o Afforestation on saline waterlogged soil
 o Planting tolerant trees
o Controlling the loss of water due to seepage form the canals
o Preventing the loss of water due to percolation from fields and field channels
o Quick disposal of rainwater
o Installation of lift irrigation systems: (Tube wells)
o Engineering approach (Drainage scheme)
o Reclamation approach (use of chemical amendments)
o Bio-saline approach (Re-vegetation of salt-affected lands using salt-tolerant
crops).
Drinking Water quality
Drinking water quality Standards: Drinking water quality standards are established to ensure that
the water we consume is safe and free from harmful contaminants. These standards vary
depending on the country and region, but some common parameters that are regulated include: It
is a measure of condition of water relative to requirements of human needs or purpose.
Dissolved Oxygen
• Amount of oxygen dissolved in water is known as Solution
• Oxygen enters from atmosphere and photosynthesis
• Concentrate range of 4ppm-8ppm
• It will indicate quality of water
• If Value of DO is out of this range water would be considered as polluted.
Bio-chemical oxygen demand
• BOD is the dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organism to break down
organic material present in a given water at a certain temperature over specific period of
time.
• In water body BOD should be less.
Chemical oxygen demand
• Chemical oxygen demand measures the oxygen required to oxidize organic matter in
water and waste water sample by the action of strong oxidizing agent.
• COD is directly proportional to water pollution.
Chemical contaminants
• These include heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals that can pose a health
risk if consumed in high amounts. The WHO sets limits for these contaminants in
drinking water based on their toxicological properties and potential health effects.
Physical parameters
• These include temperature, pH, color, and turbidity. Temperature can affect the amount
of dissolved oxygen in water, which can impact aquatic life. pH levels outside of the
normal range can also affect aquatic life and the solubility of certain chemicals in water.
Turbidity, or the cloudiness of water, can indicate the presence of suspended solids or
other contaminants.
Radiological contaminants
• These include naturally occurring radioactive materials such as radon, which can pose a
health risk if consumed in high amounts. The WHO sets limits for these contaminants in
drinking water based on their radiological properties and potential health effects.
Past paper Questions
• Briefly explain the main reasons of water-logging in Pakistan (CSS-2017).
• What is “water Pollution” Discuss its causes and measurement methods.
Name the countries with the highest and lowest percentage of it. (CSS – 2018)
• Define the term Water Pollution. What indicators are used to measure the
Quality of Water? (CSS – 2022)
• What is the role of oxygen – demanding wates in water pollution? How it can
be prevented? (CSS – 2023)
 Chapter # 14 Land Pollution: Solid Waste Management and Disposal
Introduction: Solid waste management in Pakistan is a major challenge due to rapid
urbanization, population growth, and inadequate infrastructure. According to the World Bank,
Pakistan generates over 48 million tons of solid waste annually, with about 75% of it being
organic waste. The responsibility for solid waste management in Pakistan is divided among
multiple agencies, including the local governments, provincial governments, and federal
government. However, there is a lack of coordination and funding, which results in poor waste
management practices, including open dumping and burning of waste. In recent years, the
government has taken some steps to improve solid waste management in the country. For
example, the Punjab government has launched the "Clean Punjab" initiative, which aims to
improve the waste management system and promote recycling in the province. The initiative
includes the establishment of waste management companies and the introduction of modern
waste collection vehicles and equipment. The government has also introduced legislation to
regulate solid waste management practices. The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act of 1997
provides for the establishment of national and provincial environmental protection agencies and
outlines measures to prevent pollution and protect the environment, including the proper
management of solid waste.
Approaches to Solid Waste Management in Pakistan: There are several approaches to solid
waste management, which can vary depending on factors such as the type and amount of waste
generated, available infrastructure, and local regulations. Some important approaches to solid
waste management include:
• Waste reduction: The most effective way to manage waste is to reduce its generation.
This can be done by implementing waste reduction measures such as source reduction,
product redesign, and reuse.
• Recycling: Recycling is the process of collecting, separating, and processing waste
materials to create new products. Recycling can help reduce the amount of waste sent to
landfills and conserve natural resources.
• Composting: Composting is the process of decomposing organic waste materials to
create a nutrient-rich soil amendment. Composting can help reduce the amount of organic
waste sent to landfills and can be used to improve soil quality.
• Waste-to-energy: Waste-to-energy technologies use waste as a fuel to generate
electricity or heat. This approach can help reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills
and provide a source of renewable energy.
• Landfilling: Landfilling is the most common method of waste disposal. It involves
burying waste in a designated landfill site. Landfills can be designed to minimize
environmental impacts, but they still pose a risk to public health and the environment.
• Incineration: Incineration is the process of burning waste at high temperatures to
generate energy. This approach can help reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills and
provide a source of renewable energy, but it can also produce air pollutants and toxic ash.
Issues of SWM in Pakistan: Solid waste management is a major issue in Pakistan, with
inadequate infrastructure and limited resources for waste management. Some of the key issues
facing solid waste management in Pakistan include:
 • Lack of infrastructure: Many cities and towns in Pakistan lack basic waste management
infrastructure, such as waste collection vehicles, disposal facilities, and recycling centers.
This leads to improper waste disposal, such as open dumping and burning of waste.
• Limited resources: The lack of funding and resources for waste management is a major
challenge in Pakistan. Local governments often have limited budgets for waste
management, and there is a lack of trained personnel to manage waste.
• Inefficient waste collection: In many areas, waste collection is inefficient, with irregular
collection schedules and inadequate collection equipment. This leads to overflowing bins
and littered streets.
• Inadequate disposal facilities: Many of the disposal facilities in Pakistan are inadequate
and do not meet international standards. This leads to environmental pollution and health
hazards for nearby communities.
• Lack of public awareness: There is a lack of public awareness about the importance of
proper waste management and the impacts of improper disposal on public health and the
environment. This results in littering and illegal dumping of waste.
• Inadequate regulation and enforcement: There is a lack of effective regulation and
enforcement of waste management practices in Pakistan. Many waste management
companies operate without proper permits and regulations are not effectively enforced.
Landfill
Landfills are sites designed for dumping rubbish, garbage, or other sorts of solid wastes.
Historically, they are most common means of disposing solid waste which is either buried or left
to pile in heaps.
Sanitary landfill: Sanitary landfills accept hazardous wastes such as hospital waste. This
method is better than open dumping method because open dumping method causes foul smell
and also accelerate land pollution. In 1935 a new system was arrived in California that is known
as sanitary landfilling method. In this method a large is selected for the disposal of waste then
digging process comes into action.
Industrial landfill: Landfill that accepts specified industrial waste.
MSW landfills: That accepts household waste as well as other wastes.
Construction and demolition waste landfills: These types of landfills used for debris generated
during construction, renovations, demolitions of buildings and bridges.
Landfill site selection criteria
• Location of the ground
• Ground water table
• 3m minimum soil layer
• Public & private irrigation water supply wells should be well away from the boundaries
of landfill site because these supply wells will be at risk of contamination.
• It should be 500m away from residential areas
• It should be 20 m away from commercial areas
• Highways and motorways should be at least 450m away from the landfill site.
Pate paper Questions
• Differentiate between Sanitary and industrial landfills, also describe the land selection
criteria for landfills (CSS-2016)
• What is Solid Waste? Discuss the main issues of Solid Waste Management in Pakistan?
(CSS – 2022)
Chapter # 15 Role of Remote Sensing and GIS in environmental science

