HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT OF AN AUTOMOBILE

ENGINE RADIATOR USING TiO2/CuO WATER BASE

NANOFLUIDS
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of
degree of Bachelor of Computer Application

Under the Supervision of

Borra Bhanu Sai

(Senior Technical Lead)
HCL TECHNOLOGIES, Bangalore

Submitted by

B Vijay Sai
A9922522002371

Summer Term 2025

i
 Abstract

In modern automotive engineering, thermal management plays a pivotal role in ensuring engine efficiency,
reliability, and environmental compliance. As engine power densities increase, conventional coolants like
water and ethylene glycol often fall short in meeting heat dissipation demands. This research explores the
potential of nanotechnology-enhanced coolants by investigating the convective heat transfer characteristics
of a car radiator using TiO₂-CuO-based water nanofluids. The primary objective is to assess and optimize
heat transfer enhancement through hybrid nanofluids, offering a sustainable, cost-effective, and energy-
efficient solution to conventional thermal management systems.

Nanofluids, comprising nanoparticles suspended in a base fluid, exhibit superior thermophysical properties
such as enhanced thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and stability compared to traditional fluids. In this
study, titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles were selected due to their high thermal
conductivity, stability, and compatibility with water. A two-step preparation method was employed to
synthesize stable nanofluid samples. Initially, nanoparticles were produced and dried, and subsequently
dispersed in deionized water using ultrasonication and high-shear mixing to avoid agglomeration and ensure
uniform distribution. Surfactants were avoided to retain fluid purity and simplicity of the experimental
system.

Five volume concentrations were tested: 0.01%, 0.04%, 0.08%, 0.12%, and 0.16%. These nanofluids were
circulated through a uniformly heated automobile radiator at flow rates ranging from 3.5 L/min to 4.5 L/min,
with a fixed inlet temperature of 50°C. The experimental setup included essential components such as a car
radiator with 25 tubes, a centrifugal water pump, a 2HP cooling fan, a heater, a mild steel storage tank (100
liters), and a range of sensors including thermocouples, pressure gauges, and digital displays for real-time
monitoring of system performance. The radiator was capable of handling a heat load up to 115 kW.

Results indicated a consistent enhancement in convective heat transfer coefficients with increasing
nanoparticle concentration and flow rate. The CuO/water nanofluid at 0.16% concentration achieved the
maximum heat transfer coefficient of 466.56 W/m²-K, significantly outperforming the base fluid (water).
This improvement was attributed to increased surface area of nanoparticles, higher thermal conductivity, and
the intensification of Brownian motion at optimal flow rates. However, further increases in concentration
showed diminishing returns, likely due to elevated viscosity and potential onset of particle agglomeration,
which can negatively affect fluid flow and increase pumping power requirements.

To complement experimental observations, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were carried
out using ANSYS Fluent 18.0. A 3D model of the radiator was constructed and meshed with a high-
resolution hexahedral mesh, containing over 900,000 nodes and nearly 800,000 elements. Boundary
conditions were set to match experimental values, including inlet velocities, outlet pressures, and
thermophysical properties of TiO₂ and CuO nanofluids. Simulations applied the k-ε turbulence model for
accurate depiction of turbulent flow and heat exchange. Initialization was conducted from the inlet, and
convergence was achieved within 100 iterations per scenario.

CFD analyses provided detailed visualizations of fluid behavior through temperature contours, static
pressure distribution, and velocity vector fields. Velocity vectors colored by surface heat transfer coefficients
revealed clear enhancement in heat transfer near wall regions when nanofluids were used, especially at
higher Reynolds numbers. Pressure drop contours showed that while nanofluids introduced marginally
higher resistance compared to water, the gains in thermal efficiency outweighed the losses in hydraulic
ii
performance. Additionally, outlet temperature profiles indicated that nanofluids retained lower average fluid
temperatures, highlighting their superior thermal absorption capability.

Empirical correlations for Nusselt number and friction factor were developed based on experimental data,
accounting for both Reynolds number and nanoparticle volume concentration. These correlations closely
matched CFD outputs and standard theoretical models, confirming the consistency and accuracy of the study.
The friction factor was observed to increase slightly with nanoparticle addition due to higher viscosity, but
remained within acceptable operational limits, thus validating the nanofluid’s suitability for continuous use
in automobile radiator systems.

Environmental and operational implications were also considered. The closed-loop design minimized fluid
wastage and contained nanoparticle-rich effluents in a dedicated discharge chamber for safe disposal. The
use of water-based nanofluids reduces dependence on toxic ethylene glycol coolants, making the system
more environmentally friendly. Moreover, by improving thermal efficiency, nanofluid-cooled radiators can
enable smaller engine compartments, improved vehicle aerodynamics, lower fuel consumption, and reduced
emissions—contributing directly to greener automotive engineering practices.

