Metals

Properties of metals

(a)Physical

1 They are strong.

2 They are malleable. That means they can be hammered into different shapes without
breaking.
3 They are ductile. That means they can be drawn out to make wires.
4 They are sonorous-they make a ringing noise when you strike them.
5 They are shiny especially when freshly cut.
6 They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
7 They have high melting and boiling points. (They are all solid at
room temperature, except mercury.)
8 They have high densities. That means they feel ‘heavy’.
(The density of a substance is its mass per cubic centimeter.)

(b) Chemical

1. They react with oxygen (burn in Oxygen) to form oxides.

magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide

(silvery metal) (white ash)

2. Reactive metals react with cold water to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

3. React with acids to form salts and hydrogen gas

Calcium + sulphuric acid calcium sulphate + hydrogen

The reactivity Series

This is the arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity. It depends on the ability of
metals to lose electrons to form positive ions. The more reactive metals are the ones
that lose electrons more easily. The ability to lose electrons depends on the following;
[Link] number of electrons on the outer most shell eg, group I with only one electron
will lose that electron more easily and therefore it is more reactive.
[Link] distance of the outer most shell from the nucleus. Electrons occupying shells far
from the nucleus are easily lost because the middle shells hinder the pulling power by the
nucleus.

1
Table showing the reactivity series and reactions of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
and water

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS WITH METALS

A more reactive metal will displace the list reactive one in a chemical reaction, i.e metal
high in the reactivity series can displace the metal below it in the solution of its salt.

Eg Zn(s) + CuS04 (aq) → ZnS04(aq) + Cu(s)

Blue colourless brown
Zn is more reactive than Cu, hence it diplaces Cu from the sulphate.
The colour of the solution (CUS04) will turn from blue to colorless (ZnS0 4) .There will be
deposit of brown copper at the bottom of the container.

Eg CaCl2 (aq) + Na(s) → NaCl (aq) + Ca(S)

CARBON IN THE REACTIVITY SERIES

Carbon can remove oxygen from the metals that are below it in the reactivity seres, i.e
carbon can displace metals that are below it in the reactivity series from their [Link] of
metals that be displaced by carbon from their oxides are iron(Fe), Lead(Pb), Copper(Cu),
silver(Ag)

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → Fe(s) + 3C02(g)

ZnO(S) + C(s) → Zn(S) + CO2(g)

HYDROGEN IN THE REACTIVITY SERIES

Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with water and acids because
such metals cannot displace hydrogen. Metals above hydrogen can displace the hydrogen
to form salt and hydrogen gas.

Eg Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

2
 Ca + H2SO4 → CaS04 + H2

All metals that are more electropositive than hydrogen will displace it. The most electro
positive metal eg sodium, potassium, calcium etc displace hydrogen from water. As the
electropositive decreases metals require dilute acids. Lead which is closer to hydrogen in
the reactivity series requires hot concentrated acid to release hydrogen from acid to form
salts.
Copper and silver are less electropositive than hydrogen this means they cannot displace
hydrogen from water and Acids

The Apparent unreactivity of aluminum

Aluminum is a metal which is quite high up in the reactivity series. However it appears to
be unreactive(it appears to be less reactive than iron) because as soon as it’s freshly cut,
the surface is exposed to the atmosphere, a layer of aluminum oxide(Al 203) is deposited
on its surface making it now unreactive. Aluminum oxide layer (Al 203) is very stable and
prevents the aluminum from any further reaction.

In short Aluminum is always covered by the oxide layer which is unreactive or stable
hence act as a coat which protect Aluminim from further reaction. This explains why
Aluminium pots seem to be unreactive.

Action of heat on carbonates

Carbonates of group one metals do not decompose on heating because the electrostatic
force of attraction is very strong hence require energy higher than that of heating in order
to decompose.
Carbonates of other metals starting with Ca down the reactivity series decompose on
heating to form oxide of the metals and carbon dioxide gas eg

Na2C03 → no reaction
∆

CaCO3 → CaO + C02

∆

CuCO3 → CuO + CO2

∆

Action of heat on nitrates

Nitrates of K and Na decompose on heating to form nitrite and oxygen gas.

Eg NaNO3 → NaNO2 + 02
∆
KNO3 → KNO2 + O2
∆

3
Nitrates of other metals from calcium to copper decompose on heating to form metal
oxides nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
Nitrates of silver and gold decompose on heating to form metals nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen.

AgN03 → Ag + N02 + O2
∆

Action of heat on hydroxides

NaOH and KOH are not decomposed by heat. Hydroxide of other metals decomposes on
heating to produce metal oxide and water.

Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O

∆

Action of heat on oxides

Oxides of metals below copper are decomposed on heating to form the metal and oxygen

Ag2O → 4Ag + O2

It is worth noting here that effect of heating compounds of metals is directly related to the
position of the metal in the reactivity series.
The most reactive metals have the most stable compounds.
Metals in the middle of the reactivity series form less stable compounds (carbonate
decompose to form metal oxides when they are heated)

The least reactive metals are unreactive that they have difficulty in forming compounds.

4
EXTRACTION OF METALS

EXTRACTION OF METALS IS A REDUCTION PROCESS (that is metal ions gain

electrons to form metal atoms)

HOW METALS ARE EXTRACTED

K very reactive never found as free atoms

Na
Li
Ca
Mg
Al
extracted by ELECTROLYSIS
(C)
Zn moderately reactive, found as oxides, carbonate or sulphides
Fe
Pb extracted by chemical reduction with carbon or carbonmonoxide

--- ---- ---------- ----

(H)
-------------------------------
Cu not very reactive, found as free elements
Hg
Ag
Au

5
EXTRACTIONOF IRON ( SINTERING) from Haematite (Fe2O3) or iron(iii) oxide

Iron(iii)oxide is the mixed with coke ( carbon) and limestone ( calcium carbonate) and
introduced in to the blast furnace. these are the raw materials.

