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MODULE 3
Waste Collection, Storage, Transport and Disposal

Course: CCC621 (Solid Waste Management)

Instructor: Dr. Sailesh Behera
Civil Engineering Department
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Overview of the Module

Module 3:
Waste Collection, Storage, Transport, and Disposal:

Collection components, storage-containers/collection vehicles,

collection operation, transfer station, waste collection system
design, record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring,
implementing collection and transfer system, a case study. Key
issues in waste disposal, disposal options and selection criteria,
sanitary landfill, landfill gas emission, leachate formation,
environmental effects of landfill, landfill operation issues, a case
study.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(I) Collection points:
 These affect such collection system components as crew size and
storage, which ultimately control the cost of collection.
 Note that the collection points depend on locality and may be
residential, commercial or industrial.
(II) Collection frequency:
 Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as containers
and costs determine the collection frequency.
 In hot and humid climates, for example, solid wastes must be collected at
least twice a week, as the decomposing solid wastes produce bad odour
and leachate.
 A residential wastes usually contain food wastes and other putrescible
(rotting) material, frequent collection is desirable for health and aesthetic
reasons.
 Besides climates, the quality of solid waste containers on site also
determines the collection frequency. For instance, while sealed or closed
containers allow collection frequency up to three days, open and unsealed
containers may require daily collection.
 Collection efficiency largely depends on the demography of the area (such
as income groups, community, etc.), where collection takes place.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(II) Collection frequency: While deciding collection frequency,
therefore, you must consider the following:

 Cost, e.g., Optimal collection frequency reduces the cost as

it involves fewer trucks, employees and reduction in total
route distance.

 Storage space, e.g., Less frequent collection may require

more storage space in the locality.

 Sanitation, e.g., Frequent collection reduces concerns about

health, safety and nuisance associated with stored refuse.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(III) Storage containers:

 Proper container selection can save collection energy,

increase the speed of collection and reduce crew size.
 Most importantly, containers should be functional for the
amount and type of materials and collection vehicles used.
 Containers should also be durable, easy to handle, and
economical, as well as resistant to corrosion, weather and
animals.
 In residential areas, where refuse is collected manually,
standardized metal or plastic containers are typically required
for waste storage.
 When mechanized collection systems are used, containers
are specifically designed to fit the truck-mounted loading
mechanisms.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(III) Storage containers:

While evaluating residential waste containers, consider the

following:

 Efficiency, i.e., the containers should help maximize the

overall collection efficiency.
 Convenience, i.e., the containers must be easily manageable
both for residents and collection crew.
 Compatibility, i.e., the containers must be compatible with
collection equipment.
 Public health and safety, i.e., the containers should be
securely covered and stored.
 Ownership, i.e., the municipal ownership must guarantee
compatibility with collection equipment.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(IV) Collection crew:
 The optimum crew size for a community depends on labor and equipment
costs, collection methods and route characteristics.
 The size of the collection crew also depends on the size and type of
collection vehicle used, space between the houses, waste generation rate
and collection frequency. For example, increase in waste generation rate and
quantity of wastes collected per stop due to less frequent collection result in
a bigger crew size.
 Note also that the collection vehicle could be a motorized vehicle, a pushcart
or a trailer towed by a suitable prime mover (tractor, etc.). It is possible to
adjust the ratio of collectors to collection vehicles such that the crew idle
time is minimized. However, it is not easy to implement this measure, as it
may result in an overlap in the crew collection and truck idle time.
 An effective collection crew size and proper workforce management can
influence the productivity of the collection system.
 The crew size, in essence, can have a great effect on overall collection costs.
However, with increase in collection costs, the trend in recent years is
towards:
• Decrease in the frequency of collection.
• Increase in the dependence on residents to sort waste materials.
• Increase in the degree of automation used in collection.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(V) Collection route:
 The collection program must consider the route that is efficient for
collection.
 An efficient routing of collection vehicles helps decrease costs by reducing
the labor expended for collection.
 Proper planning of collection route also helps conserve energy and
minimize working hours and vehicle fuel consumption.
 It is necessary therefore to develop detailed route configurations and
collection schedules for the selected collection system.
 The size of each route, however, depends on the amount of waste collected
per stop, distance between stops, loading time and traffic conditions.
 Barriers, such as railroad, embankments, rivers and roads with heavy
traffic, can be considered to divide route territories.
 Routing (network) analyses and planning can:
• Increase the likelihood of all streets being serviced equally and
consistently.
• Help supervisors locate or track crews quickly.
• Provide optimal routes that can be tested against driver judgement
and experience.
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Factors influencing waste collection system
(VI) Transfer station:
 A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal option
and collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the system, as
collection vehicles and crew remain closer to routes.
 If the disposal site is far from the collection area, it is justifiable to have a
transfer station, where smaller collection vehicles transfer their loads to
larger vehicles, which then haul the waste long distances.
 In some instances, the transfer station serves as a pre-processing point,
where wastes are dewatered, scooped or compressed.
 A centralized sorting and recovery of recyclable materials are also carried
out at transfer stations (EPA, 1989).
 The unit cost of hauling solid wastes from a collection area to a transfer
station and then to a disposal site decreases, as the size of the collection
vehicle increases.
 This is due to various reasons such as the following:
• Labor costs remain constant.
• The ratio of payload to vehicle load increases with vehicle size.
• Help supervisors locate or track crews quickly.
• The waiting time, unloading time, idle time at traffic lights and driver
rest period are constant, regardless of the collection vehicle size.
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Waste Collection System
Consider the following criteria to evaluate, and make
decisions about, collection systems:

 Efficiency: Do the services help minimize the cost per

household?
 Effectiveness: Do the services satisfy the community
needs?
 Equity: Do the services address equally the concerns of
all social and demographic groups?
 Reliability: Do the services ensure consistency?
 Safety and environmental impact: Do the services
ensure safety of workers, public health and protection of
the environment?
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Containers/storage bins
The design of an efficient waste collection system
requires careful consideration of the type, size and location of
containers at the point of generation for storage of wastes until
they are collected.
While single-family households generally use small
containers, residential units, commercial units, institutions and
industries require large containers.
Smaller containers are usually handled manually whereas
the larger, heavier ones require mechanical handling.
The containers may fall under either of the following two
categories:
 (i) Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be
transferred to collection vehicles at the site of storage.
 (ii) Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be
directly transferred to a processing plant, transfer station or
disposal site for emptying before being returned to the
storage site.
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Containers/storage bins
 The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost, size, weight,
shape, resistance to corrosion, water tightness, strength and durability. For example,
a container for manual handling by one person should not weigh more than 20 kg,
lest it may lead to occupational health hazards such as muscular strain, etc.
 Containers that weigh more than 20 kg, when full, require two or more crew members
to manually load and unload the wastes, and which result in low collection efficiency.
 Containers should not have rough or sharp edges, and preferably have a handle and
a wheel to facilitate mobility. They should be covered to prevent rainwater from
entering (which increases the weight and rate of decomposition of organic materials)
into the solid wastes.
 The container body must be strong enough to resist and discourage stray animals
and scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling by the collection
crew and mechanical loading equipment.
 Containers should be provided with a lifting bar, compatible with the hoisting
mechanism of the vehicle. The material used should be light, recyclable, easily
moulded and the surface must be smooth and resistant to corrosion.
 On the one hand, steel and ferrous containers are heavy and subject to corrosion; the
rust peels off exposing sharp edges, which could be hazardous to the collection
crew.
 On the other, wooden containers (e.g., bamboo, rattan and wooden baskets) readily
absorb and retain moisture and their surfaces are generally rough, irregular and
difficult to clean.
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Containers/storage bins: Communal container
 Generally, the containers used for waste storage are communal/public containers.
Figure (next slide) shows a typical communal container, which a compactor
collection vehicle (Figure in later slide) can lift and empty mechanically.
 The use of communal containers is largely dependent on local culture, tradition and
attitudes towards waste.
 Communal containers may be fixed on the ground (stationary) or movable (hauled).
 Movable containers are provided with hoists and tails compatible with lifting
mechanism of collection vehicles and such containers have capacities of 1–4 m3.
 The waste management authority must monitor, maintain and upgrade the
communal containers. Note that in residential and commercial areas in India, the
communal containers are often made of concrete.
 In areas with very high waste generation rates, i.e., rates exceeding two truckloads
daily, such as wet markets, large commercial centers and large business
establishments, roll-on-roll or hoisted communal containers with capacities of 12 –
20 m3 and a strong superstructure with wheels are used.
 Normally, the collection vehicle keeps an empty container as a replacement before it
hauls the filled container. When a truck is used as a collection vehicle, the use of
communal containers may be appropriate.
 It is advisable to place the containers 100 – 200 m apart for economic reasons. The
communal containers are usually staggered such that the effective distance of 100
m is maintained as shown in Figure (next slide):
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This means that the farthest distance the householder will have to walk is
50 meters. However, in narrow streets with low traffic, where the house
owner can readily cross the street, a longer distance is advisable. If the
collection vehicle has to stop frequently, say, at every 50 m or so, fuel
consumption increases, and this must be avoided.
Containers/storage bins: Disadvantages of 19