Remote Sensing
• Remote means something which is far away
• Sensing is getting information or getting data
• The science and technology by which characteristics of interest can be identified
without direct contact through ground-based airborne or space-borne sensors using
parts of electromagnetic spectrum.
• Benefits
o To observe a broad area at a time
o To observe the area for long period
o To know the condition and environment without direct contact

RS and its process

• A= Energy source or Illumination
• B= Radiation and the atmosphere
• C= interaction with the target
• D= Recording of energy by the Sensor
• E= transmission, reception, and processing
• F= Interpretation and analysis
• G=application

Types of Remote Sensing

• Optical Remote Sensing: This type of remote sensing uses visible, near-infrared, and
shortwave-infrared light to capture images of the Earth's surface. It is commonly used in
satellite imagery, aerial photography, and multispectral or hyperspectral imaging.
• Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing: This technique measures the thermal radiation
emitted by objects to determine their temperature. It is particularly useful for applications
such as monitoring forest fires, mapping urban heat islands, and identifying thermal
anomalies.
• Radar Remote Sensing: Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) uses radio waves to
detect and measure the properties of objects on the Earth's surface. It can penetrate
clouds, vegetation, and even the ground, making it valuable for applications like
topographic mapping, forest monitoring, and flood mapping.
• LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): LiDAR uses laser pulses to measure the
distance between the sensor and the Earth's surface. It is commonly used for terrain
mapping, creating high-resolution elevation models, and generating 3D representations of
objects and landscapes.
• Microwave Remote Sensing: Microwave sensors operate at longer wavelengths and can
penetrate through clouds, vegetation, and even the ground. This technique is useful for
 applications such as soil moisture monitoring, vegetation mapping, and ocean surface
monitoring.
• Passive vs. Active Remote Sensing: Remote sensing can be categorized as passive or
active based on the source of energy used. Passive remote sensing relies on natural
sources of energy, such as sunlight, while active remote sensing systems emit their own
energy, like radar or LiDAR, and measure the reflected or emitted energy.

Application of Remote sensing

• Environmental Monitoring: Remote sensing is extensively used for monitoring and
assessing various environmental parameters. It aids in the monitoring of land cover and
land use changes, deforestation, urbanization, wetland mapping, coastline changes, and
monitoring of natural hazards such as wildfires, floods, and earthquakes.
• Agriculture and Crop Monitoring: Remote sensing helps in monitoring and managing
agricultural activities. It provides information on crop health, growth stages, yield
estimation, irrigation management, and detection of pests and diseases. It assists in
precision farming techniques and optimizing resource allocation in agriculture.
• Forestry and Biodiversity: Remote sensing plays a crucial role in forest management
and monitoring. It helps in assessing forest cover, monitoring deforestation and illegal
logging, estimating biomass and carbon stock, and identifying biodiversity hotspots. It
aids in habitat mapping and monitoring endangered species.
• Water Resources Management: Remote sensing enables the monitoring and
management of water resources. It helps in monitoring water bodies, detecting water
quality parameters, assessing changes in water levels, mapping wetlands, and monitoring
water pollution and algae blooms. It assists in the efficient management of water
resources and planning for irrigation, drinking water supply, and hydrological modeling.
• Urban Planning and Development: Remote sensing provides valuable information for
urban planning and development. It aids in urban growth monitoring, land use
classification, infrastructure planning, transportation network analysis, and assessing the
impact of urbanization on the environment.
• Disaster Management: Remote sensing is instrumental in disaster management and
response. It aids in early warning systems, monitoring and predicting natural disasters
such as floods, hurricanes, and landslides. It facilitates damage assessment, search and
rescue operations, and post-disaster recovery planning.
• Climate Change Studies: Remote sensing contributes to climate change studies by
monitoring key climate variables such as temperature, precipitation, sea level rise, ice
cover, and vegetation dynamics. It helps in understanding the impact of climate change
on ecosystems, assessing carbon sequestration, and supporting climate modeling and
forecasting.
GIS
• A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist or happens on earth.
• It helps us to capture, analyze and present information on the map, which further help us
to make better decisions.
• In GIS, information about world is presented in two layers linked by geography. Each
layers contains similar features such as streets or rivers.
• People command and analyze geographic data using GIS tools and visualize that data
using maps, graphs or charts.
• Components of GIS
o Hardware
o Software
o Data
o People
o Procedure

GIS Application
• GDSS (geographic decision support system)
• Strategic planning: land information (planning and use), and infrastructure needs
• Conservation of resources (water, minerals, etc.
• Weather data, mapping natural disasters and DRM.
• Population characteristics
• Vegetation, forestry, agriculture and soil.
• Soil suitability for various land use activities.
• Environmental impact analysis
• Zoning of landslides hazards
Past Paper Questions
 • What do you know about the Remote Sensing Techniques? Explain resolution and write
down the names of its various types? (CSS – 2016)
• What do you understand by the term Remote Sensing? Write its basic principle. Give its
important applications. (CSS – 2022)

Chapter # 16 Food Sciences

Nutrients
Nutrient
• Nutrients are molecules in food that all organisms need to make energy, grow, develop
and reproduce. Nutrients are digested and then broken down into basic parts to be used by
the organisms.
Types of Nutrients
Macronutrients
• Those substances which needed in large amount.
• Carbohydrates, proteins, fats.
Micronutrient
• Those substances which are needed in small amount.
• Vitamins and minerals.

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are human body’s key source of energy, providing 3.9 calories of
energy per gram.
• The word carbohydrate literally means “Hydrated Carbon (a compound of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen)
• Their general formula is C x (H2O) y where x and y denoted number of carbon and
water molecules.
• They are also known as Saccharides which means sugar.
Sources of Carbohydrates
• Cereals, dates, hone, milk, sugar potato, sugarcane etc.
Carbohydrates classification
 • Monosaccharides (mono means one)
• Oligosaccharides (Oligo (2to 10) means few)
• Polysaccharides (poly means many)
Monosaccharides
• They are simple sugar.
• They are sweet in taste.
• They are easily soluble in water.
• They cannot be further hydrolyzed.
• Glucose, galactose, and Fructose etc. are few examples
Oligosaccharides
• They are less sweet in taste.
• They are less soluble in water.
• They can be hydrolyzed and on hydrolysis they produce 2 to 10 monosaccharides.
• When 2 monosaccharides are combined together, they form Disaccharides, when 3
monosaccharides are combined together, they form disaccharides and so on.
• Examples of Disaccharides
o Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
o Lactose = glucose + galactose
o Maltese= Glucose + glucose
Polysaccharides
• They are tasteless
• They are insoluble in water
• They are most complex and most abundant.
• They can be hydrolyzed.
• Glycogen, Cellulose and Starch are few examples
Proteins
o Proteins are the chief builder of the body. They are complex molecules made up
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They are polymer of Amino Acid. A
linear chain of amino acid residues is called polypeptide. A protein contains at
least one long polypeptide. The formation of peptide bond can continue until a
molecule containing several hundred thousand amino acid is formed. Such a
molecule is called polypeptide or protein.