Chemical reactions that occur in the blast furnace

1. Hot air reacts with white hot coke to form carbon dioxide (CO2)

C + O2 → CO2 ∆H-ve

The reaction produces a large amount of heat needed for reduction process (exothermic)

2. CO2 produced is further reacted with white coke(C) to form CO (carbon monoxide).
Carbondioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide.

CO2 + C → CO

3. it is this CO that reduces Fe203 at higher temperature to form metallic iron, Fe and CO2
2Fe2O3 + 3CO → 4Fe + 3CO2

4. limestone(CaC03) in the furnace decomposes to CaO and CO2. CaO then removes sand
from the impure iron.

6
CaC03 → CaO + CO2

[Link] main impurity in the ore of iron is sand (silicon dioxide) Si0 2 which is an acidic
oxide and this combines with the basic oxide CaO ,to form calcium silicate.

Si02 + CaO → CaSi03(l)

The silicate and impurities form slag, which floats above iron. Slag is slightly less dense
than iron and therefore floats on it. It is tapped off in the same way as the molten iron. It
is used by builders and road makers for foundations.

The iron from the blast furnace is impure it contains some impurities like;
Carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur. This type of iron is called CAST IRON.
Melting point of this type of iron is low and is brittle, possesses little tensile strength. It is
used to make pots, car engines.
This iron produced from the blast furnace, contains about 3 - 5% carbon
impurities. These make the iron brittle and hard. To remove these impurities the basic
oxygen process is used. Molten pig iron is poured into another type of furnace and
oxygen under a pressure of 5 - 10 atmospheres is blown onto the surface of the molten
metal. Carbon is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Other oxides may also
be formed eg. sulphur dioxide if any of these elements are still in the ore. Quick lime is
again added to the molten pig/cast.0 iron to combine with other impurities in the furnace.
This slag can again be separated from the purified metal. The resulting carefully
controlled iron and carbon mixture is now called Steel.

Different types of steel contain slightly different levels of carbon and other elements and
have different uses.

Duralumin 93.5% Al , 4.4% Cu ,1.5%Mn , 0.6% Mg strong and light in weight aircraft bodies

METALS, THEIR ALLOYS AND USES

7
Metals can be mixed with other elements to form alloys. Alloys have properties that are different from
those of the elements that they contain. By adding another element to a metal the packing arrangement in
the crystals are changed. The different sized atoms break up the regular packing of the metal atoms. This
prevents slipping of the different layers of atoms over each other and results in the alloy becoming tougher
and less malleable.
Alloys are a mixture of metals with other metals or mixture of metals with non metals. Apart from those
mentioned above"-(mild and stainless steel), here are some more examples:
Bronze
90% copper and 10% tin. Used for statues, bells and some machine parts.
Brass
65% copper and 35% zinc. Used in jewellery and door knobs. j
Solder
70% lead and 30% tin. Used for [Link] electrical wiring.

Suggest in the spaces below what properties of these alloys make them suitable for their uses:
Bronze …………………………………………………………………………………….
Brass... .. .... .. .... .. .... ....... .... .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. ... .. ........ .. ... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. ....
Solder ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Give composition and use of the following alloys

(i) Duralumin………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) AlNiCo ………………………………………………………………………………

Purposes of alloying
Improve qualities of a metal which includes
a)electrical and heat conductivity
b)resistance to corrosion
c) appearance

Here are some other metals. Fill in the gaps in the table: -

8
EXTRACTION OF ALLUMINIUM

Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earths [Link] is found in

Bauxite(Al2O3),Mica, cryolite and clay.

Elements like aluminium hold firmly/strongly to elements they have combined with, and
are extracted from their ores by electrolysis.

Al is extracted using the HALL – HEROULT CELL process which involves electrolysis
of Bauxite(Alumina/Al2O3.H2O)

Bauxite is treated with NaOH to remove impurities such as Iron (iii) oxide and sand to
obtain aluminium oxide

Pure aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite to reduce the working

temperature of Hall –Heroult cell from 2017oC to between 800oC – 1000oC .

Pure alumina melts at 2045°C. It would be expensive, and dangerous, to keep the tank at
that temperature. Instead, the aluminais dissolved in molten cryolite, for the electrolysis.
(Cryolite is another aluminium compound, with a much lower melting point.)

When the alumina dissolves, its aluminium ions and oxide ions become free to move.
At the cathode The aluminium ions receive electrons:

4Al3+ + 12e- 4Al

The aluminium atoms collect together, and drop to the bottom of the cell as molten metal.
This is run off at intervals.

At the anodes The oxygen ions give up electrons:

9
6O2 3O2 + 12e-
Oxygen gas bubbles off. But unfortunately it attacks the graphite anodes and eats them
away, so they must be replaced from time to time.

Some properties of aluminium

1 Aluminiumis a bluish-silver, shiny metal.

2 Unlikemost metals, it has a low density-it is 'light'.
3 It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
4 It is malleable and ductile.
5 It is non-toxic.
6 It is not very strong when pure, but it can be made stronger by mixing it with other
metals to form alloys .
These properties lead to the wide range of uses for aluminium,

Non Metals

10
1. Chlorine
Properties of Chlorine.

Pale green or yellow-green gas

Has a choking smell
Denser than air and so collected by the downward delivery
Bleaches dyes and indicators
Reacts vigorously with most metals

Test for Chlorine

It bleaches damp litmus papers.
NB: If a blue litmus paper is used, the paper may first turn red and then get bleached.
This is because chlorine reacts with water to form acid solution.