Communal container
 The major disadvantage of communal containers is the potential lack of
maintenance and upgrading.
 The residuals and scattered solid wastes emit foul odors, which discourage
residents from using the containers properly.
 In addition, if fixed containers are built below the vehicle level, the collection crew
may be held responsible for sweeping and loading the solid wastes into transfer
containers before being loaded into the collection vehicle.
 Sweeping and cleaning the communal containers of residuals obviously impinge on
the time of the crew members and take a longer time than if the wastes are placed in
smaller containers.
 As fixed communal containers have higher rates of failure, their use is not advisable.
 To overcome the problem of maintaining communal containers, individual residents
should maintain their own containers and locate them in designated areas.
 The communal area must have water and drains to facilitate the cleaning of the
containers.
 This practice has the advantage of reducing the number of collection stops and at
the same time maintaining the householder’s responsibility for cleaning them.
 The residents must also be properly educated on the importance of good
housekeeping as the containers in the communal area are subject to vandalism.
 In the main, if communal containers are to be successful, the design of the
containers, loading and unloading areas, and collection vehicle accessories should
be coordinated.
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A case of developed country Ukraine
If we are running out of space and contaminating our groundwater
by burying our trash, and contaminating the air by burning our
waste, What can we do?
1) Recycle paper, glass, and metal (pizza boxes are not
recyclable!)
2) Compost organic waste at home
3) Consume less, 30% of our waste is composed of packaging!

Compost Solid waste management in Ukraine

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Collection Vehicles
 Almost all collections are based on collector and collection
crew, which move through the collection service area with a
vehicle for collecting the waste material.
 The collection vehicle selected must be appropriate to the
terrain, type and density of waste generation points, the way
it travels and type and kind of material (UNEP, 1996).
 It also depends upon strength, stature and capability of the
crew that will work with it.
 The collection vehicle may be small and simple (e.g., two-
wheeled cart pulled by an individual) or large, complex and
energy intensive (e.g., rear loading compactor truck).
 The most commonly used collection vehicle is the dump truck
fitted with a hydraulic lifting mechanism.
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(I) Small-scale collection and muscle-powered vehicles:

 These are common vehicles used for waste collection in
many countries and are generally used in rural hilly areas.
 As Figure next slide illustrates, these can be small
rickshaws, carts or wagons pulled by people or animals, and
are less expensive, easier to build and maintain compared to
other vehicles.
 They are suitable for densely populated areas with narrow
lanes, and squatter settlements, where there is relatively low
volume of waste generated.
 Some drawbacks of these collection vehicles include limited
travel range of the vehicles and weather exposure that affect
humans and animals.
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Collection vehicles
(I) Small-scale collection and muscle-powered vehicles:

Figure: Small-scale Collection Vehicles: An Illustration

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(II) Non-compactor trucks:

 Non-compactor trucks are efficient and cost effective in small
cities and in areas where wastes tend to be very dense and have
little potential for compaction. Figure on next slide illustrates a
non-compactor truck.
 When these trucks are used for waste collection, they need a
dumping system to easily discharge the waste. It is generally
required to cover the trucks in order to prevent residue flying off
or rain soaking the wastes.
 Trucks with capacities of 10 – 12 m3 are effective, if the distance
between the disposal site and the collection area is less than 15
km.
 If the distance is longer, a potential transfer station closer than
10 km from the collection area is required.
 Non-compactor trucks are generally used, when labour cost is
high.
 Controlling and operating cost is a deciding factor, when
collection routes are long and relatively sparsely populated.
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Collection Vehicles
(II) Non-compactor trucks:

Figure: Non-compactor Trucks

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(III) Compactor truck:

 Compaction vehicles are more common these days, generally having
capacities of 12–15 m3 due to limitations imposed by narrow roads.
 Although the capacity of a compaction vehicle, illustrated in Figure on
next slide, is similar to that of a dump truck, the weight of solid wastes
collected per trip is 2 to 2.5 times larger since the wastes are
hydraulically compacted.
 A compactor truck allows waste containers to be emptied into the vehicle
from the rear, front or sides and inhibits vectors (of disease) from
reaching the waste during collection and transport.
 It works poorly when waste stream is very dense, wet, collected materials
are gritty or abrasive, or when the roads are dusty.
 The advantages of the compactor collection vehicle include the
following:
• Containers are uniform, large, covered and relatively visually
inoffensive.
• Waste is set out in containers so that the crew can pick them up
quickly.
• Health risk to the collectors and odour on the streets are minimized.
• Waste is relatively inaccessible to the waste pickers.
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(III) Compactor truck:

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Collection Vehicles
(III) Compactor truck:

The success of waste management depends on the level of

segregation at source. One of the examples for best collection method
is illustrated in the figure above.
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Collection
Collection of solid waste in developing countries
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Collection

Collection of solid waste in developing countries

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Collection

Collection of solid waste in developing countries

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Collection
Street sweeping in developing countries
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Figure: Collection systems in developed countries
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Storage
Municipal solid waste storage containers

Rubbish skip is used

to transfer the waste
to special vehicles
or for door-to-door Solid waste is stored
collection. Dumpsters are large without safety
steel containers used precautions in many
to transfer the waste to countries.
large transportation
trucks.
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Storage
Storage of hazardous materials
There are various storage units such as containers, tanks, drip pads, waste
piles, surface impoundments, or containment buildings designed to house
chemicals, flammables, solvents, paint, explosives, and other hazardous
materials. The storage of hazardous materials need to comply the regulatory
requirements specified by RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act).

Federal regulations allow small quantity

Storage of hazardous materials in hazardous waste generators (100-1000 kg) to
buildings. store the waste for up to 270 days without permit.
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Collection

Front-end loading vehicles

are commonly used for
commercial collection

Side- and rear-end loading vehicles are commonly

used for residential collection
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Collection
Collection of solid waste in developing countries is more inefficient. Most of the
budget is spent in collection and yet, they are not able to collect all the generated
waste. Collection varies from household level (called primary), where waste is
collected from individuals using bicycles, handcarts, private trucks, horses, etc.
as medium of transportation and then put into community collection containers.
The secondary collection system is then performed by the city council using
small mechanical vehicles, trucks, and tractors.

Solid Waste
Management in
Africa.
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Movement of collection crew
 In cultures such as India, Bangladesh, etc., solid waste collection is
assigned to the lowest social group. More often, the collection crew member
accepts the job as a temporary position or stopgap arrangement, while
looking for other jobs that are considered more respectable.
 Apart from this cultural problem, the attitude of some SWM authorities
affects collection operation. For example, some authorities still think that
the collection of solid waste is mechanical, and therefore, the collection
crew does not need any training to acquire special skills. As a result, when a
new waste collector starts working, he or she is sent to the field without firm
instruction concerning his or her duties, responsibilities and required skills.
 For an effective collection operation, the collection team must properly be
trained. The collection crew and the driver of the collection vehicle must, for
example, work as a team, and this is important to maintain the team morale
and a sense of social responsibility among these workers.
 You must also note that the movement of collection crew, container location
and vehicle stopping point affect collection system costs.
 Figure on next slide highlights the distance the collection crew will have to
walk, if it were to serve the farthest point first or serve the point closest to
the vehicle.
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Movement of collection crew