Importance of proteins.
o They build many structures of the cell.
o All enzymes are protein in nature, so, they control metabolism of cell.
o Some proteins act as carries and transport specific substances like oxygen, ions
etc.
 o Some proteins are called antibodies (antibodies also known as immunoglobulins,
are Y-shaped proteins), which are used to protect the body.
o Some are used to prevent loss from body.
Sources of protein
o Fish, egg, meat, milk etc.
They are 20 different amino acids, which form different types of proteins.
These 20 types of amino can be divided into two group, essential and non-
essential amino acids.
Essential Amino Acids.
o They are required by the body throughout the life.
o They are taken by body from outside.
o Their deficiency causes different diseases.
o These amino acids include lysine, valine, arginine etc.’

Non-essential Amino acids

o They are not required by the body throughout the life.
o They can be manufactured from other amino or from simpler
compounds already present in our body.
o Their deficiency does not cause severe problems.
o These amino acids include glutamic acid, glutamine glycine etc.
Levels of Proteins
• Primary Structure: The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of
amino acids that make up the protein chain. The sequence is determined by the gene
encoding the protein. Each amino acid is covalently linked to the next by peptide bonds,
forming a polypeptide chain.
• Secondary Structure: Secondary structure refers to the local folding patterns that arise
due to hydrogen bonding interactions between amino acids in the protein chain. The two
most common types of secondary structure are alpha helices and beta sheets. Alpha
helices form when the polypeptide chain coils into a spiral shape, while beta sheets
involve the chain forming a sheet-like structure with strands connected by hydrogen
bonds.
• Tertiary Structure: Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding of a
single polypeptide chain. It is determined by a combination of factors, including
hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions,
and van der Waals forces. The tertiary structure gives a protein its specific shape and
functional properties.
• Quaternary Structure: Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement and interactions
of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in a multi-subunit protein. Proteins with
quaternary structure consist of two or more subunits that come together to form a
functional protein complex. The subunits can be identical or different and are held
together by various non-covalent interactions.
 Lipids
o Fats are called lipids and are a macronutrient in body that stores energy. Fats have
long chains of carbon and hydrogen, which store lots of energy in the chemical
bonds.
o Triglyceride is a basic unit of lipids
o Glycerol + 3 fatty acids triglyceride
Types of Lipids
o Saturated fat (Solid at room temperature)
o Un saturated fat (Liquid at room temperature)
o Process of hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated fat to saturated fat.

Cholesterol
o Cholesterol is a lipid (Fat) which is produces by the liver. Cholesterol is vital for
normal body function. Every cell in our body has cholesterol in its outer layer.
Liver produces more cholesterol when we eat a diet high saturated fat. Excess
cholesterol can form plaque between layers of artery walls, making it harder for
heart to circulate blood. Plaque can break open and cause blood clots. If a clot
blocks an artery that feeds the brain, it can cause a stroke. If it blocks an artery
that feeds the heart, it causes a heart attack.
o Cholesterol cannot dissolve in the blood. It must be transported through
bloodstream by carriers called Lipoproteins, which got their name because they
are made of fats (lipids) and proteins.
o Types of Cholesterol
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Bad
High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) good
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) – Bad
o LDL travels through blood stream delivering cholesterol to the cell, that needs it.
If body has too much LDL, it can build up in the walls of arteries. Which form a
fatty deposit called plaque.
High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) – Good
o HDL helps remove of excess cholesterol from cells, tissues and from plaque in
blood vessels. HDL returns excess cholesterol to liver, which removes it from
body.
 Heart Attack
• The heart if made of muscle cells. These cells, just like other cells in the body, must
receive oxygen and food through circulatory system. The blood vessels which supply
oxygen and food to the heart are called coronary arteries.
• A hard substance called plaque can build up in the walls of coronary arteries. This plaque
is made of fat and other cells. The coronary arteries may become narrow due to Plaque.
Sometimes a blood clot forms on the plaque and blocks coronary arteries. Due to this, the
blood cannot reach a part of the heart. This part of the heart begins to die due to lack of
oxygen and food. The death of a part of heart is called a heart attack or myocardial
infarction. If too much heart muscle dies, the heart is unable to pump the blood and the
person could die.
Vitamins & Minerals
• Vitamins are organic compounds which are essential for the growth of the body.
• Types of vitamins
o Fat soluble vitamins (A D E and K)
o Water soluble vitamins (B & C).
• Minerals
• Minerals are naturally occurring substances that do not contain carbon. They cannot be
digested further or broken down anymore. These are essential for
o Micro elements (Ca C1, Mg, P, K, Na)
o macro elements (Cu, F, I, Fe, Zn)

Vitamin Other Names Sources Deficiency Symptoms

Vitamin A Retinol Carrots, liver, sweet Night blindness, dry skin,
potatoes poor immune function
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Pork, beans, whole Beriberi (weakness, fatigue,
grains confusion)
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Milk, eggs, green Cracks at the corners of the
vegetables mouth, skin rash
Vitamin B3 Niacin Meat, fish, beans, Pellagra (diarrhea,
whole grains dermatitis, dementia)
 Vitamin B5 Pantothenic Meat, whole grains, Fatigue, insomnia,
Acid vegetables irritability
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Meat, fish, potatoes, Anemia, depression,
bananas confusion
Vitamin B7 Biotin Eggs, nuts, whole Dermatitis, hair loss, fatigue
grains
Vitamin B9 Folate Leafy green Anemia, birth defects, poor
vegetables, beans growth
Vitamin B12 Cobalamin Meat, dairy, eggs, Anemia, fatigue, weakness,
fortified cereals numbness
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid Citrus fruits, Scurvy (bleeding gums,
strawberries bruising, fatigue)
Vitamin D Calciferol Sunlight, fatty fish, Rickets (weak bones, muscle
fortified dairy weakness)
Vitamin E Tocopherol Nuts, seeds, vegetable Anemia, poor immune
oils function, muscle weakness