Bleaching action of Chlorine

In the presence of moisture the gas rapidly bleaches coloured dyes in cloth, turning them
into colourless compounds. The gas dissolves in water to form a mixture of two acids;

i.e Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

[hydrochloric acid) [Hypochlorous acid]
The HOCl bleaches substances by giving up its oxygen to the dye to form colourless
compounds).

i.e Dye + HOCl HCl + (Dye + 0)

[Colourless]

PREPARATION OF CHLORINE

Industrial preparation

. Large quantities of Cl2 are produced industrially by the electrolysis of concentrated

Sodium chloride (Brine). This process also produces other important products like
Sodium hydroxide and Hydrogen. [Refer to electrolysis of NaCl in the notebook]. The
main sources of Sodium Chloride NaCl are:

-Sea water (by evaporation)

-Salt pans (by solution Mining) as in Sowa town

Laboratory preparation of chlorine

11
 Experiment 1
Preparation of chlorine from hydrochloric acid by oxidation with
manganese(iv)oxide

Fig 1

Fit up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Put some manganese (IV) oxide into the flask,
pour concentrated hydrochloric acid down the funnel and shake well before connecting
up the flask with the rest of the apparatus. (Note: the use of a tripod stand and gauze
keeps the flask low and makes the apparatus more stable)

Heat the mixture in the flask and effervescence is observed. A greenish yellow gas is
evolved which, together with a certain amount of hydrogen chloride (misty fumes),
passes over into the first bottle which contains water. This removes the hydrogen chloride
(which is very soluble, in water), and the concentrated sulphuric acid in the second bottle
dries the gas which is collected by downward delivery, the gas being denser than air.

Mn02(s) + 4HCl(aq) MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(I) + CI2(g)

The above experiment should be carried out in a fume-chamber, as should any

preparation of chlorine in which it is collected by displacement of air.

Experiment 2

12
Preparation of chlorine from concentrated hydrochloric acid by oxidation with
potassium manganate(VII)

[If the chlorine is required pure and dry, insert wash-bottles containing (a) water, and (b)
concentrated sulphuric acid as in Figure 1, and collect by displacement of air or in a gas
syringe.]

2KMn04 (aq) + 16HCI (aq) 2KCI (aq) + 2MnCI2 (aq) +8H2O (I) +5CI2 (g)

sulphur

Sulphur is obtained from two sources:

1. Most comes from large underground sulphur beds found in Poland, Mexico, and the
USA.
(i)Found in metal ores e.g Zinc Blende . (ZnS)
(ii) found in copper pyrites , (CuFeS2)

Found as free element in nature and also in volcanic mountains

2 .Some is extracted from crude oil and natural gas.

Some crude oil and natural gas contains a high percentage of sulphur. If the oil or gas is
burned, sulphur dioxide forms. This causes air pollution and acid rain. So oil companies
are forced to remove the sulphur before the oil or gas can be used.

The properties of sulphur

13
1 .It is a brittle yellow solid.
2 .It is made up of crown-shaped molecules, each with eight atoms.(it has allotropes and
they are Monoclinic sulphur and rhombic sulphur)

3. Because it is molecular, it has quite a low melting point (115°C) and [Link] is 445oC.
4. Like other non-metals, it does not conduct electricity.
5. Like most non-metals, it is insoluble in water.

Chemical properties
6 .It reacts with metals to form sulphides. With iron it forms iron (II)
sulphide:

Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)

7. It bums in oxygen to form sulphur dioxide:

S(s) + 02(g) S02(g)

Uses of sulphur

[Link] of it is used to make sulphuric acid.

2. Some is added to rubber, to make it tough and strong.

3. Some is used to make drugs, pesticides, matches and paper.

4. Some is used to make special concrete called sulphur concrete. Unlike ordinary
concrete, sulphur concrete is not attacked by acid. So it is used for floors and walls in
factories where acid may get spilled.

Sulphur dioxide
Sulphurdioxide is formed when sulphur or sulphur containing compounds are
burnt in air.

Properties

1 It isacolorless gas, with a strong choking smell and it is extremely poisonous.

2 It is heavier than air.

3 It is soluble in water. The solution is acidic because the gas reacts with water to form
sulphurous acid, H2S03:

H2O(l) + S02(g) H2S03(aq)

14
Sulphurdioxide is therefore an acidic oxide. The acid easily decomposes again to sulphur
dioxide and water.

4 It acts as a bleach, when it is damp or in solution. Some coloured things lose colour
when they lose oxygen-that is, when they are reduced. Sulphur dioxide bleaches them by
reducing them.

5 When it escapes into the air from engine exhausts and factory chimneys, it causes air
pollution. It attacks the breathing system in humans and other animals. It dissolves in rain
to give acid rain. Acid rain damages buildings, metalwork, and plants.

[Link] is a very good reducing agent

i.e , it turns the purple potassium permanganate colourless
OR
The orange Potassium dichromate turns green

Preparation of SO2 in the lab

SO2 preparation is done by the acidic action on metal sulphites

Eg CuSO3 + 2HCl CuCl2 + SO2 + H2O

Uses of sulphur dioxide

1. Some is used to bleach wool, silk, and wood pulp for making newspaper.
(as Bleaching agent)

Some is used in the preparation of soft drinks, jam, and dried fruit, because it stops the
growth of bacteria and moulds. But most is used to make sulphuric acid.

Sulphuric acid
PREPARATION OF SULPHURIC ACID, THE CONTACT PROCESS

More sulphuric acid is produced each year than any other chemical. Most of it is made by
the Contact process. The raw materials are sulphur, air and water.

15
This flow chart shows what happens:

Things to note about the Contact process

1. The reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen is reversible.

The gas mixture is passed over several beds of catalyst in order to get a high yield of
sulphur trioxide.

2. The catalyst will not work below 400°C. So at lower temperatures the reaction would
be too slow. And at higher temperatures the yield of sulphur trioxide drops. So the
reaction is carried out at 450°C as a compromise.

3. The burning of sulphur in air is exothermic-it gives out heat. So is the reaction between
sulphur dioxide and oxygen.

N.B the forward reaction is favoured by high pressure since it produces the fewest
molecules (2 moles) of a [Link] reaction is 3 moles

4. The heat given out by these reactions is used to make steam. The steam is then used to
make electricity, or sold to nearby factories for heating. This helps to cover the cost of
running the plant.