Figure: Effect of Container Location and Vehicle Stopping

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Movement of collection crew
 The difference may be one or two minutes per collection stop, but it matters
with the number of stops the crew will take in a working shift.
 Multiplying the minutes by the total number of crew working and labour cost
depicts the amount of labour hours lost in terms of monetary value.
 Generally, familiarity of the crew with the collection area improves
efficiency. For example, the driver becomes familiar with the traffic jams,
potholes and other obstructions that he or she must avoid.
 The crew is aware of the location of the containers and the vehicle stops.
 It is, therefore, important to assign each crew specific areas of
responsibility.
 Working together also establishes an understanding of the strong and weak
points of the team members and efficient work sequences.
 The collection operation must also observe a strict time schedule.
 Testing of new routes, new gadgets and vehicles is best carried out first in
the laboratory and later in a pilot area.
 Testing of a new sequence using the whole service area could result in
disorder and breakdown of the solid waste collection system.
 Studies show that it takes two hours to recover for every hour of a failed
system.
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Movement of collection crew
Motion time measurement (MTM) technique
 Motion time measurement (MTM) studies are now an integral part of the
standard procedure in the development of solid waste collection systems.
 MTM is a technique to observe and estimate the movement of the collection
crew with the help of stopwatches.
 The results thus gathered are tabulated as shown in Table (on next slide) to
determine the best sequence of activities that workers must follow in order to
complete a repetitive task in the shortest possible time.
 MTM also helps in deciding the best combination of equipment to maintain a
desired level of output, reduce health problems related to the repetitive work
sequence and predict the effects of changes in materials handled.
 Sophisticated MTM studies involve hidden or open video cameras at different
collection stops to record, replay and study the operation sequence of the
collection crew.
 If the crew is conscious of being observed, they tend to work faster and
reduce time wastage in unauthorized salvaging and other non-scheduled
activities.
 Once the crew is familiar with the person(s) observing them, it begins to
perform more credibly.
 In studies involving video cameras, therefore, the first two or three hours of
observation are often neglected.
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Movement of collection crew
Motion time measurement (MTM) technique
Table: MTM Study: Determination of Time, Distance and Number on
Containers in Collection Route
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Collection Vehicle Routing
Efficient routing and re-routing of solid waste collection vehicles can
help decrease costs by reducing the labour expended for collection.
Routing procedures usually consist of the following two separate
components: (I) Macro-routing, and (II) Micro-routing.

(I) Macro-routing:
 Macro-routing, also referred to as route-balancing, consists of
dividing the total collection area into routes, sized in such a way as
to represent a day’s collection for each crew.
 The size of each route depends on the amount of waste collected
per stop, distance between stops, loading time and traffic
conditions.
 Barriers, such as railroad embankments, rivers and roads with
heavy competing traffic, can be used to divide route territories.
 As much as possible, the size and shape of route areas should be
balanced within the limits imposed by such barriers.
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Collection vehicle routing
(II) Micro-routing:
 Using the results of the macro-routing analysis, micro-routing can
define the specific path that each crew and collection vehicle will
take each collection day.
 Results of micro-routing analyses can then be used to readjust
macro-routing decisions.
 Micro-routing analyses should also include input and review from
experienced collection drivers.

Districting is the other method for collection route design. For larger
areas it is not possible for one institution to handle it then the best way
is to sub divide the area and MSW collection districting plan can be
made. This routing will be successful only when road network integrity
is good and the regional proximity has been generated.
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Collection Vehicle Routing
The heuristic (i.e., trial and error) route development process is a
relatively simple manual approach that applies specific routing
patterns to block configurations. The map should show collection,
service garage locations, disposal or transfer sites, one-way streets,
natural barriers and areas of heavy traffic flow. Routes should then be
traced onto the tracing paper using the following rules:

 Routes should not be fragmented or overlapping. Each route

should be compact, consisting of street segments clustered in the
same geographical area.
 Total collection plus hauling time should be reasonably constant
for each route in the community.
 The collection route should be started as close to the garage or
motor pool as possible, taking into account heavily travelled and
one-way streets.
 Heavily travelled streets should not be visited during rush hours.
 In the case of one-way streets, it is best to start the route near the
upper end of the street, working down it through the looping
process.
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Collection Vehicle Routing
 Services on dead-end streets can be considered as services on the
street segment that they intersect, since they can only be collected by
passing down that street segment. To keep right turns at a minimum,
(in countries where driving is left-oriented) collection from the dead-
end streets is done when they are to the left of the truck. They must be
collected by walking down, reversing the vehicle or taking a U-turn.
 Waste on a steep hill should be collected, when practical, on both
sides of the street while vehicle is moving downhill. This facilitates
safe, easy and fast collection. It also lessens wear of vehicle and
conserves gas and oil.
 Higher elevations should be at the start of the route.
 For collection from one side of the street at a time, it is generally best
to route with many anti-clockwise turns around blocks.
 For collection from both sides of the street at the same time, it is
generally best to route with long, straight paths across the grid before
looping anti-clockwise.
 For certain block configurations within the route, specific routing
patterns should be applied. (Adapted from American Public Works
Association, 1975.) Based on the above rules, Figure on next slide
illustrates a typical collection vehicle routing:
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Collection Vehicle Routing

Figure: Collection Vehicle Route

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Transfer stations
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Transfer stations
 Transfer station is a centralized facility, where waste is unloaded
from smaller collection vehicles and re-loaded into large vehicles for
transport to a disposal or processing site.
 This transfer of waste is frequently accompanied by removal,
separation or handling of waste.
 In areas, where wastes are not already dense, they may be
compacted at a transfer station.
 The technical limitations of smaller collection vehicles and the low
hauling cost of solid waste, using larger vehicles, make a transfer
station viable. Also, the use of transfer station proves reasonable,
when there is a need for vehicles servicing a collection route to
travel shorter distances, unload and return quickly to their primary
task of collecting the waste.
 Limitations in hauling solid wastes are the main factors to be
considered, while evaluating the use of transfer stations.
 These include the additional capital costs of purchasing trailers,
building transfer stations and the extra time, labour and energy
required for transferring wastes from collection truck to transfer
trailer.
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Factors affecting selection of transfer stations

 Types of waste received.

 Processes required in recovering material from wastes.
 Required capacity and amount of waste storage desired.
 Types of collection vehicles using the facility.
 Types of transfer vehicles that can be accommodated at the
disposal facilities.
 Site topography and access.

The main problem in the establishment of a transfer station, however,

is securing a suitable site. Stored solid wastes and recyclable
materials, if not properly handled, will attract flies and other insect
vectors. Odours from the transferred solid wastes will also be a
nuisance, if not properly controlled. In addition, the traffic and noise
due to small and large collection vehicles, collectors, drivers, etc.,
invite the resentment of the communities living in the vicinity of
transfer stations (EPA, 1995).
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Types of transfer stations
(I) Small to medium transfer stations:
 These are direct-discharge stations that provide no intermediate
waste storage area.
 The capacities are generally small (less than 100 tonnes/day) and
medium (100 to 500 tonnes/day).
 Depending on weather, site aesthetics and environmental concerns,
transfer operations of this size may be located either indoor or
outdoor.
 More complex small transfer stations are usually attended during
hours of operation and may include some simple waste and
materials processing facilities. For example, it includes a recyclable
material separation and processing centre.
 The required overall station capacity (i.e., the number and size of
containers) depends on the size and population density of the area
served and the frequency of collection.
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Types of transfer stations
(II) Large transfer stations:
These are designed for heavy commercial use by private and
municipal collection vehicles. The typical operational procedure for a
larger station is as follows:

 When collection vehicles arrive at the site, they are checked in for
billing, weighed and directed to the appropriate dumping area.
 Collection vehicles travel to the dumping area and empty the wastes
into a waiting trailer, a pit or a platform.
 After unloading, the collection vehicle leaves the site, and there is
no need to weigh the departing vehicle, if its weight (empty) is
known.
 Transfer vehicles are weighed either during or after loading. If
weighed during loading, trailers can be more consistently loaded to
just under maximum legal weights and this maximizes payloads and
minimizes weight violations.
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Design for larger transfer operations
(I) Direct-discharge non-compaction station:
 In these stations, waste is dumped directly from collection
vehicle into waiting transfer trailers and is generally designed
with two main operating floors.
 In the transfer operation, wastes are dumped directly from
collection vehicles (on the top floor) through a hopper and into
open top trailers on the lower floor.
 The trailers are often positioned on scales so that dumping can
be stopped when the maximum payload is reached.
 A stationary crane with a bucket is often used to distribute the
waste in the trailer.
 After loading, a cover or tarpaulin is placed over the trailer top.
However, some provision for waste storage during peak time or
system interruptions should be developed.
 Because of the use of little hydraulic equipment, a shutdown is
unlikely and this station minimizes handling of waste.
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Design for larger transfer operations
(II) Platform/pit non-compaction station:
 In this arrangement, the collection vehicles dump their wastes
onto a platform or into a pit using waste handling equipment,
where wastes can be temporarily stored, and if desired, picked
through for recyclables or unacceptable materials.
 The waste is then pushed into open-top trailers, usually by front-
end loaders.
 Like direct discharge stations, platform stations have two levels.
If a pit is used, however, the station has three levels.
 A major advantage of these stations is that they provide
temporary storage, which allows peak inflow of wastes to be
levelled out over a longer period.
 Construction costs for this type of facility are usually higher
because of the increased floor space.
 This station provides convenient and efficient storage area and
due to simplicity of operation and equipment, the potential for
station shutdown is less.
 58
Design for larger transfer operations
(III) Compaction station:
In this type of station, the mechanical equipment is used to increase
the density of wastes before they are transferred. The most common
type of compaction station uses a hydraulically powered compactor to
compress wastes. Wastes are fed into the compactor through a chute,
either directly from collection trucks or after intermediate use of a pit.
The hydraulic ram of the compactor pushes waste into the transfer
trailer, which is usually mechanically linked to the compactor (EPA,
1995). Compaction stations are used when:
 Wastes must be baled for shipment.
 Open-top trailers cannot be used because of size restrictions.
 Site topography or layout does not accommodate a multi-level
building.

The main disadvantage of a compaction facility is that the facility’s ability

to process wastes is directly dependent on the operative-ness of the
compactor. Selection of a quality compactor, regular maintenance of the
equipment, easy availability of spare parts and prompt availability of the
service personnel are essential for the station’s reliable operation.
 59
Capacity of a Transfer Station
 A transfer station should have enough capacity to manage and
handle the wastes at the facility throughout its operating life.
 While selecting the design capacity of a transfer station, we must,
therefore, consider trade-offs between the capital costs associated
with the station and equipment and the operational costs.
 Designers should also plan adequate space for waste storage and,
if necessary, waste processing.
 Transfer stations are usually designed to have 1.5–2 days of
storage capacity.
 The collection vehicle unloading area is usually the waste storage
area and sometimes a waste sorting area.
 When planning the unloading area, designers should allow
adequate space for vehicle and equipment maneuvering.
 To minimize the space required, the facility should be designed
such that the collection vehicle backs into the unloading position.
 Adequate space should also be available for offices, employee
facilities, and other facility-related activities (EPA, 1995).
 60
Capacity of a Transfer Station
Factors that should be considered in determining the
appropriate capacity of a transfer facility include:

 Capacity of collection vehicles using the facility.

 Desired number of days of storage space on tipping floor.
 Time required to unload collection vehicles.
 Number of vehicles that will use the station and their
expected days and hours of arrival.
 Waste sorting or processing to be accomplished at the
facility.
 Transfer trailer capacity.
 Hours of station operation.
 Availability of transfer trailers waiting for loading.
 Time required, if necessary, to attach and disconnect trailers
from tractors or compactors.
61
 62
Record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring

 For effective waste collection and, indeed, SWM, we must

maintain records on the quantities of wastes collected and
their variation within a week, month and year, as well as on
established long-term trends in solid waste generation rates
and composition, sources of wastes and the personnel
collecting them.
 Long-term trends in solid waste generation rates and
composition form the basis for planning, especially in
budgeting for future vehicle requirements, allocating the
collection vehicles and crew, building transfer stations,
acquiring strategic lands and determining disposal options.
 Table on next slide contains an illustration of a checklist of
factors that affect the waste collection system.
Record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring 63
Record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring 64

 Records of personnel and quantities of wastes collected are,

when maintained, useful in determining the efficiency of the
personnel and in correlating waste quantities with conditions
in the service area.
 A time keeping system at the transfer or disposal site is a key
element in improving the efficiency of collection system and
planning an upgraded system.
 The timekeeping system determines if the crew were taking
long rest periods, spending time salvaging or carrying out
unauthorized activities.
 The performance of a particular crew in terms of the quantity
of solid wastes collected per day could be compared with that
of another collection crew working under similar conditions.
 The composition of solid wastes should be measured at least
once a year for major districts and possibly once every two
years in residential areas with stagnant growth rates and
development.
Record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring 65

 Changes in composition affect the collection equipment and

configuration of the collection system is important in designing the
disposal system.
 Changes in an energy source (such as a shift to gas or electricity
from wood or charcoal for cooking and heating), reduces the ash
content of wastes, making the solid waste lighter, in which case,
larger containers could be used.
 The same line of analysis holds true in specifying the collection
vehicles.
 Comparison of the routes taken by various crew serving a particular
area helps to identify the best hauling route. Although this route may
be longer, it could be more economical in terms of hauling time.
However, note that the best route often changes with the season.
 All these decisions should be based on reliable data, without which
the waste collection system will inevitably be ineffective.
 Proper interpretation of monitoring data allows the authority to adapt
the proposed system to actual conditions. In some instances, it also
allows management to identify areas, where the design is not
realistic.
66
Activities for Implementing of collection and 67
transfer system
(1) Finalizing and implementing the system management plan:

 The organizational structure should be simple, with a

minimum of administrative and management layers between
collection crews and top management.
 All workers in the department should clearly understand the
department’s mission and their roles.
 Through training, incentives and reinforcement by
management, workers should be encouraged to be customer-
oriented and team contributors.
 Feedback mechanisms must be introduced to help the crew
review their performance and help managers monitoring the
performance of crews, equipment, etc.
 It is also important to periodically review the management
plans and structures, as implementation of collection services
continues.
Activities for Implementing of collection and 68
transfer system
(2) Purchasing and managing equipment:

 For purchasing equipment, most municipalities issue bid

specifications.
 Detailed specifications include exact requirements for
equipment sizes and capacities, power ratings, etc.
 Performance specifications often request that equipment be
equivalent to certain available models and meet standards for
capacity, speed, etc.
 Municipalities may either perform equipment maintenance
themselves, contract with a local garage, or in some cases,
contract with the vehicle vendor at the time of purchase.
 As part of the preventive maintenance program, the collection
crew should check the vehicle chassis, tyre and body daily
and report any problems to maintenance managers.
Activities for Implementing of collection and 69
transfer system
(3) Hiring and training personnel:
 As in all organizations, good personnel management is
essential to an efficient, high-quality waste collection system.
Authorities responsible for SWM should, therefore, strive to
hire and keep well-qualified personnel.
 The recruitment programme should assess applicants’
abilities to perform the types of physical labour required for
the collection, equipment and methods used.
 To retain employees, management should provide a safe
working environment that emphasizes career advancement,
participatory problem solving and worker incentives.
 Worker incentives should be developed to recognize and
reward outstanding performance by employees. Ways to
accomplish motivation include merit-based compensation,
awards programme and a work structure. Feedback on
employee performance should be regular and frequent.
Activities for Implementing of collection and 70
transfer system
(3) Hiring and training personnel:
 Safety is especially important because waste collection
employees encounter many hazards during each workday. As
a result of poor safety records, insurance costs for many
collection services are high.
 To minimize injuries, haulers should have an ongoing safety
programme. This programme should outline safety
procedures and ensure that all personnel are properly trained
on safety issues.
 Haulers should develop an employee-training programme that
helps employees improve and broaden the range of their job-
related skills.
 Education should address such subjects as driving skills, first
aid, safe lifting methods, identification of household
hazardous wastes, avoidance of substance abuse and stress
management.
Activities for Implementing of collection and 71
transfer system
(4) Providing public information:
 Maintaining good communication with the public is important to a
well-run collection system.
 Residents can greatly influence the performance of the collection
system by co-operating in separation requirements, and by keeping
undesirable materials from entering the collected waste stream.
 Commonly used methods of communicating information include
brochures, articles in community newsletters, newspaper articles,
announcements, and advertisements on radio and television,
information attachments to utility bills (either printed or given
separately) and school handouts.
 Communication materials should be used to help residents
understand the community waste management challenges and the
progress in meeting them.
 Residents should also be kept informed about issues such as the
availability and costs of landfill capacity so that they develop an
understanding of the issues and a desire to help meet their waste
management needs.
Activities for Implementing of collection and 72
transfer system
(5) Monitoring system cost and performance:
Collection and transfer facilities should develop and maintain an
effective system for cost and performance reporting. Each collection
crew should complete a daily report containing the following
information:
 Total quantity hauled.
 Total distance and travel times to and from the disposal site.
 Amounts delivered to each disposal, transfer, or processing facility.
 Waiting time at sites.
 Number of loads hauled.
 Vehicle or operational problems needing attention.