Vitamin K Phylloquinone Leafy green Excessive bleeding, poor

vegetables, liver blood clotting

Concept of balance diet

A diet which contains all the essential nutrients of food in proper proportion is called balance
diet.
Quantitative formula
• Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total daily calories
• Proteins: 10-35% of total daily calories
• Fats: 20-35% of total daily calories
Components of balance diet
• Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for the body. They
include sugars, starches, and dietary fiber. Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes
are good sources of complex carbohydrates, while added sugars should be limited.
• Proteins: Proteins are essential for growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues. They
are made up of amino acids and can be obtained from sources like lean meats, poultry,
fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, and plant-based sources such as tofu and tempeh.
• Fats: Dietary fats are important for providing energy, supporting cell growth, protecting
organs, and helping the body absorb certain vitamins. Choose healthy fats such as
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats found in sources like avocados, nuts, seeds,
and oily fish, while limiting saturated and trans fats.
• Vitamins: Vitamins are essential for various bodily functions, including energy
production, immune function, and cell maintenance. Include a variety of fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins to obtain a broad range of vitamins, including
vitamins A, C, D, E, K, and B-complex vitamins.
• Minerals: Minerals play crucial roles in maintaining healthy bones, teeth, and overall
body functions. Examples of important minerals include calcium, iron, potassium,
 magnesium, zinc, and sodium. Sources include dairy products, leafy greens, nuts, seeds,
lean meats, and whole grains.
• Fiber: Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is not digested by the body but is important for
maintaining a healthy digestive system. It aids in digestion, helps regulate blood sugar
levels, and promotes a feeling of fullness. Good sources of dietary fiber include whole
grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts.
• Water: While not a nutrient, water is essential for hydration and maintaining bodily
functions. It is important to drink an adequate amount of water daily to stay hydrated.
Enzymes
Enzymes composed of polymers of amino acid that act as catalyst to regulate the speed of many
chemical reactions involved in the metabolism of living organisms.
 Enzymes are classified into several broad categories, such as hydrolytic, oxidizing, and
reducing, depending on the type of reaction they control.
o Hydrolytic enzymes accelerate reactions in which a substance is broken down
into simpler compounds.
o Oxidizing enzymes accelerate oxidation reactions.
o Reducing enzymes speed up reducing reactions.
 Most of the enzymes consists of non-protein part is called cofactor. The proteins in the
enzymes are usually globular proteins. The protein part of the enzymes is known
apoenzyme. Together the apoenzyme and cofactor are known as the holoenzyme.
Structure of Enzyme & mechanism of Enzyme action
Substrate, active site, enzymes, product.
Enzyme + substrate enzymes-substrate complex enzyme + product

Characteristics of enzyme
 The basic function of an enzyme is to increase rate of reaction.
 Enzymes are reaction specific.
 Their presence does not affect the nature of end product.
 They lower the activation energy of reaction.
Food additives
 “Food additive are substances that become part of a food product when they are added
during the processing or making of that food.”
 They include antioxidants, preservatives, coloring and flavoring agent, stabilizer,
thickening agent.
  Types of food additives
o Preservatives – prevents or slows down growth of bacterial fungi, so that food
can be kept longer.
o Antioxidants – slows down the oxidation of fat in food.
o Coloring agent – colors food to make it look more attractive.
o Flavoring agent – add taste or fragrant smells to make food more edible.
o Stabilizers – provide a smooth and uniform structure.
o Thickening agent – thickens liquids such as soup and sauce.

Food Deterioration
Food deterioration means the original nutritional value, texture, flavor of the food are damaged,
the food become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.
Causes of food deterioration
 Micro-organisms – growth and activities of micro-organisms, principally
bacteria, yeast and molds.
 Enzymes – there are many hundreds of different enzymes but some of the
more important spoilage changes include softening of fruits, browning of
cut fruit and loss of green color due to their activates.
 Water – enzymes and micro-organisms can only spoil foods if water is
present.
 Heat and temperature – the rate of spoilage by micro-organisms and
enzymes increases especially at room temperature. But when foods are
heated above 60 o C most enzymes and micro-organisms destroyed. Eat
can also spoil packaged food, it can melt fats and cause a loss of texture.
 Light – sunlight contains UV rays which can cause rapid deterioration.
 Air – some foods, especially those have a high fat content are susceptible
to oxidation.
 Food contaminants Vs food adulterants
Food Contaminants Food Adulterants
Substances that are unintentionally Substances that are intentionally added
present in food to food
Can occur naturally or as a result of Added to food to increase its quantity
environmental contamination during or weight, improve its appearance or
growing, harvesting, processing, texture, or disguise poor quality or
packaging, or transportation spoilage
Examples include bacteria, viruses, Examples include water added to milk,
fungi, parasites, chemicals (such as vegetable oil added to honey, or fillers
pesticides, heavy metals, and PCBs), added to spices
and physical objects (such as glass or
metal fragments)
Can pose a health risk if present in high Can also pose a health risk if they are
enough levels toxic or if they displace essential
nutrients
 Regulated by government agencies to Regulated by government agencies to
ensure that levels are within safe limits ensure that they are not used in a way
that harms consumers or misleads them
about the quality or composition of the
food
Malnutrition: Malnutrition is a condition that occurs when the body does not get enough
nutrients to function properly. It can refer to both undernutrition, which is a lack of adequate
nutrients, and overnutrition, which is an excess of nutrients. Undernutrition is more common in
developing countries and can be caused by a variety of factors, including:
• Poverty: Lack of access to food and limited financial resources can lead to malnutrition.
• Inadequate dietary intake: A diet that lacks essential nutrients, such as protein,
vitamins, and minerals, can lead to malnutrition.
• Infections and diseases: Infections and diseases can interfere with nutrient absorption
and utilization, leading to malnutrition.
• Poor sanitation and hygiene: Poor sanitation and hygiene practices can increase the risk
of infections and diseases that contribute to malnutrition.
• Climate and environmental factors: Climate and environmental factors can affect food
production and availability, contributing to malnutrition.
Consequences of malnutrition can be severe and can affect physical and mental health. Some
of the consequences of malnutrition include:
• Growth and developmental delays in children
• Increased risk of infections and diseases
• Impaired cognitive function
• Muscle and tissue wasting
• Increased risk of chronic diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease
• Poor wound healing and increased risk of complications after surgery
• Increased risk of mortality
Food Preservatives & preservation
Food preservation is a process of treating and handling of food to stop or greatly slow down
spoilage or accelerated by micro-organisms.
Why food is preserved?
o To preserve the natural characteristics of food.
o To preserve the appearance of food.
o To preserve the shelf value of food.
Natural food preservatives
 Salt, sugar, alcohol, vinegar, citric, and ascorbic acid.
Chemical food preservatives
o Benzoates, Bitrates, Sulphites, Sorbates
Artificial food preservatives
o Added or sprayed on food
o Antioxidants, antimicrobial etc.
Food Preservation Method
Modern preservation methods
o Freezing: Freezing food at low temperatures inhibits the growth of
microorganisms and enzymes, effectively preserving the food's quality and
extending its shelf life.
o Pickling: Pickling is a food preservation technique that involves preserving food
by immersing it in a solution of acid, usually vinegar, and salt or sugar. The acid
and salt/sugar create an environment that inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts,
and molds, thus preventing spoilage.
o Salting: Salting is a traditional food preservation technique that involves using
salt to inhibit the growth of microorganisms and prevent spoilage. It works by
drawing out moisture from the food and creating an environment that is
unfavorable for the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
o Canning: Canning is a food preservation technique that involves sealing food in
containers (typically jars) to create a vacuum seal, preventing the growth of
microorganisms and extending the shelf life of the preserved food.
o Dehydration: Removing water from food inhibits the growth of microorganisms
by depriving them of the moisture they need to survive. Techniques include sun
drying, air drying, freeze-drying, and spray drying.
Importance of food preservation
o The varies of food can be enjoyed in any different area and any seasons
o The supplement of food can be increased.
o The waste of food will be reduced.
o There is no change in taste, color and nutritive values of food with the right way
of food preservation.
o People can taste food from any location.
o Can stored the food more easily.
o Increasing the food product shelf life.
Antioxidants
Our bodies are comprised of billions of molecular cells held together by electronic bonds.
Sometimes, these molecules are held together by a weak bond and can split apart resulting an
unstable molecule with an unpaired electron. This molecule is known as a free Radical. Some
free radical occur normally in our bodies through metabolism, however, there are many
environmental factors that can cause an excess of free radicals such as pollution, radiations,
Cigarette, smoke, Herbicides, stress, lack of exercise, lack of sleep.
Process of free Radicals, Oxidants and anti- oxidants
The free radicals would start attacking healthy nearby cells in an attempt to replace their electron
or to get stable. When the attack molecule loses its electron, it becomes a free radical itself. This
can cause a chain reaction to occur resulting in disruption of millions of nearby molecules. This
chain reaction is known as Oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is an imbalance between free
radicals and antioxidants in your body. Antioxidants stops this chain reaction by donating one of
their own electrons to the free radicals. The antioxidants nutrient itself does not become a free
radical by giving away its electron.
Type of Antioxidants – Natural and Synthetic Anti – oxidants:
• Natural antioxidants: These are naturally occurring compounds found in plants, fruits,
and vegetables. Some examples of natural antioxidants include vitamin C, vitamin E,
beta-carotene, and selenium. Natural antioxidants are generally considered safe and have
been used in foods for centuries.
• Synthetic antioxidants: These are man-made compounds that are designed to mimic the
effects of natural antioxidants. Some examples of synthetic antioxidants include BHA
(butylated hydroxy anisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene), and TBHQ (tert-
butylhydroquinone). Synthetic antioxidants are often used in processed foods to extend
their shelf life and prevent oxidation.
• While both natural and synthetic antioxidants can help prevent food spoilage and improve
the shelf life of foods, there is some controversy around the safety of synthetic
antioxidants. Some studies have suggested that high levels of synthetic antioxidants may
have negative health effects, such as an increased risk of cancer. However, the safety of
synthetic antioxidants is still a matter of debate, and they are approved for use by
regulatory agencies in many countries.