16
5. The engineers must make sure that no sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide or acid
escapes from the plant, because that would cause serious pollution.

Uses of sulphuric acid

Mostof it is used to make fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate.

Someis used to make paint, soapless detergents, soap, dyes, andplastic.

Some is used as battery acid. In fact nearly every industryuses some sulphuric acid. (It is
the cheapest acid to buy.)

The properties of sulphuric acid

The concentrated acid It has these properties:

1. It is a colourless oily liquid.
2 .When it is hot, it acts as an oxidising agent. It will oxidise metals
to sulphates. For example it oxidises copper like this:

Cu(s)+ 2H2S04(1) CuS04(aq)+ 2H2O(1)+ S02(g)

When it acts as an oxidising agent, it is itself reduced to sulphur

dioxide, which bubbles off as a gas.
3. It acts as a dehydrating agent. That means it can remove water. It turns blue copper(II)
sulphate crystals into a white powder by removing the water of crystallisation:

CuS04.5H2O(s) - 5H2O(1) ~ CUS04(S)

It also dehydrates sugar, paper and wood. These substances areall made of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. The acid removes the hydrogen and oxygen as water, leaving
carbon behind.
The dilute acid It has typical acid properties:
1. It turns blue litmus red.
2 .It reacts with metals to give hydrogen, and salts called sulphates.
3 .It reacts with metal oxides and hydroxides to give sulphates and
water.
4 .It reacts with carbonates to give sulphates, water, and carbon dioxide.

Thedilute acid is made by carefully adding concentrated acid to water (never the other
way round, because so much heat is produced that the acid could splash out and cause
damage).

Test for sulphates

Most sulphates are soluble in water. But lead, calcium and barium sulphates are
insoluble. This provides a way to test for sulphates.

17
To see if an unknown solution contains a sulphate, this is what to do:
1. First add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, to acidify it.
2 .Then add a few drops of barium chloride solution.
3. If a sulphate is present, a white precipitate forms. The white
precipitate is barium sulphate, BaS04

NITROGEN

* Obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air

* Mainly used in the manufacture of Ammonia, NH3 by the Haber Process

(i) AMMONIA

* Manufactured from Nitrogen and Hydrogen by the Haber process

i.e N2(g) + 3H2(g) - Fe 2NH3 (g)

4500c 1200atm

Note: The sign ~ means the reaction is reversible.

Nitrogen and Hydrogen are mixed in the correct proportions and subjected to high
pressure in the presence
of heated Iron as the catalyst.

Conditions of the reaction

Temperature = 450°C
Pressure = 200 atm
Catalyst = Finely divided Iron

Summary of the process (Simplified flow chart)

18
Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia, NH3
By the reaction between an Ammonium Salt [e.g NH 4CI]and a Base / Alkali [e.g
Ca(OH)2]

i.e 2NH4Cl (s) + Ca(OH)2 (s) ~ CaClz (s) + 2 H2O (g) + 2 NH3 (g)

Test for Ammonia

* Turns a damp ('moist) red litmus paper blue (NB: Ammonia is the only alkaline gas)

Physical Properties of Ammonia

. is a colourless gas
. is less dense than air - how is this gas collected?
. has a sharp or pungent smell
. is [Link] in water (Refer to the Fountain experiment)

USES OF AMMONIA
(a) In the manufacture of fertilizers such as Ammonium Nitrate, NH4N03

i.e NH3 (g) + HN03 (aq) NH4N03 (aq)

(b) Making Explosives

(c) Making Dyes

19
(d) In making Nitric acid (HN03) by the Ostwald process.

STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF NITRIC ACID (i.e the Ostwald process)

(i) Mixing ammonia (NH3)with air and passing the mixture over platinum-/-rhodium
catalyst.

i.e 4NH3(g) + 502 (g) 4NO2(g) + 6H2O,(g)

(ii) Reaction of Nitrogen monoxide (NO) with oxygen forming Nitrogen dioxide (N02)

2NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2 N02 (g)

(iii) Reacting Nitrogen dioxide (N02) with more Oxygen (02) and water (H 2O) to produce
Nitric acid

4N02 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) -> 2HN03 (aq)

(Nitric acid)

Exercise

Study the following reaction scheme

(a) Identify the substances A to E by giving their names and chemical formulae.
(b) How is gas A obtained from the air
(c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the formation of ammonia gas from gases A
and B.
(d) Write an equation for the formation of solid C from ammonia.
(e) Give a use for;
(i) Solid C

20
(ii) Nitric acid
(iii) Solid E

CARBON AND CARBONATES

(i)Carbon
Carbon occurs in two solid forms- Diamond and Graphite. These two different forms are
called ALLOTROPES. Allotropes are different forms of an element in the same physical
state.
* Diamond and Graphite consist of carbon atoms joined together by strong covalent
bonds to form 3 dimensional network of atoms (i.e. Giant Structure). Other compounds
e.g Sand (silicon dioxide, SiO2) also has giant covalent structures.

* The difference in the arrangement of the carbon atoms in diamond & graphite makes
them to have different properties. They however have the same chemical properties. e.g
they both bum in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

* Carbon also occur naturally in several compounds like Carbonates.

e.g Sodium carbonate,Na2C03 , Calcium carbonate,CaC03 e.t.c. These have some
important uses.

HOW STRUCTURES OF DIAMOND & GRAPHITE ARE RELATED TO THEIR

USES

-Each carbon atom is joined by covalent bonds to four (4) other carbon atoms forming a
tetrahedral structure. These strong bonds hold the carbon atoms in rigid positions making
diamond a very hard substance.
Hence it is often used to make cutting tools.