Collected data should be used to forecast workloads, truck costs,

identify changes in the generation of wastes and recyclables, trace the
origin of problematic waste materials and evaluate crew performance.
Just as the goals of a collection programme set its overall directions, a
monitoring system provides the short-term feedback necessary to
identify the corrections needed to achieve those goals.
Brief guidelines for planning waste collection 73

and transport
 Analyze the quantum of waste generated with composition.
 Capacity building of town municipalities with appropriate infrastructure
and the knowledge of existing laws or regulations on waste collection,
transport and safe disposal.
 Designate a para-state agency to oversee waste collection, transport
and disposal to avoid confusion among para-state government
agencies.
 Determine geographic scope of collection and transport services.
 Determine funding, equipment and labour needs.
 Determine the type and amount of waste to be processed.
 Implement decentralized waste treatment through proven local
techniques.
 Deploy GPS (Global Positioning System) based trucks for waste
collection and transport to minimize pilferages.
 Adopt spatial information system for the management.
 Consider a transfer station that serves as a central location for activities
to sort and recover waste.
 Implement decentralized waste management including all stakeholders
with active participation of the public.
74
 75
(I) Waste storage
 There are about 14,000 bottomless cement bins having 0.9
meters diameter and 0.6 cubic meter storage capacity and
large masonry bins for depositing wastes at a distance of
about 100 to 200 meters.
 Besides these, there are 1500 places, where the waste is
deposited but no bins are kept on these sites.
 Recently, metal containers have been placed and at present
55 metal containers are in the city for the storage of waste in
a more hygienic manner.
 76
(II) Waste collection
 The frequency of removal of wastes varies from place to place,
depending on the locality. Whichever system adapted in the area
needs proper planning for collection, loading, unloading and
transportation from transfer station and to the point of final disposal,
considering traffic constraints, peak hour traffic, etc.
 An optimum collection schedule requires to be worked out where the
number of premises or dumps is mentioned on a daily programme
sheet, to be executed by the driver or supervisor in charge of
collection.
 At present, it is estimated that there are about 4943 hotels/restaurants,
which produce a large quantity of organic wastes in Bangalore. The
silt and waste removed from drains get deposited along the roadside.
 The human and animal excreta also add to the mass getting deposited
on streets.
 Mechanical sweeping or cleaning cannot work in Bangalore roads and
footways because of obstructions due to the activities of hawkers,
shop extensions, broken pavements, etc.
 Pedestrians, shops, goods vehicles carrying loose materials
contribute to street littering of paper, used tickets, cigarette butts, etc.,
as well as vehicles dropping material during their movement.
 77
(III) Waste transportation
 Removal of garbage is a very important aspect of SWM, and
the method of transportation is crucial. In essence, any
breakdown in this system could create problems.
Transportation implies conveyance from point of collection
to the point of final disposal either directly or through a
transfer system. In Bangalore, the transportation of waste is
done by:
 Engaging, departmentally, 82 trucks of the Corporation.
 Engaging 129 vehicles, on contract, for layout and
markets and 72 vehicles for transportation of waste. (In
addition, the Bangalore Corporation has 13 dumper
placers for transporting metallic containers of 2.5 to 3
tonnes capacity and 6 mini-compactors for
transportation of waste.)
 78
(III) Waste transportation
 The clearing efficiency is 30 to 35%.
 The vehicles are open and the spillage of waste on the roads
is a common feature.
 Each truck makes two trips to the dumpsite everyday. There
are no transfer stations in Bangalore.
 The waste collected from the roads and bins is directly
transported to the final disposal sites.
 There is no arrangement made for the primary collection of
construction waste.
 The engineering division of the Corporation removes the
unauthorized construction waste from time to time.
 There are 115 small and big vegetable, fruit and meat
markets in the city. However, no special arrangements are
made for the collection of waste from these markets.
79
 80
Background
 There is no option but to dispose of wastes. Disposal is the
final element in the SWM system.
 It is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential
wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site,
semisolid waste (sludge) from municipal and industrial
treatment plants, incinerator residue, compost or other
substances from various solid waste processing plants that
are of no further use to society.
 It is, therefore, imperative to have a proper plan in place for
safe disposal of solid wastes, which involves appropriate
handling of residual matter after solid wastes have been
processed and the recovery of conversion products/energy
has been achieved.
 It follows that an efficient SWM system must provide an
environmentally sound disposal option for waste that cannot
be reduced, recycled, composted, combusted, or processed
further.
 81
Issues to be Overcome
(I) Municipal capacities:
 With increasing volume of waste generation, collection of
wastes gets more attention than disposal.
 Furthermore, in India, only a few municipalities seem to have
the required experience or capacity for controlled disposal.
 Some municipalities may have identified disposal sites but
still only few may actively manage them.
 In some places, contracting out waste disposal is seen as a
solution.
 But, municipalities are not equipped to deal with the
problems associated with it, such as issues of privatization
and monitoring of the contract.
 82
Issues to be Overcome
(II) Political commitment:
 SWM is more than a technical issue, as any successful programme
needs effective political and governmental support.
 This is rarely a priority of government authorities, unless there is a
strong and active public interest as well as international
interventions.
(III) Finance and cost recovery:
 Development of a sanitary landfill site represents a major investment
and it generally receives less priority over other resource demands.
 Even when establishment costs are secured for a disposal site,
recurrent costs to maintain it always pose problems.
(IV) Technical guidelines:
 Standards established for waste disposal in one country need not
necessarily be appropriate for another, due to reasons such as
climatic conditions, resources availability, institutional
infrastructure, socio-cultural values, etc.
 In the absence of adequate data and/or the means of
collecting/acquiring it, officials often struggle to plan a safe and
economically viable disposal option.
 83
Issues to be Overcome
(V) Institutional role and responsibility:
 A disposal site may be located outside the boundary of a
town and may serve more than one town.
 This necessitates the co-ordination of all authorities
concerned, and the roles and responsibilities of different
departments need to be clearly defined and accepted by all
concerned.