Effects of Oxidative stress

• Arthritis
• Premature aging
• Edema and leg swelling
• Hardening of artery
• Susceptibility to cancer
Past paper Questions
• Discuss importance of preservatives and antioxidants in food (CSS-
216/1987/1995/2001/2008).
• What is the significance of vitamins? Describe the sources, uses and deficiency
symptoms of fat-soluble vitamins (CSS-2017/1990).
• Define “Carbohydrates. Describe different steps to digest these in human Body. (CSS-
2018).
• People suffering from cardiovascular diseases have a high level of cholesterol in their
blood. This often leads to a buildup of fats on the internal arterial walls. Suggests how
this might be harmful to the heart. (CSS-2019).
 • What is cholesterol? Discuss its importance, normal blood level and dangers of elevated
levels with reference to the health and disease in humans (CSS-2016)
• What are carbohydrates? Classify and give detail of each class along with examples.
(CSS – 2020)
• Discuss different methods of Food preservation. (CSS – 2020)
• Differentiate between food contaminants and food adulterants. (CSS – 2021)
• Define the term “malnutrition”. Elaborate its major causes and consequences. (CSS –
2021)
• Explain how a slice of bread after few days decomposes due to the growth of fungi. (CSS
– 2021)
• What are antioxidants and why are they used in food? Write a short note on natural and
synthetic antioxidants. (CSS – 2023)
• Deficiency of vitamins causes different human diseases some of which are given in the
table below. Choose the correct type of vitamin from the box and write in front of each
disease: (CSS – 2019)
Vit. A Vit. B1 Vit. C Vit. D Vit. E Vit. K

Disease caused due to lack of Vitamin Name of the Vitamin

1. Poor night Vision
2. Bleeding Gums
3. Rickets in Children
4. Beri – Beri
5. Anemia

Chapter # 18 Computer (hardware & Software)

Introduction of Computer
Input devices (providing data and control signal to an information processing system)
Keyboard
 Mouse
Scanner
Digital camera
Joysticks
Output devices (receives data and commands from an information processing system in order to
perform a task)
Monitor
Printer
Speaker
I/O Processing
Processing is process of converting raw data into useful information.
Fundamental parts in processing of data
RAM
ROM
CPU
Data Buses
CPU
Electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out instructions of a computer program by
performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and I/O operations specified by the instructions.
Block Diagram of Computer

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of their size. These are
• It accepts data or instruction by way of input
• It stores data
• It can process data as requeid by the user
• It gives results in the form of output
• It controls all operations inside a computer
I/O Processing
Principle components of CPU
o ALU (performs arithmetic and logic operation)
 The inputs to an ALU are the data to be operated on, called operands, and
the code indicating the operation to be performed.
 Arithmetic unit (+, -, X, /)
 Logic unit (logical operations like comparing two data)
Control unit
o CU is considered the brain because it issues orders to just about everything and
ensures correct instruction execution. CU acts like a superior seeing things are
done in proper fashion.
Storage unit
• Primary memory is the memory that the CPU can access directly and includes two main
types of memory: RAM (Random Access Memory) and cache memory.
o RAM: RAM is the most common type of primary memory in modern computers.
It is a volatile memory, which means that its contents are lost when the computer
is shut down. RAM is used to store data and instructions that are currently being
used by the CPU. RAM is measured in bytes, and the most common sizes of
RAM in modern computers are 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, and 32GB.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is a non-volatile memory that contains
permanent instructions or data that are essential for the computer's operation. The
data stored in ROM is typically pre-programmed during the manufacturing
process and cannot be modified or erased by normal computer operations. Hence,
it is referred to as "read-only" memory.
o Cache memory: Cache memory is a small amount of high-speed memory located
within the CPU itself. Its purpose is to store frequently used data and instructions
so that they can be accessed quickly by the CPU. Cache memory is much faster
than RAM, but it is also much more expensive.
• Secondary memory is the memory that is used for long-term storage of data and
instructions and includes a wide range of storage devices such as hard disk drives (HDD),
solid-state drives (SSD), and optical disks.
o Hard Disk Drive (HDD): An HDD is a mechanical storage device that uses
spinning disks to store data. HDDs are relatively cheap and have large storage
capacities but are slower than other types of secondary memory.
o Solid-State Drive (SSD): An SSD is a storage device that uses flash memory to
store data. SSDs are faster and more reliable than HDDs but are more expensive.
o Optical Disks: Optical disks, such as CD-ROMs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, are
used for long-term storage of data and are relatively cheap. However, they are
slower than other types of secondary memory and have smaller storage capacities.
• Other types of memory used in computers such as EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read-Only Memory) and PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory),
which are used to store firmware and other low-level software instructions. There are also
various types of memory used in specialized applications, such as graphics memory used
in video cards and sound cards, and cache memory used in web browsers and other
software applications.
• Difference between RAM and ROM
Feature RAM ROM
Full Form Random Access Read-Only Memory
Memory
Volatility Volatile memory Non-volatile memory
 Retention Data is lost when power Data is retained even
is off when power is off
Usage Used for temporary Used for permanent
data storage data storage
Read/Write Read and write Read-only operations
operations
Size Smaller capacity than Larger capacity than
ROM RAM
Types SRAM, DRAM, PROM, EPROM,
SDRAM EEPROM, Flash
Memory, Mask ROM
Speed Faster access times than Slower access times
ROM than RAM
Cost Cheaper than ROM More expensive than
RAM
Function Temporarily stores Stores program data
program data and firmware