- A large amount of energy is required to break all the bonds in the structure in order to
melt diamond. This explains why it has a high M.p

21
- Doesn't conduct electricity because there are no free electrons in it to carry charge. (i.e.
all the 4 outer electrons of carbon are used to form, covalent bonds leaving no free
electrons to conduct electricity)

- Each carbon atom form covalent bonds to 3 others

-Flat hexagonal layers of carbon atoms are formed. These layers lie on top of each other
and are joined by weak bonds which allows them to slide over each other. For this reason,
graphite is soft and slippery and is used for lubrication.

-Since each C atom is bonded to 3 others, a free electron on each atom can conduct
electricity. Hence graphite is sometimes used for making electrodes.
N.B-Read more about other uses on page 53 GCSE Chem by Earl

Structure of Silica ( Silicon dioxide)

Silica (silicon dioxide) has a giant structure similar that of diamond. Its structure
comprises of Silicon & oxygen atoms covalently bonded to form a tetrahedral structure.
This arrangement of atoms makes silica to be hard with high melting point. Silica occurs
naturally as sand and quarz and is used to make glass.

22
DIAMOND MINING IN BOTSWANA

Large earth moving equipment is used to strip off the top soil.
The rock is blasted with explosives, and then crushed to a size that releases most of the
diamond from rocks.

Concentration: Done by mixing with ferrosilicon and water. Ferrosilicon sticks to the
diamond, makes it heavy and falls to the bottom and waste floats.

(ii) CARBONATES

* Carbonates are compounds that contain the carbonate ion.

* Sodium carbonate (washing soda) and Calcium carbonate (limestone) are two important
Carbonates that have several uses.

SOLVAY PROCESS- Manufacture of Sodium Carbonate

Assignment :

23
1. Read about the Solvay process
2. The following diagrams show the arrangements of four different sorts of particles.

(a) Which diagram shows the structure of: (i) graphite, (ii) diamond, (iii) carbon dioxide.
(iv) silicon dioxide
(b) Graphite is soft slippery solid. How does the diagram show this propety?
(c) Diamond and silicon dioxide are very hard solids. How do the diagrams show this
property?
3. (a) Silicon dioxide has a high melting point whereas carbon dioxide is a gas. Explain
this in terms of the structures of the two oxides
(b) Silicon dioxide is an important raw material. Give
(i) one source of silicon dioxide (ii) one use of silicon dioxide
4. Questions 68.69, 7I on pages 257- 259 of GCSE chemistry by Earl & Wilford +
question 5 pg206.

1. No one knows where iron was first isolated. It appeared in China, the Middle
East and in Africa. It was obtained by reducing iron ore with charcoal.

(a) Complete the following equation.

(b) In 1705 Abraham Darby showed that iron ore could be reduced using coke in a blast
furnace.

24
(i) The temperature in the furnace rises to 2000 °C. Write an equation for the
exothermic reaction that causes this high temperature.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) In the furnace, the ore is reduced by carbon monoxide. Explain how this is formed.
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................[3]
(c) The formation of slag removes an impurity in the ore. Write a word equation for the
formation of the slag.
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

(d) Stainless steel is an alloy of iron. It contains iron, other metals and about 0.5% of
carbon.
(i) State a use of stainless steel.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Name a metal, other than iron, in stainless steel.
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) The iron from the blast furnace is impure. It contains about 5% of carbon and other
impurities, such as silicon and phosphorus. Describe how the percentage of
carbon is reduced and the other impurities are removed.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................[6]

(e) One of the methods used to prevent iron or steel from rusting is to electroplate it with
another metal, such as tin. Complete the following.

The anode is made of ............................................... .

25
The cathode is made of ............................................. .
The electrolyte is a solution of ................................... . [3]
[0620 s03 qp 3]

Iron is extracted from its ore in a blast furnace using carbon (coke) as a reducing agent and as a
source of heat.

(a) The coke burns in hot air. The equation for this reaction is
2C(s) + O2(g) _ 2CO(g)

State the name of the gas produced in this reaction.[1]

(b) Near the top of the blast furnace, the iron(III) oxide in the iron ore gets reduced to iron.

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) _ 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

Use the equation to explain why the change of iron(III) oxide to iron is a reduction
reaction.[1]

(c) In the hottest regions of the furnace, iron(III) oxide is reduced by carbon.

Complete the equation for this reaction.

Fe2O3(s) + C(s) _ Fe(l) + 3CO(g) [2]

(d) The iron from the blast furnace contains up to 10% by mass of impurities. The main
impurities are carbon, silicon and phosphorus. The diagram below shows one method
of making steel from iron.

A mixture of oxygen and basic oxides is blown onto the surface of the molten iron.
(i) What is the purpose of blowing oxygen onto the molten iron? [1]
(ii) A large amount of energy is released in the process of steelmaking.
What name is given to chemical reactions which release energy? [1]
(iii) The basic oxides react with the impurities in the iron and form a slag. What
information in the diagram suggests that the slag is less dense than the molten
iron? [1]

(iv) Which one of the following is a basic oxide?

Put a ring around the correct answer.
calcium oxide carbon dioxide sulphur dioxide water [1]

26
(v) Why is steel rather than iron used for constructing buildings and bridges? [1]
(e) Special steels contain added elements such as vanadium, chromium, cobalt or nickel.

These are all transition metals.

State three properties of transition metals which are not shown by non-transition
metals.
1.
2.
3. [3]

(f) What is the name given to metals which are mixtures of more than one metal? [1]

6 In the ‘thermit’ reaction, aluminium powder reacts violently with iron(III) oxide.
A magnesium ribbon is lit to start the reaction.
The reaction gives out a great deal of heat.