(VI) Location:
 The accessibility of a disposal site, especially its distance
from town, is an important factor in site selection,
especially when staff and public do not have a strong
incentive to use it, when compared to indiscriminate
dumping.
 Site selection is perhaps the most difficult stage in the
development of suitable disposal option.
84
 85
Background
 The most common disposal option practiced currently in
many countries is either uncontrolled dumping or dumping
with moderate control.
 The environmental costs of uncontrolled dumping include
breeding of disease causing vectors (e.g., flies, mosquitoes
and rodents), pollution, odour and smoke.
 In next subsection, we will discuss some of the options
available for waste disposal.
 However, it should be noted that the option selected for
waste disposal must not mesh with the existing socio-
cultural milieu, infrastructure, etc., and this we will discuss in
subsequent slides.
 86
Disposal Options
(I) Uncontrolled dumping or non-engineered disposal:
 With increasing volume of waste generation, collection of
wastes gets more attention than disposal.
 Furthermore, in India, only a few municipalities seem to have
the required experience or capacity for controlled disposal.
 Some municipalities may have identified disposal sites but
still only few may actively manage them.
 In some places, contracting out waste disposal is seen as a
solution.
 But, municipalities are not equipped to deal with the
problems associated with it, such as issues of privatization
and monitoring of the contract.
 87
Uncontrolled Dumping
 88
Disposal Options
(II) Sanitary landfill:
 Unlike the non-engineered disposal, sanitary landfill is a fully
engineered disposal option in that the selected location or
wasteland is carefully engineered in advance before it is
pressed into service.
 Operators of sanitary landfills can minimize the effects of
leachate (i.e., polluted water which flows from a landfill) and
gas production through proper site selection, preparation
and management.
 This particular option of waste disposal is suitable when the
land is available at an affordable price, and adequate
workforce and technical resources are available to operate
and manage the site.
Sanitary Landfill
 Layer of compacted trash covered with a layer of earth once a day and a thicker layer
when the site is full
 Require impermeable barriers to stop escape of leachates: can cause problem by
overflow.
 Gases produced by decomposing garbage needs venting.
 1 acre/10,000 people: acute space problem: wastes piling up over 150 million
tons/year.
 # of landfills down from 8000(1988) to 3091(1996) in USA.
 NIMBY, NIMFYE, NIMEY, NOPE.
 NJ ships > 5 million tons of waste every year.
Sanitary Landfill with Advanced Technology
Components of Engineered Landfill
 Liner system.
 Leachate collection and treatment facility.
 Gas collection and treatment facility.
 Final cover system.
 Surface water drainage system.
 An environmental monitoring system.
 A closure and post closure plan.
 92
Disposal Options
(III) Composting:
 This is a biological process of decomposition in which
organisms, under controlled conditions of ventilation,
temperature and moisture, convert the organic portion of
solid waste into humus-like material.
 If this process is carried out effectively, what we get as the
final product is a stable, odour-free soil conditioner.
 Generally, the option of composting is considered, when a
considerable amount of biodegradable waste is available in
the waste stream and there is use or market for composts.
 Composting can be either centralized or small-scale.
 Centralized composting plants are possible, if adequate
skilled workforce and equipment are available.
 Small-scale composting practices can be effective at
household level, but this needs public awareness.
Composting
 Harnessing natural decomposition to transform organic
material into compost.
 About 3800 composting facilities currently in use in the United
States.
 Landscape Recycling Center
1210 E. University Ave., Urbana
344-LEAF (5323) [Link]
 94
Disposal Options
(IV) Incineration:
 This refers to the controlled burning of wastes, at a high
temperature (roughly 1200 – 1500°C), which sterilizes and
stabilizes the waste in addition to reducing its volume.
 In the process, most of the combustible materials (i.e., self-
sustaining combustible matter, which saves the energy
needed to maintain the combustion) such as paper or
plastics get converted into carbon dioxide and ash.
 Incineration may be used as a disposal option, when land
filling is not possible and the waste composition is highly
combustible.
 An appropriate technology, infrastructure and skilled
workforce are required to operate and maintain the plant.
 Incinerator Types
 Refuse-Derived Fuel - Refuse is sorted to remove recyclable
and unburnable materials.
 Higher energy content than raw trash.

 Mass Burn - Everything smaller than major furniture and

appliances loaded into furnace.
 Creates air pollution problems.
 Reduces disposal volume by 80-90%.
 EPA has found alarmingly high toxin levels in incinerator ash.
Pros:
 Reduce volume 90%, weight
75%.
 Heat from burning
converted to electricity.
Cons:
 Create air pollution.
 Concentrates toxins in ash.
 More costly than landfills, as
long as space available.
 96
Disposal Options
(V) Gasification:
 This is the partial combustion of carbonaceous material (through
combustion) at high temperature (roughly 1000°C) forming a gas,
comprising mainly carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, water vapour and methane, which can be used as fuel.
 97
Disposal Options
(VI) Refuse-derived fuel (RDF):
 This is the combustible part of raw waste, separated for burning as
fuel.
 Physical processes such as screening, size reduction, magnetic
separation, etc., are used to separate the combustibles.
98
99
 100
Disposal Options
(VII) Pyrolysis:
 This is the thermal degradation of carbonaceous material to
gaseous, liquid and solid fraction in the absence of oxygen.
 This occurs at a temperature between 200 and 900°C.
 The product of pyrolysis is a gas of relatively high calorific value of
20,000 Joule per gram with oils, tars and solid burned residue.
 101
Relative Merits of some Disposal Options
 102
Selection Criteria
 With the help of proper frameworks and sub-frameworks, we
can assess the effectiveness of each of the waste disposal
options.
 While a framework represents an aid to decision-making and
helps to ensure the key issues are considered, a sub-
framework explains how and why the necessary information
should be obtained.
 A framework contains a list of issues and questions
pertaining to the technical, institutional, financial, social and
environmental features of a waste disposal system to assess
the capacity of a disposal option to meet the requirements.
 For example, an appraisal of waste disposal option must
include the following techniques (as described in
subsequent slides).
 103
Selection Criteria
(I) Technical:
This feature, involving efficient and effective operation of the
technology being used, evaluates the following components of
a SWM system:
 Composition of wastes, e.g., type, characteristics and
quantity.
 Existing practices, e.g., collection, transport, and recycling
process.
 Siting, e.g., location of disposal site, engineering material,
etc.
 Technology, e.g., operation, maintenance, technical support,
etc.
 Impact, e.g., anticipated by-product, requirement for their
treatment and disposal, etc.
 104
Selection Criteria
(II) Institutional:
This involves the ability and willingness of responsible agencies to
operate and manage the system by evaluating the following:
 Structures, roles and responsibilities, e.g., current institutional
frameworks.
 Operational capacity, e.g., municipal capacities, local experience
and staff training.
 Incentives, e.g., management improvement and waste disposal
practices.
 Innovation and partnership.
(III) Financial:
This assesses the ability to finance the implementation, operation
and maintenance of the system by evaluating the following:
 Financing and cost recovery, e.g., willingness to raise finance
for waste management.
 Current revenue and expenditure on waste management.
 Potential need for external finance for capital cost.
 105
Selection Criteria
(IV) Social:
This helps in avoiding adverse social impact by evaluating the
following:
 Waste picking, which has an impact on livelihood and access
to waste pickers.
 Health and income implication.
 Public opinions on the existing and proposed system.
(V) Environmental:
This means setting up an environment friendly disposal system
by evaluating the following:
 Initial environmental risks, i.e., impact of existing and
proposed disposal option.
 Long-term environmental risks, i.e., long-term implication
(future impacts).
106
 107
Background
 The term landfill generally refers to an engineered deposit of wastes either
in pits/trenches or on the surface.
 A Sanitary landfill is essentially a landfill, where proper mechanisms are
available to control the environmental risks associated with the disposal of
wastes and to make available the land, subsequent to disposal, for other
purposes. However, you must note that a landfill need not necessarily be an
engineered site, when the waste is largely inert at final disposal, as in rural
areas, where wastes contain a large proportion of soil and dirt.
 This practice is generally designated as non-engineered disposal method.
When compared to uncontrolled dumping, engineered landfills are more
likely to have pre-planned installations, environmental monitoring, and
organized and trained workforce.
 Sanitary landfill implementation, therefore, requires careful site selection,
preparation and management.

The four minimum requirements you need to consider for a sanitary landfill are:
I. Full or partial hydrological isolation.
II. Formal engineering preparation.
III. Permanent control.
IV. Planned waste emplacement and covering.
 108
Principle of Landfill
 The purpose of land filling is to bury or alter the chemical
composition of the wastes so that they do not pose any threat to the
environment or public health.
 Landfills are not homogeneous and are usually made up of cells in
which a discrete volume of waste is kept isolated from adjacent
waste cells by a suitable barrier.
 The barriers between cells generally consist of a layer of natural soil
(i.e., clay), which restricts downward or lateral escape of the waste
constituents or leachate.
 Land filling relies on containment rather than treatment (for control)
of wastes.
 If properly executed, it is a safer and cheaper method than
incineration.
 An environmentally sound sanitary landfill comprises appropriate
liners for protection of the groundwater (from contaminated
leachate), run-off controls, leachate collection and treatment,
monitoring wells and appropriate final cover design.
 Figure in next slide below gives a schematic layout of sanitary
landfill along with its various components.
 109
Schematic Layout of Sanitary Landfill

Design Components in a Landfill

 110
Phases in the Life Cycle of a Landfill
 Planning phase: This typically involves preliminary hydro-
geological and geo-technical site investigations as a basis for
actual design.
 Construction phase: This involves earthworks, road and facility
construction and preparation (liners and drains) of the fill area.
 Operation phase (5 – 20 years): This phase has a high
intensity of traffic, work at the front of the fill, operation of
environmental installations and completion of finished sections.
 Completed phase (20 – 100 years): This phase involves the
termination of the actual filling to the time when the
environmental installations need no longer be operated. The
emissions may have by then decreased to a level where they do
not need any further treatment and can be discharged freely into
the surroundings.
 Final storage phase: In this phase, the landfill is integrated into
the surroundings for other purposes, and no longer needs
special attention.
 111
Landfill Processes
The feasibility of land disposal of solid wastes depends on factors such
as the type, quantity and characteristics of wastes, the prevailing laws
and regulations, and soil and site characteristics. Let us now explain
some of these processes, described subsequently:

(I) Site selection process and considerations:

 This requires the development of a working plan – a plan, or a
series of plans, outlining the development and descriptions
of site location, operation, engineering and site restoration.
 Considerations for site include public opinion, traffic patterns
and congestion, climate, zoning requirements, availability of
cover material and liner as well, high trees or buffer in the
site perimeter, historic buildings, and endangered species,
wetlands, and site land environmental factors, speed limits,
underpass limitations, load limits on roadways, bridge
capacities, and proximity of major roadways, haul distance,
hydrology and detours.
 112
Landfill Processes
(II) Settling process:
The waste body of a landfill undergoes different stages of
settling or deformation. Figure below illustrates these stages:
 113
Landfill Processes
(II) Settling process:
 Primary consolidation: During this stage, a substantial
amount of settling occurs. This settlement is caused by the
weight of the waste layers. The movement of trucks,
bulldozers or mechanical compactors will also enhance this
process. After this primary consolidation, or short-term
deformation stage, aerobic degradation processes occur.
 Secondary compression: During this stage, the rate of
settling is much lower than that in the primary consolidation
stage, as the settling occurs through compression, which
cannot be enhanced.
 Decomposition: During the degradation processes, organic
material is converted into gas and leachate. The settling rate
during this stage increases compared to the secondary
compression stage, and continues until all decomposable
organic matter is degraded. The settling rate, however,
gradually decreases with the passage of time.
 114
Landfill Processes
(III) Microbial degradation process:
 The microbial degradation process is the most important
biological process occurring in a landfill.
 These processes induce changes in the chemical and
physical environment within the waste body, which
determine the quality of leachate and both the quality and
quantity of landfill gas.
 Assuming that landfills mostly receive organic wastes,
microbial processes will dominate the stabilization of the
waste and therefore govern landfill gas generation and
leachate composition.
 Soon after disposal, the predominant part of the wastes
becomes anaerobic, and the bacteria will start degrading the
solid organic carbon, eventually to produce carbon dioxide
and methane.
 The anaerobic degradation process undergoes the following
stages, as given below:
 115
Landfill Processes

(III) Microbial degradation process:

 Solid and complex dissolved organic compounds are
hydrolyzed and fermented by the fermenters primarily to
volatile fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 An acidogenic group of bacteria converts the products of
the first stage to acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid to methane and
carbon dioxide and hydrogenophilic bacteria convert
hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane.

The biotic factors that affect methane formation in the landfill

are pH, alkalinity, nutrients, temperature, oxygen and moisture
content
 116
Landfill Processes
(III) Microbial degradation process:
Enhancement of degradation

Enhancement of the degradation processes in landfills will

result in a faster stabilization of the waste in the landfill, which
enhances gas production, and we can achieve this by:
 Adding partly composted waste: As the readily degradable
organic matter has already been decomposed aerobically,
the rapid acid production phase is overcome, and the
balance of acid and methane production bacteria can
develop earlier and the consequent dilution effect lowers
the organic acid concentration.
 Recirculating leachate: This may have positive effects since
a slow increase in moisture will cause a long period of gas
production. During warmer periods, recirculated leachate
will evaporate, resulting in lower amounts of excess
leachate.
117
 118
Environmental Effects
The environmental effects of a landfill include wind-blown litter and
dust, noise, obnoxious odour, vermin and insects attracted by the
waste, surface runoff and in aesthetic conditions. Gas and leachate
problems also arise during the operation phase and require significant
environmental controls. In what follows, we will describe some of the
major environmental effects below:

I. Wind-blown litter and dust are continuous problems of the ongoing

landfill operation and a nuisance to the neighbourhood. Covering
the waste cells with soil and spraying water on dirt roads and waste
in dry periods, in combination with fencing and movable screens,
may minimize the problem of wind-blown litter and dust. However,
note that the problem will remain at the tipping front of the landfill.
II. Movement of waste collection vehicles, emptying of wastes from
them, compactors, earthmoving equipment, etc., produce noise.
Improving the technical capability of the equipment, surrounding
the fill area with soil embankments and plantations, limiting the
working hours and appropriately training the workforce will help
minimize noise pollution.
 119
Environmental Effects
III. Birds (e.g., scavengers), vermin, insects and animals are attracted to the
landfill for feeding and breeding. Since many of these may act as disease
vectors, their presence is a potential health problem.
IV. Surface run-off, which has been in contact with the land filled waste, may
be a problem in areas of intense rainfall. If not controlled, heavily polluted
run-off may enter directly into creeks and streams. Careful design and
maintenance of surface drains and ditches, together with a final soil cover
on completed landfill sections, can help eliminate this problem.
V. An operating landfill, where equipment and waste are exposed, appears
inaesthetic. This problem may be reduced by careful design of screening
soil embankments, plantings, rapid covering and re-vegetation of filled
sections.
VI. Gas released, as a result of degradation or volatilization of waste
components, causes odour, flammability, health problems and damage of
the vegetation (due to oxygen depletion in the root zone). The measures to
control this include liners, soil covers, passive venting or active extraction
of gas for treatment before discharge into the atmosphere.
[Link] leachate appears shortly after disposal of the waste. This may
cause groundwater pollution and pollution of streams through sub-surface
migration. Liners, drainage collection, treatment of leachate, and
groundwater and downstream water quality monitoring are necessary to
control this problem.
 120
Environmental Emissions from a Sanitary Landfill
Besides the emissions shown in Figure,
incidental events such as flooding,
fires, landslides and earthquakes result
in severe environmental impacts, and
may require preventive measures with
respect to landfill site selection, design
and operation. In the main, to minimize
adverse environmental impacts due to
sanitary landfill, proper attention must
be paid to the environmental aspects at
all stages and phases of landfill
management, viz., site selection,
design, construction, operation and
maintenance.

Regulations for Landfills:

Regulations include restrictions on distances from airports, flood plains, and
fault areas, as well as limitations on construction in wetlands and others.
Prevention of contamination of groundwater and land resources requires
synthetic liner. Adequate buffer with the restricted activities around the
landfill.
121
 Design and Construction of Landfill 122

(I) Site infrastructure:

The size, type and number of buildings required at a landfill depend on
factors such as the level of waste input, the expected life of the site and
environmental factors. Depending on the size and complexity of the
landfill, buildings range from single portable cabins to big complexes.
However, certain aspects such as the following are common:
 Need to comply with planning, building, fire, health and safety
regulations and controls.
 Security and resistance to vandalism.
 Durability of service and the possible need to relocate
accommodation during the lifetime of the site operations.
 Ease of cleaning and maintenance.
 Availability of services such as electricity, water, drainage and
telecommunication.
Paying some attention to the appearance of the site entrance is
necessary, as it influences the perception of the public about the landfill
site. All landfill sites need to control and keep records of vehicles
entering and leaving the site, and have a weighbridge to record waste
input data, which can be analyzed by a site control office. Note that at
small sites, the site control office can be accommodated at the site
itself.
 123
Design and Construction of Landfill
(II) Earthworks:
 Various features of landfill operations may require substantial
earthworks, and therefore, the working plan must include
earthworks to be carried out before wastes can be deposited.
 Details about earthworks gain significance, if artificial liners are to
be installed, which involves grading the base and sides of the site
(including construction of 25 slopes to drain leachate to the
collection areas) and the formation of embankments.
 Material may also have to be placed in stockpiles for later use at
the site.
 The cell method of operation requires the construction of cell
walls.
 At some sites, it may be necessary to construct earth banks
around the site perimeter to screen the landfill operations from the
public.
 Trees or shrubs may then be planted on the banks to enhance the
screening effect.
 The construction of roads leading to disposal sites also involves
earthworks.
 124
Design and Construction of Landfill
(III) Lining landfill sites:
 Where the use of a liner is envisaged, the suitability of a site for
lining should be evaluated at the site investigation stage. However,
they should not be installed, until the site has been properly
prepared.
 The area to be lined should be free of objects likely to cause
physical damage to the liner, such as vegetation and hard rocks.
 If synthetic liner materials are used, a binding layer of suitable fine-
grained material should be laid to support the liner. However, if the
supporting layer consists of low permeable material (e.g., clay), the
synthetic liner must be placed on top of this layer.
 A layer of similar fine-grained material with the thickness of 25 – 30
cm should also be laid above the liner to protect it from subsequent
mechanical and environmental damage.
 During the early phase of operation, particular care should be taken
to ensure that the traffic does not damage the liner.
 Monitoring the quality of groundwater close to the site is necessary
to get the feedback on the performance of a liner.
 125
Design and Construction of Landfill
(IV) Leachate and landfill gas management:
 The basic elements of the leachate collection system (i.e.,
drain pipes, drainage layers, collection pipes, sumps, etc.)
must be installed immediately above the liner, before any
waste is deposited.
 Particular care must also be taken to prevent the drain and
collection pipes from settling.
 During landfill operations, waste cells are covered with soil
to avoid additional contact between waste and the
environment.
 The soil layers have to be sufficiently permeable to allow
downward leachate transport.
 Landfill gas is not extracted before completion, which
includes construction of final cover, of the waste body.
 Extraction wells (diameter 0.3 to 1.0 m) may be constructed
during or after operation.
 126
Design and Construction of Landfill
(V) Landfill capping:
 Capping is required to control and minimize leachate
generation (by minimizing water ingress into the landfill)
and facilitate landfill gas control or collection (by
installing a low permeability cap over the whole site).
 A cap may consist of natural (e.g., clay) or synthetic (e.g.,
poly-ethylene) material with thickness of at least 1 m.
 An uneven settlement of the waste may be a major cause
of cap failure.
 Designs for capping should, therefore, include
consideration of leachate and landfill gas collection wells
or vents.
 For the cap to remain effective, it must be protected from
agricultural machinery, drying and cracking, plant root
penetration, burrowing animals and erosion.
 127
Operation of Landfill
To secure public acceptability, landfill operations require careful planning and
determination of the extent of environmental effects. The basic factor
influencing the planning of site operations is the nature and quantity of
incoming wastes. The various aspects of this include the following:

(I) Methods of filling:

The following variations in land filling techniques are available:
 Trench method: This involves the excavation of a trench into which waste is
deposited, and the excavated material is then used as cover.
 Area method: Wastes may be deposited in layers and so form terraces over
the available area. However, with this type of operation, excessive leachate
generation may occur, which may render the control difficult.
 Cell method: This method involves the deposition of wastes within pre-
constructed bounded area. It is now the preferred method in the
industrialized world, since it encourages the concept of progressive filling
and restoration. Operating a cellular method of filling enables wastes to be
deposited in a tidy manner, as the cells serve both to conceal the tipping
operation and trap much of the litter that has been generated.
 Canyon/depression: This method refers to the placing of suitable wastes
against lined canyon or ravine slide slopes. (Slope stability and leachate gas
emission control are critical issues for this type of waste placement.)
 128
Figure: Commonly Used Land Filling Methods

(a) trench (b) area and (c) canyon/depression methods

 129
Operation of Landfill
(II) Refuse placement:
The working space should be sufficiently extensive to permit
vehicles to manoeuvre and unload quickly and safely without
impeding refuse spreading, and allow easy operation of the site
equipment. Depositing waste in thin layers and using a compactor
enables a high waste density to be achieved. Each progressive layer
should not be more than 30 cm thick. The number of passes by a
machine over the waste determines the level of compaction.

(III) Covering of waste:

At the end of each working day, all exposed surfaces, including the
flanks and working space, should be covered with a suitable inert
material to a depth of at least 15 cm. This daily cover is considered
essential, as it minimizes windblown litter and helps reduce odours.
Cover material may be obtained from on-site excavations or inert
waste materials coming to the site. Pulverized fuel ash or sewage
sludge can also be used for this purpose.
 130
Operation of Landfill

(III) Site equipment and workforce orientation:

The equipment most commonly used on landfill sites includes
steel wheeled compactors, tracked dozers, loaders, earthmovers
and hydraulic excavators. Scrapers are used for excavating and
moving cover materials.

In addition to appropriate equipment, proper training must be

ensured for the workforce.
They should be competent, and adequately supervised; training
should include site safety and first aid. Since a landfill site may
pose dangers to both site operators and users, it is necessary to
lay down emergency plans and test them from time to time.
 131
Monitoring of Landfill

 Landfill represents a complex process of transforming

polluting wastes into environmentally acceptable deposits.
Because of the complexity of these processes and their
potential environmental effects, it is imperative to monitor
and confirm that the landfill works, as expected.
 A monitoring scheme, for example, is required for collecting
detailed information on the development of leachate and
landfill gas within and beyond a landfill.
 The scheme should be site specific, drawn at the site
investigation stage and implemented.
 Monitoring is generally done for the following:
 132
Monitoring of Landfill
(I) Leachate/gas:
 Monitoring of leachate/gas plays a vital role in the
management of landfills.
 Data on the volume of leachate/gas and their composition are
essential for proper control of leachate/gas generation and its
treatment.
 Knowledge of the chemical composition of leachate/gas is
also required to confirm that attenuation processes within the
landfill are proceeding as expected.
 Various systems for monitoring the leachate level are in use,
and are mostly based on pipes installed prior to land filling.
 Note that small bore perforated plastic pipes are relatively
cheaper and easier to install, but have the disadvantage of
getting damaged faster during infilling.
 Placing pipes within a column or tyres may, however, offer
some protection.
 133
Monitoring of Landfill

(II) Groundwater:
 A continued groundwater-monitoring programme for
confirming the integrity of the liner system is essential.
 At an early stage of site preparation, therefore, a number of
monitoring boreholes need to be provided around the site.
 However, the location, design and number of boreholes
depend on the size of the landfill, proximity to an aquifer,
geology of the site and types of wastes deposited.
 Installation of a double liner system can make the monitoring
exercise more accurate and easier to perform.
 Water should be regularly flushed through the secondary
leachate collection system.
 In case this water is polluted, the primary leachate barrier will
be damaged, and if repair is not considered possible, the
leachate collected must be transported to the leachate
treatment facility.
134
 135
Waste Disposal
One of the critical concerns of a municipal corporation is
planning for a proper waste disposal in response to the
increasing volume and hazardous nature of urban wastes. When
wastes are disposed unhygienically, they do spoil the aesthetic
value of the city as well as create problems such as breeding of
pathogenic organisms, which serve as carriers of diseases.
Some of the principal problems associated with disposal of solid
wastes can be categorized as under:

 Diseases, i.e., rats, flies and other pests feed on the wastes
and carry diseases.
 Air/noise pollution, e.g., increase in vehicular traffic, smoke,
fly ash and odours.
 Ground and surface water pollution, e.g., runoff during the
monsoon season causes surface water pollution, while
percolation often causes groundwater contamination.
 Unaesthetic appearance because of litter.
 136
Waste Disposal
 However, we can minimize or satisfactorily deal with these problems through
competent engineering and planning, selecting appropriate waste disposal
sites and methods of operation, and making SWM strategies essentially local.
 Against this backdrop, let us now assess the scenario in Bangalore.
 About two-thirds of the waste (about 1600 tonnes/day) in the Bangalore city
is getting dumped in the outskirts of the city.
 As there are no sanitary landfills in the city for proper dumping of waste, it is
merely transported to the outskirts and disposed of in any abandoned open
land, usually along public highways.
 The Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP) along with the Karnataka State
Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) has, however, identified 9 abandoned
quarries around the city for sanitary landfills.
 Table in next slide contains the list of these sites:
 Of the sites listed in Table, only 3 have been selected after an assessment of
suitability, viz. B. Narayanpura (situated about 10 km northeast of the city in
Krishnarajapura hobli), Hennur (situated at a distance of about 9 km north of
the city) and Devanachikkanahalli (situated about 10 km to the southeast of
the city).
 These sites were selected on the basis of the geo-technical assessment
carried out after a site visit and review of data. However, a periodical
assessment of ground water and air quality, before and during the process of
land filling, is necessary.
 137
Waste Disposal
Table: Solid Waste Disposal Sites Identified by the BMP
138