Computer buses
o Set of parallel lines, that are used to transfer data between different components of
the computer.
o A communication system
o The capacity of computer bus depends on the number of DATA lines in it.
o CPU communicate with other components of computer through buses.
System buses (Internal buses)
o These are used to connect main components of a computer i.e. main memory.
o These are part of mother board.
o Computer normally have 70-100 lines
System buses (Internal buses)
o Internal data bus, memory bus, system bus or front side bus.
o Connect all the internal components of a computer, such as CPU and memory to
the motherboard.
o Also called local buses, because they are intended to connect to local devices.
External Buses.
o Made up of electronic pathways that connect the different external devices to the
computer.
Internal Buses
Control Bus
o It determines the operation of buses. It is used by CPU to communicate with other
devices. Communication between the CPU and control bus is necessary for
running a proficient and functional system. Without the control bus the CPU
cannot determine whether the system is receiving or sending data. It is the control
bus that regulates which direction the write and read information need to go.
Address Bus
o Many components are connected through buses. Each component is assigned a
unique ID and that ID is called address of that component. If a component wants
to communicate with another component, it uses address bus to specify the
address of that bus it is a computer bus, which defines address of data on the
address bus, the address bus is carried to the memory where the data from the
requested address is fetched and placed on the data bus. The data bus carried to
CPU. It is unidirectional, so, it can carry information only in one direction.
Data Bus
o Transmit data between different components of computer. It is an electrical path
that connects the CPU, memory, I/O devices and secondary storage devices. Data
bus lines are bidirectional means CPU can read data from memory lines and can
write data to memory locations.

Storage devices
Data Storage in Hard Disk
 • Data is stored on a hard disk using magnetic fields. Inside a hard disk, there are several
circular platters made of a magnetic material, typically a cobalt alloy or iron oxide. These
platters are coated with a thin layer of magnetic material, which is divided into small
areas called magnetic domains.
• The hard disk drive also contains a read/write head, which is mounted on an actuator arm
and moves across the surface of the platters to access the data stored on them. When data
is written to the disk, the read/write head magnetizes the magnetic domains in a particular
pattern to represent the data. This process is called encoding.
• When data is read from the disk, the read/write head passes over the magnetic domains
and detects the magnetic changes that represent the data. This process is called decoding.
• The hard disk drive also has a system of tracks and sectors that help to organize and
locate the data stored on the disk. The tracks are concentric circles on the surface of the
disk, while the sectors are pie-shaped areas within the tracks.

• 3 processes
 Data is converted to simple numbers
 Data is recorded by hardware inside the computer.
 Numbers are organized and moved to storage.
o Every piece of data in computer is stored as a number. For instance, letters are
converted to numbers, and photographs are converted to a large set of numbers
that indicate the color and brightness of each pixel. The number are then
converted to binary numbers.
Networking & Common networking layouts
Networking
 A digital telecommunication network which allows nodes to share resources. Computing
devices exchange data with each other using connections between nodes.
Common networking layouts.
 Bus network
 Star Network
 Ring Network
 Mesh network
 Fully connected network
 • Bus network: All nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium.
• Star network: All nodes are connected to a special central node.
• Ring Network: Each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all
nodes are connected that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left –
or rightwards.
• Mesh network: Each node is connected to arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way
that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other.
• Fully connected network: Each node is connected to every other node in the network.
Types of Networks
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
o A PAN is a network that covers a very small area, typically within the range of a
person or individual workspace.
o PANs are designed for personal devices and are used for communication between
devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable devices.
o Bluetooth and Near Field Communication (NFC) are common technologies used
for PAN connections.
• LAN (Local Area Network)
o A LAN is a network that covers a small geographic area, typically confined to a
single building or a group of nearby buildings.
o It is commonly used in homes, offices, schools, and small businesses.
o LANs allow for the sharing of resources such as files, printers, and internet
connections among connected devices.
o Examples of LAN technologies include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Token Ring.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
o A MAN is a network that spans a larger geographic area than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN.
o It covers a city or metropolitan area, connecting multiple LANs and larger
organizations.
o MANs are often used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to provide high-speed
connectivity to businesses and institutions within a city.
o Examples of MAN technologies include Fiber Optic Cable, WiMAX, and Metro
Ethernet.
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
o A WAN is a network that extends over a large geographic area, such as a country,
continent, or even worldwide.
o WANs connect multiple LANs and MANs together, enabling long-distance
communication.
 o They utilize public and private telecommunication infrastructure, including leased
lines, satellite links, and internet connections.
o WANs are commonly used by large organizations, corporations, and service
providers to establish wide-scale connectivity.
o Examples of WAN technologies include MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching),
Frame Relay, and the Internet itself.