The equation for the reaction is:

(a) Complete the following sentence about the ‘thermit’ reaction using words from the list.
added
electrolysed
neutralised
oxidised
reduced

In the ‘thermit’ reaction, the aluminium is ................................... to aluminium oxide and

the iron(III) oxide is ................................... to iron. [2]

6 The diagram shows an electrolysis cell used to extract aluminium.

27
(a) What compound of aluminium is used for the electrolyte? [1]
(b) The electrolyte must be molten for the electrolysis to work.
Explain why. [1]

(c) (i) State the name of the substance used for the electrodes. [1]
(ii) To which electrode do the aluminium ions move during electrolysis?
Explain your answer. [2]

(d) Complete the following sentences about the molten electrolyte using words from the list
below.
bauxite chemical cryolite decreased
electrical haematite increased light

The melting point of the electrolyte is…………………… by adding…………………….This

means that less……………………….. energy is needed to melt the electrolyte. [3]
(e) Aluminium is used in overhead power cables.

The table shows some properties of three metals which could be used for the power cables.

(i) Suggest why aluminium is used for overhead power cables rather than copper. [1]
(ii) Suggest why steel is not used alone for overhead power cables. [1]
(iii) Why is steel used as a core for overhead power cables? [1]
(iv) Electrical insulators are used in parts of the pylons which carry the electrical cables.
Which one of the following is an electrical insulator?
Put a ring around the correct answer.
aluminium ceramic graphite zinc [1]

(f) Aluminium has many uses.

(i) Why is aluminium used for aircraft bodies? [1]
(ii) Describe a test for aluminium ions.
test

28
result [3]
[0620 w05 qp 2]

4 A student uses paper chromatography to investigate three substances, X, Y and Z.

The result of her experiment in Fig. 4.1 shows three components, P, Q and R.

(a) State and explain which substance is a mixture of the other two.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) State and explain which component is most soluble in the solvent.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

Use the information in Fig. 5.1 to describe the structures of

(i) graphite,
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) diamond.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

The element iron is extracted from iron ore, which is a rock found in the Earth’s crust.
(a) The main iron compound in iron ore is iron oxide. When iron oxide reacts with carbon

29
monoxide, iron is produced. The word equation for this reaction is shown below.

iron oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide

(i) State one difference between an element such as iron and a compound such as
iron oxide.[1]

(ii) The reaction shown in (a) is an example of oxidation and reduction.

State and explain briefly which substance has been reduced in this reaction.[2]

(b) Fig. 8.1 shows a diagram of a car.

Mild steel is an alloy containing a large amount of iron.

(i) Name an element, other than iron, which is present in mild steel. [1]

(ii) The steel on the underside of the car is galvanised by coating it with a layer of zinc.
This protects the steel from rusting.
Suggest how this prevents the steel from rusting. [3]
[0653 s06 qp2]

A2 Iron is one of the most important metals. It is a transition element.

Most iron is used in the alloy steel.
(a) Explain, in terms of metallic bonding, why iron is a good electrical conductor.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) Describe how different proportions of carbon can modify the physical properties of steel.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]
(c) When underwater, iron pipes will rust relatively rapidly.
(i) State the essential conditions needed for the rusting of iron.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Pieces of magnesium are often attached to underwater iron pipes. Explain how the
magnesium protects the iron pipes against rusting.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................[3]
(d) Write two typical properties that are generally common only to transition elements.

30
1. .....................................................................................................................................
2. .................................................................................................................................[2]
[5070 s05 qp2]

9 Fig. 9.1 shows the particles in three substances, Q, R and S.

(a) Which of the structures in Fig. 9.1 best represents

(i) solid copper, .....................................
(ii) brass, ................................................
(iii) a non-metal? ....................................[3]

(b) Use the structures in Fig. 9.1 to help you to suggest why a wire made of an alloy is more
difficult to stretch than a wire made of a pure metal.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[1]

(c) (i) Why do metals conduct heat better than non-metals?

..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Give two other differences between metals and non-metals.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................[3]

Non metals

4 Fig. 4.1 describes some properties of gas H and its industrial preparation.
The letters are not the chemical symbols of the substances.

31
(a) Name
(i) gas, H, ......................................................................................................................
(ii) colourless solution, I, ................................................................................................
(iii) colourless gas, J. ..................................................................................................[3]
(b) Give
(i) the temperature, X, ...................................................................................................
(ii) the pressure, Y. ....................................................................................................[2]
[5124 s03 qp3]

32
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIROMENT
6 In a car engine, fuel containing hydrocarbons reacts with oxygen from the air. The products of
this reaction enter the air with the exhaust gases.

(a) (i) Name the element that makes up nearly 79 % of the air.
...............................................................................................................................1]
(ii) The gas argon is present in air. Explain why argon does not react with the
hydrocarbon fuel in the car engine.
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................1]
(iii) Explain why it is very dangerous to leave a car engine running inside a closed
building.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................2]
[0653 w03 qp2]
(b) The energy needed to launch a space shuttle is released when a mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen react to form the compound water.
(i) The symbolic equation for this reaction is shown below.

2H2+O2→2H2O

This equation is said to be balanced. Explain what this means.

..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................1]
(ii) Describe one way in which a mixture of two gaseous elements is different from a
compound of the same elements.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................1]

(c) Suggest why the use of hydrogen as a car fuel would cause less air pollution than the use of
hydrocarbon fuels.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

33
A3 (a) Complete the following table about atmospheric pollutants.

(b) The graph below shows the concentrations of some atmospheric pollutants in a city
over a twenty-four hour period.

34
(i) What is the maximum concentration, in ppm, of unburnt hydrocarbons?
.................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest the source of the unburnt hydrocarbons.
.................................................................................................................................
(iii) At what time of day is the concentration of ozone highest?
.................................................................................................................................
(iv) Ozone in the lower atmosphere is a pollutant. State one effect of ozone in the
lower atmosphere.
.................................................................................................................................[4]

(c) Ozone also occurs in the upper atmosphere.

(i) Why is ozone in the upper atmosphere important?
.................................................................................................................................
(ii) State one type of compound that is responsible for ozone depletion.
.................................................................................................................................[2]
[0570 s02 qp 02]
A4 The exhaust fumes from the internal combustion engines of motor vehicles contribute to the
poor quality of air in many cities. The exhaust fumes contain atmospheric pollutants such as
nitric oxide, NO, and carbon monoxide, CO.
(a) Nitric oxide, NO, is formed when oxygen and nitrogen from the air react in an internal
combustion engine.
(i) Construct a balanced equation for this reaction.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain why, in terms of collisions between particles, the rate of this reaction

35
increases as the concentration of oxygen increases.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) Explain why the rate of this reaction increases as the engine temperature
increases.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................[4]
(b) Explain how carbon monoxide is formed in an internal combustion engine.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[1]
(c) Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide in the exhaust gases react together in the catalytic
converter of a motor vehicle.
(i) Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain why the catalyst should be in the form of a powder supported on a mesh.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................[3]
[5070 s04 02]

2004 – P3

The flow chart shows a method of liquefying air.

(b) Name the substance that is removed when air passes through

(i) potassium hydroxide …………………………………………………………………………[1]

(ii) anhydrous calcium chloride …………………………………………………………………[1]

(c) Explain by reference to the behavior of molecules, why compression and cooling help to
liquefy air.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[2]

(d) The table shows the boiling points of some gases in air.

Gas Boiling point / oC

Argon -186
Helium -269

36
 Krypton -153
Neon -246
Nitrogen -196
Oxygen -183
Xenon -108

(i) Name two substances that will remain as gases when air is cooled to -200 0C.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
(ii) Name the method by which the rest of the components of liquid air will be separated.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
4 Catalytic cracking is carried out by oil companies to produce high grade petrol.
The process is carried out using an aluminium oxide catalyst.
The reaction is a type of thermal decomposition.

(a) Explain the meaning of

(i) thermal decomposition.

..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) catalyst.
..................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................[2]

(b) A typical ‘cracking’ reaction is

C10H22 → C8H18 + C2H4

State the name of the unsaturated compound in this equation.

.....................................................................................................................................[1]

(c) The table shows some of the products obtained by cracking 100g of different ‘fractions’
under the same conditions.

(i) Which ‘fraction’ is the best source of fuel for cars?

..................................................................................................................................

37
(ii) Calculate the amount of paraffin ‘fraction’ needed to make 600g of methane.

(iii) Complete the equation for the cracking of ethane to produce hydrogen and ethene.

C2H6 → ……………… + ……………… [4]

(d) Ethene can be polymerised to form poly(ethene).

(i) Complete the equation below to show the structure of two units in the
poly(ethene) molecule.

(ii) State the name given to this type of polymerisarion.

........................................................................................................................................................[2]
[0620 w03 qp2]

4 Organic substances have many uses.

(a) Match the substances in the boxes on the left with the descriptions in the boxes on the
right. The first one has been done for you.

(b) Which one of the following would be least likely to be obtained from the fractional
distillation of petroleum? Put a ring around the correct answer.

Bitumen ethane ethanol methane [1]

38
(c) Some reactions of organic compounds are shown below.

(i) Which one of the reactions, A, B, C or D, shows fermentation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Which one of the reactions, A, B, C or D, shows polymerization?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(iii) Which one of the reactions, A, B, C or D, shows combustion?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(iv) Which one of the reactions, A, B, C or D, shows cracking?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[4]

(d) The hydrocarbon C8H18 is an alkane.

(i) What is meant by the term hydrocarbon?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) Explain why this hydrocarbon is an alkane.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[2]

4 Poly(ethene) is a plastic which is made by polymerizing ethene, C 2H4.

(a) Which one of the following best describes the ethene molecules in this reaction?

Put a ring around the correct answer.

alcohols alkanes monomers polymers products [1]

(b) The structure of ethane is shown below.

Explain, by referring to its bonding, why ethane cannot be polymerized. [1]

(c) Draw the structure of ethene, showing all atoms and bonds.
[1]

(d) Ethene is obtained by cracking alkanes.

(i) Explain the meaning of the term cracking. [1]
(ii) What condition is needed to crack alkanes? [1]
(iii) Complete the equation for cracking decane, C10H22.

39
 C10H22 → C2H4 + .................
[1]

(e) Some oil companies ‘crack’ the ethane produced when petroleum is distilled.
(i) Complete the equation for this reaction.
C2H6 → C2H4 + .................
[1]
(ii) Describe the process of fractional distillation which is used to separate the different
fractions in petroleum. [2]
(iii) State a use for the following petroleum fractions.

petrol fraction
lubricating fraction [0620 s05 qp2] [2]
4 Ethanol, C2H5OH, is formed when yeast ferments a solution of glucose in water.

(a) State the name of the gas given off during fermentation.
.....................................................................................................................................[1]

(b) Fermentation is caused by the action of enzymes in the yeast.

Explain the meaning of the term enzyme.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

(c) The boiling point of ethanol is 78 °C.

Explain how ethanol can be separated from water.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[3]
(d) Draw the structure of ethanol to show how the atoms and bonds are arranged.

(e) Ethanol can also be produced by the following reaction:

(i) Choose a word from the list below which best describes this reaction.
Put a ring around the correct answer.
addition combustion neutralisation polymerisation [1]

(ii) What is the function of the catalyst?

........................................................................................................................................................[1]
(iii) State the name of the reactant, C2H4.
........................................................................................................................................................[1]
(iv) The other reactant is steam. The steam is made by boiling water.
What is the boiling point of water?
........................................................................................................................................................[2]
(f) State one use of ethanol.
.......................................................................................................................................................[1]
(g) State the names of the products formed when ethanol burns.

40
............................................................... and .................................................................................[2]
[0620 w01 qp 2]

3 Crude oil (petroleum) is a natural raw material which is processed into many useful
products, including fuels and plastics.

(a) The list below shows some stages that are necessary in order to produce plastic
bottles from crude oil.

cracking
fractional distillation
moulding
oil arrives at the refinery
polymerization

Complete the table, Fig. 3.1, to place these processes into the correct sequence.