Application and Business software

Business software is any software that is used by business users to perform various business
functions. These business applications are used to increase productivity, to measure productivity
and to perform business functions accurately. These are generally categorized by using small,
medium and large matrix.
Small business software.
 Home accounting software such as Microsoft office.
Medium size or SME (Small and Medium-sized enterprise)
 Customer relationship management, human resource management system,
loan originating software, field service software etc.
Enterprise level
 Applications such as those in the fields of enterprise resource planning
(ERP), enterprise Content Management (ECM), Business Process
Management (BPM) and product life cycle management (PLM).
Commonly used business software
Product lifecycle management (PLM)
 PLM is managing the entire lifecycle of a product from inspection,
through engineering design and manufacture, to service and disposal of
manufacture producer.
Enterprise application Software (EAS)
 It is used to satisfy needs of an organization such as businesses, schools
etc.
Electronic Medical Record System (EMR)
 This used to manage clinical operation.
Database Management System (DBMS)
 A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed
to define, manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS
generally manipulates the data itself, the data format, field names, record
structure and file structure.
Enterprise Resource planning (ERP)
 It’s a business process management software that managers and integrates
a company’s financials, supply chain, operations, reporting,
manufacturing, and human resource activities.
Fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence
Back in 1950s, the fathers of the field Minsky and McCarthy, described intelligence as nay task
performed by a program or a machine, if a human carried out the same activity, we would say the
human had to apply intelligence to accomplish the task.
Philosophy of AI: While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human,
lead him to wonder, “can a machine think and behave like human do? Thus, the development of
AI started.
John McCarthy Said, “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially
intelligent computer programs”.
How Artificial Intelligence Works

Positive Impacts of AI: One book that discusses the positive impacts of AI is "The AI
Advantage: How to Put the Artificial Intelligence Revolution to Work" by Thomas H.
Davenport.
• Improved efficiency and productivity: AI can automate routine tasks, freeing up
employees to focus on higher-value work. This can lead to increased efficiency and
productivity.
• Better decision making: AI can analyze vast amounts of data and provide insights that
humans may miss. This can help decision makers make better-informed decisions.
• Enhanced customer experiences: AI can personalize interactions with customers,
improving their overall experience with a product or service.
• Improved healthcare outcomes: AI can assist in the diagnosis and treatment of
diseases, potentially leading to better healthcare outcomes for patients.
• Increased safety: AI can be used to monitor and analyze data to identify potential safety
hazards, such as in transportation systems.
• Improved data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large datasets much faster and more
accurately than humans, enabling researchers to identify patterns and make discoveries
that would be difficult or impossible using traditional methods.
 • Drug discovery: AI can be used to design and test new drugs by simulating their effects
on cells and tissues, which can speed up the drug discovery process and reduce the cost
of developing new treatments.
• Precision medicine: AI can help doctors personalize treatments based on a patient's
genetic makeup, medical history, and other factors, which can improve the effectiveness
of treatments and reduce side effects.
• Climate modeling: AI can be used to analyze complex climate data and improve our
understanding of how the climate is changing, which can help us develop more effective
strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change.
• Astrophysics: AI can be used to analyze large amounts of astronomical data, enabling
researchers to identify new celestial objects, map the structure of the universe, and better
understand the nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Negative Impacts of AI: One book that discusses the negative impacts of AI is "The Age of
Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power" by
Shoshana Zuboff.
• Exploitation of personal data: Companies can use AI to collect and analyze vast
amounts of personal data, which can be used for targeted advertising or to make decisions
about individuals without their knowledge or consent.
• Job displacement: As AI technology improves, it has the potential to automate many
jobs, leading to job losses and creating a need for retraining and education for workers in
affected industries.
• Amplification of bias and discrimination: AI algorithms can be biased if they are
trained on biased data, which can perpetuate discrimination against certain groups of
people.
• Loss of privacy: AI can be used to monitor people's activities and behaviors, which can
erode their privacy and freedom.
• Power imbalance: The companies that develop and control AI technology may become
very powerful and have a disproportionate amount of influence over society and politics.
• Bias and discrimination: AI algorithms can perpetuate biases and discrimination if they
are trained on biased data or programmed with biased rules. This can result in decisions
that unfairly disadvantage certain groups of people.
• Dependence on AI: As we become more reliant on AI technology, we may become less
able to function without it. This could lead to issues if the technology fails or is
unavailable.

Past Paper Questions

• Write a short note on artificial Intelligence. (CSS-2016).
• Name three basic buses employed in a computer and explain what each is used for (CSS-
2017).
• Draw a basic computer block diagram and briefly explain the functions of each part (Css-
2017).
• Differentiate between RAM and ROM (CSS-2017).
• What is Artificial Intelligence? How is it helpful for humanity? (CSS-2018).
• Write a note, how data is stored on a hard disk (CSS-2018).
• What are the different types of a network? Explain each briefly. (CSS – 2019)
• What is a computer memory? Describe its units and discuss various types of memories.
(CSS – 2021)
• Explain Artificial Intelligence. What do you understand by the term Robotics? (CSS –
2022)
• Differentiate between network and internet? (CSS – 2023)
• What is difference among Application, Program, and Software? (CSS – 2023)
 Chapter # 19 Telecommunication
Satellite
 Word satellite refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around earth or
another body in space.
Parts of satellite.
 An antenna sends and receives information, often to and from earth
 A power source solar panel
How does it work
 A rocket can launch a satellite into space and reach its transfer orbit of 1500 kms above
earth.
 The satellite then deploys its section of solar panel to provide a steady power supply
during its travel in space.
 Final position is attained.
Example: Geo-stationary satellite
Difference between Artificial and Natural Satellite
Natural Satellites Artificial Satellites
Objects that orbit a planet or other celestial body Objects that are intentionally launched into orbit
naturally around the Earth or other celestial body
Examples include the Moon, the natural satellites Examples include communication satellites, weather
of other planets in our solar system, and asteroids satellites, and scientific research satellites
that orbit the Sun
Formed as a result of natural processes, such as Constructed by humans using various materials, such
accretion, capture, or co-formation with their as metal, plastic, and composite materials
parent celestial body
Can be observed with telescopes and other Can be tracked and monitored using radar and other
astronomical instruments technologies
Have irregular shapes and may be composed of a Have regular shapes and are designed to withstand
variety of materials, such as rock, ice, and dust the harsh conditions of space, such as radiation and
extreme temperatures
Have been studied extensively by astronomers and Have revolutionized modern communication,
planetary scientists to learn more about the navigation, and weather forecasting, and have
formation and evolution of the solar system contributed to advances in space exploration and
scientific research
Applications of Satellite
• Communication: Satellites play a crucial role in global communication systems. They
facilitate long-distance telephone calls, television broadcasts, internet connectivity, and
data transmission. Communication satellites are positioned in geostationary orbit to
provide continuous coverage over a specific region.
• Navigation and Global Positioning System (GPS): Satellites are used for precise
positioning, navigation, and timing services. GPS satellites, in particular, enable accurate
location determination for various applications, including vehicle navigation, mapping,
surveying, and logistics.
• Weather Monitoring and Forecasting: Weather satellites are equipped with sensors to
observe atmospheric conditions, cloud patterns, and precipitation. These satellites provide
 valuable data for weather monitoring, storm tracking, climate research, and accurate
weather forecasting.
• Earth Observation and Remote Sensing: Satellites equipped with imaging sensors capture
high-resolution images and collect data about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and
oceans. This data is used for various purposes, including land cover mapping,
environmental monitoring, disaster management, urban planning, agriculture, and natural
resource management.
• Scientific Research: Satellites are employed in scientific missions to study the Earth,
other planets, the solar system, and the universe. They gather data on climate change,
geology, atmospheric composition, space exploration, and astrophysics. Examples
include the Hubble Space Telescope and the Mars rovers.
• Military and Defense: Satellites are used for military reconnaissance, surveillance,
intelligence gathering, and communication in defense applications. They enable global
monitoring and assist in military operations, including target identification, tracking, and
communication between military forces.
• Broadcasting and Entertainment: Satellites facilitate direct-to-home (DTH) television
broadcasting, satellite radio services, and satellite internet services. They provide a wide
range of entertainment options, including television channels, radio stations, and
multimedia content delivery.
• Internet Connectivity: Satellites can provide internet connectivity to remote and
underserved areas where terrestrial infrastructure is limited or unavailable. Satellite
internet services help bridge the digital divide by bringing internet access to rural
communities, ships, airplanes, and remote regions.
GPS (Global Positioning System)
 GPS is a satellite-based navigation system, a spaced based navigation system that
provides location and time information.
Working Principle – Trilateration
o GPS satellites orbit the earth and transmit signals that contain information about
their location and the time the signal was transmitted.
o A GPS receiver on the ground or in a device like a smartphone receives these
signals and calculates the distance to each satellite based on the time it took for
the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver.
o By calculating the distance to multiple satellites, the GPS receiver can determine
its own location using a process called trilateration.
o Once the GPS receiver has determined its own location, it can provide this
information to the user through a map or other interface.
 RADAR (Radio Detection and ranging)
Object detection system that uses radio waves to determine the position, distance, height,
angle or the velocity of object.
Working of RADDAR – Principle of reflection of EM wave
• A radar system consists of a transmitter that sends out radio waves and a receiver that
listens for the echoes of those waves.
• The transmitter sends out a pulse of radio waves, which travel through the air until they
encounter an object.
• When the radio waves encounter an object, they bounce off it and travel back to the radar
receiver.
• The receiver picks up the echo of the radio waves and calculates the time it took for the
waves to travel to the object and back. This time measurement allows the receiver to
determine the distance to the object.
• The receiver also analyzes the frequency and amplitude of the returning radio waves to
determine the size, shape, and material composition of the object.
• By sending out multiple pulses of radio waves and receiving multiple echoes, the radar
system can track the movement of the object over time.