(b) The equations A, B and C, below show different types of chemical reaction which
involve hydrocarbons.

(i) State which one of the equations, A, B or C, represents a typical cracking

reaction.

41
............................................................................................................................ [1]
(ii) State which one of the equations, A, B or C, shows a chemical test for double
bonds in hydrocarbon molecules.
............................................................................................................................ [1]
(c) The displayed formula of one molecule of the gas ethene is shown below.

When ethene is heated and pressurised in the absence of air, a white solid is formed.
Name the solid, and describe what happens to ethene molecules during the reaction.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................... [3]

(d) Calculate the relative molecular mass of butane, C4H10.

Show your working.

.......................... [2]
[0653 s02 qp3]

6 Petroleum (crude oil) provides many important products including fuels and polymers.

(a) Name the two main elements which are always found combined together in fuels
obtained from petroleum. [2]
(b) Butane is a gaseous fuel obtained from petroleum.
(i) State one form of energy that is transferred to the surroundings when butane is
oxidised. [1]
(ii) Name one product that is formed when butane is completely oxidised. [1]

(c) Table 6.1 shows the total number of atoms which are combined in molecules of three

42
compounds A, B and C.

Suggest and explain which one of these compounds is a polymer. [2]

(d) Compounds containing the element sulphur are usually removed from fuels obtained
from petroleum. The sulphur is collected and used to make sulphuric acid.

(i) State the number of sulphur atoms in one molecule of sulphuric acid. [1]
(ii) Explain why the removal of sulphur compounds from fuel reduces environmental
damage. [3]

A4 Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. In an oil refinery it is separated into fractions by

fractional distillation.
The diagram shows a fractionating column and some of the fractions obtained from
petroleum.

(a) State the physical property on which the separation depends.

.....................................................................................................................................[1]

43
(b) (i) State one use for the naphtha fraction.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) State one use for the bitumen fraction.
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
(c) The liquefied petroleum gas fraction contains the saturated hydrocarbons
methane, CH4, and ethane, C2H6.
(i) What is the meaning of the term saturated hydrocarbon?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in methane. You only need to
draw the outer electrons of carbon.[4]

(d) Describe the importance of cracking in the oil refining process.

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]
[5070 s05 qp2]

2 Chemical reactions sometimes have names. For example, the complete reaction of an acid
with an alkali is called ‘neutralisation’.
Fig. 2.1 contains a series of chemical reactions.
Give the names of these reactions.

(a) reaction A ................................................

(b) reaction B ................................................
(c) reaction C ................................................ [3]

(c) Pure nickel is used to catalyse the reduction of unsaturated oils to saturated fats.

(i) What is meant by the terms saturated and unsaturated?

..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) Name the functional group in fats.
...............................................................................................................................[1]
(iii) How can a soap be made from a fat?
...............................................................................................................................[2]

44
3. Fats and oils are esters. They can be hydrolysed to form glycerol and sodium salts.

Glyceryl tristerate glycerol sodium stearate

(a) Insert the formula for glycerol [1]

(b) What name is given to:
(i) compounds such as sodium stearate………………………………………………………[1]
(ii) a reaction of this type……………………………………………………………………….[1]
(c) The group C17H35 contains no double bonds and as a result acids such as stearic acid are
described as
…………………………… ……………………….. ……………………[3]
(d) Some fats contain esters of glycerol and linolenic acid which contain three double bonds per
molecule. An acid of this type is described as a

…………………………… ……………………….. ……………………[3]

(e) Describe how the hydrolysis shown above is carried out in the laboratory.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..[6]

Answer

(b) (i) soap (ii) hydrolysis / saponification

(c) saturated fatty acids
(d) Polyunsaturated fatty acids
(e) Heat the fat and concentrated sodium hydroxide, gently for 30 minutes
Cool. Add sodium chloride to ‘salt out’ the soap. Skim off the soap.

45
5 The structures of some organic compounds are shown below.

(a) Name compound A.[1]

(b) Which two of the compounds A to E belong to the same homologous series?[1]
(c) (i) Which one of the compounds A to E has the same functional group as ethanol?[1]
(ii) Draw the structure of ethanol, showing all atoms and bonds.[2]
(iii) Describe how ethanol is made in industry from ethene.[2]
(d) (i) Which one of the compounds A to E is an unsaturated hydrocarbon?[1]
(ii) Describe a chemical test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
test
result [2]
(e) Compound E is acidic.
(i) State the name of compound E.[1]
(ii) Describe a test to show that compound E is acidic.
test
result [2]

46
3 A major food retailer in the UK is going to distribute sandwiches using hydrogen-powered
vehicles.

(a) A sandwich contains three of the main constituents of food.

These constituents of food can all be hydrolysed by boiling with acid or alkali.

(i) Complete the table. [5]

(ii) What type of synthetic polymer contains the same linkage as
proteins, ....................................................................................................................
fats? ......................................................................................................................[2]
(iii) Fats can be unsaturated or saturated. A small amount of a fat was dissolved in an
organic solvent. Describe how you could find out if this fat was saturated or
unsaturated.
reagent ......................................................................................................................
result if saturated ......................................................................................................
result if unsaturated ..................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................3]

(c) Pure nickel is used to catalyse the reduction of unsaturated oils to saturated fats.

47
(i) What is meant by the terms saturated and unsaturated?
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................2]
(ii) Name the functional group in fats.
...............................................................................................................................1]
(iii) How can a soap be made from a fat?
...............................................................................................................................2]

6 (a) Steam is condensed to water during a distillation experiment.

Use the kinetic particle theory of matter to explain why energy must be removed to
condense a gas to form a liquid.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[2]

(b) Two liquids P and Q are cooled to form solids. The temperature and time are recorded during
each experiment and graphs are plotted, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

(i) Use Fig. 6.1 to determine the melting point of P. .................. °C [1]

(ii) Explain how these cooling curves show that P is a pure substance and that Q is a
mixture of substances.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................2]

48
49