Cellphone
Working of a cellphone
• A cellphone works by using radio waves to send and receive information. When you
make a call or send a text message, your phone converts the sound or text into a digital
signal.
• The digital signal is then sent to the phone's antenna, which converts the signal into radio
waves and sends them out.
• The radio waves travel through the air until they reach a nearby cellphone tower.
• The tower receives the radio waves and sends them to a central hub called a mobile
switching center.
• The mobile switching center routes the call or message to the correct destination, which
could be another cellphone or a landline phone.
 • If you receive a call or message, the process works in reverse: the radio waves are sent
from the other device to the nearest cellphone tower, which then sends the signal to your
phone.
• Once your phone receives the signal, it converts the digital signal back into sound or text
so you can hear the call or read the message.

FIBER OPTICS
 Strands of optically pure glass as thin as a human hair that carries digital information
over long distance.
 Principle of total internal reflection.
o Total internal reflection to get maximum reflection.
o Total reflection minimizes the consumption of energy
o Signal can travel long distance with less energy.

 Construction of Optical Fiber

o Core (Glass)
o Cladding (Glass or plastic)
o Buffer coating (For extra protection of core additional layer)
o Jacket

Advantages of Fiber Optics

 • Ability to carry much more information and deliver it with greater fidelity.
• Supports higher data rates.
• Virtually immune to all kinds of interference.
• As the core is made of glass, it will not corrode and it unaffected by most chemicals.
• A fiber optic cable is usually much smaller and lighter in weight than a wire or
coaxial cable.
• Secure communication system.
• It has 30 minutes less cross-sectional area than copper wire and has capacity 4.5 times
greater than other cable.
• The raw material for glass is plentiful, unlike copper.
Fields in which optical fiber is used
• Telecommunications: Optical fibers are commonly used in telecommunications
networks to transmit voice, data, and video signals over long distances. They are used
by telephone companies, cable TV providers, and internet service providers to
connect cities, towns, and buildings.
• Medical: Optical fibers are used in medical applications such as endoscopes, which
are used to look inside the body during surgery or diagnosis. They are also used in
laser surgery and other medical procedures.
• Defense and Aerospace: Optical fibers are used in defense and aerospace
applications to transmit data and video signals in high-speed communication systems.
They are used in missile guidance systems, aircraft avionics, and other military
applications.
• Industrial: Optical fibers are used in industrial applications such as inspection
systems, where they are used to transmit video signals from inside pipes, tanks, and
other confined spaces. They are also used in sensing applications such as temperature
and pressure monitoring.
• Lighting and Decorative: Optical fibers are also used in lighting and decorative
applications. They can be used to create fiber optic lighting systems for homes,
buildings, and landscapes. They are also used in artistic installations and in the
entertainment industry.
• Research: Optical fibers are used in research applications such as fiber optic sensors
for measuring strain, temperature, and other physical parameters. They are also used
in scientific experiments and in laboratory equipment.
Disadvantages/Limitations of optical Fiber: Although optical fiber has many
advantages, there are also some disadvantages:
• Cost: Optical fiber is more expensive to install than traditional copper cables. The
cost of the fiber optic cable itself is higher, and the installation process requires
special tools and expertise.
• Fragility: Optical fiber is more fragile than copper cables and can break or become
damaged more easily. This can be a problem in certain environments, such as
construction sites or areas with high foot traffic.
 • Compatibility: Some older systems may not be compatible with optical fiber, which
can make upgrading to fiber optic technology more difficult and expensive.
• Distance Limitations: While optical fiber can transmit data over long distances,
there is still a limit to the distance it can transmit before the signal becomes too weak.
This can be a limitation for some applications that require data to be transmitted over
extremely long distances.
• Power Limitations: Optical fibers require light to transmit data, which means they
require a power source. This can be a disadvantage in certain applications where a
power source may not be available.
• Installation Challenges: Installing optical fiber requires specialized skills and tools,
which can make it more difficult and time-consuming than other types of cabling.
This can be a disadvantage in situations where time and budget are limited.

Past Paper Question

 How an Optical Fiber is constructed? How is it helpful in transmitting the
electromagnetic radiations? (CSS-2018)
 Write short notes on: (2 ½ each)
(i). Fiber Optics (ii) global positioning system
 Give a brief account of Optic fibers. What is their importance in present day telecom
system (CSS-2019).
 What is GPS? How does it work? (CSS – 2020)
 Where and how Fiber Optics are used? Also write down their advantages and
disadvantages. (CSS – 2020)
 Differentiate between natural and artificial satellites. Briefly describe the working of
communication satellites with some applications. (CSS – 2021)
 Explain the Optical Fiber. Explain how fiber Optic Communication works? (CSS – 2022)
 Briefly explain the working and structure of a Cell Phone. (CSS – 2022)
 How does the Navistar GPS system work for different applications? (CSS – 2023)