This study conclusively demonstrates that TiO₂/CuO hybrid nanofluids significantly enhance the heat
transfer capability of automotive radiators, validating their application as advanced coolants in real-world
thermal systems. The combination of experimental and numerical approaches presents a holistic framework
for assessing nanofluid performance under variable operating conditions. The results underscore the
importance of optimizing concentration and flow parameters to harness maximum thermal benefit while
maintaining system stability and operational efficiency.

Future research directions may include long-term performance evaluations to assess nanoparticle
sedimentation and corrosion impact over time, as well as exploring alternative nanoparticle combinations for
better thermal conductivity-to-viscosity ratios. Scaling the application to different radiator geometries,
integration into electric vehicle cooling systems, and cost-benefit analyses for mass production are also
valuable areas for continued study.

In summary, this work provides a compelling case for the adoption of hybrid TiO₂/CuO nanofluids as a
practical enhancement to conventional engine cooling systems. By bridging the gap between theory and
application through rigorous testing and simulation, the research contributes to the advancement of next-
generation cooling technologies for high-efficiency automotive platforms.

DECLARATION
iii
“ I hereby declare that the Major Project entitled “Android Malware Classification Using Vision
”

Transformers” submitted for the Bachelor of Computer Application Degree is my original work and
“

the dissertation has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any
other similar titles. ”

Signature of Student

CERTIFICATE

“This is to certify that the major project entitled “ HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT OF AN

iv
AUTOMOBILE ENGINE RADIATOR USING TiO2/CuO WATER BASE NANOFLUIDS ” submitted by B

VIJAY SAI (A9922522002371) in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Computer Applications to the Amity University Online, is a record of Bonafide work carried out under
my guidance and supervision.”

Signature of Mentor

Borra Bhanu Sai

(Senior Technical Lead)
HCL TECHNOLOGIES, Bangalore

v
 NOMENCLATURE

Re Reynolds number
V Velocity (m/s)
D Diameter (mm)
Pr Prandtl number
cp Specific heat capacity (K J/kg-K)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m-K)
Q Heat transfer rate (W)
h Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)
A Surface area (m2)
T Temperature (K)
q Heat flux (W/m2)
Nu Nusselt number
f Friction factor
∆P Pressure drop (K-Pa)
L Length of the tube (mm)
r Radius of dimple (mm)
P Pitch (mm)

Greek symbols
ρ Density (kg/m3)
μ Dynamic viscosity (N-s/m2)
ϕ Weight concentration

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter No. Content Page No.

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Project Definition 2

1.2 Details and Applications 2
1.3 Applied Research 4
1.4 Project Objectives 5
Objective 1:- Experimental Setup 5
Objective 2:- Doing the experiment to investigate the concept of
Nano fluid in heat exchangers 5
Objective 3:- Optimizing the results 5
2 Literature Review 6
2.1 Introduction 7
3 System Design 14
3.1 Design Constraints 15
3.2 Design Methodology and Calculations 17
3.3 System and Components 17
3.3.1 Radiator 18
3.3.2 Water pump 19
3.3.3 Fan 19
3.3.4 Instrumentation System 19
3.3.5 Storage Tank 20
3.3.6 Fluid 20
3.4 Fluid Preparation 21
3.5 Method of preparation of Nano fluid 21
4 CFD Analysis 22
4.1 Discretization methods in CFD 23
4.2 CFD analysis procedure 24
4.3 CFD working 25
5 Results and Discussion 49
Conclusion 52
References 54
Appendix-1 59

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 Appendix-2 64

List of Figures

3.1 Manufacturing work done in the container. 16

3.2 Project architecture diagram. 17

3.3 Experimental Setup. 18

3.4 Radiator. 19
4.1 Geometry model of car radiator. 29
4.2 Geometrical Information. 29
4.3 Meshed model detail view. 30
4.4 Meshed model with fins. 30

4.5 Assigning the naming to face region. 31

4.6 Fluent software main window. 31
4.7 Assigning Material properties of Radiator in the ANSYS. 32

4.8 Assigning Material properties of Air in the ANSYS. 33

4.9 Assigning Material properties of TiO2 in the ANSYS. 33

4.10 Inlet boundary conditions of Air. 34

4.11 Inlet boundary conditions of water. 34
4.12 Outlet boundary conditions of water. 35

4.13 Outlet boundary conditions of air. 35

4.14 Residual curves plot for Titanium dioxide with varying volume
Concentration. 36
4.15 Contours of Static Pressure of Titanium dioxide with varying volume
Concentration. 37
4.16 Contours of Static Temperatures of Titanium dioxide with varying volume
Concentration. 37
4.17 Contours of Heat transfer coefficient of Titanium dioxide with varying

Volume concentration. 38
4.18 Velocity Vectors Coloured by Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient. 38

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4.19 Velocity Vectors Coloured by Static Pressure. 39
4.20 Vectors Coloured by Static Temperature. 40

4.21 Velocity Vectors for Titanium dioxide. 40

4.22 Assigning Material properties of TiO2 in the ANSYS. 41

4.23 Contours of Surface Hear Transfer Coefficient. 41
4.24 Contours of velocity magnitude Titanium dioxide with Varying Flow rate. 42
4.25 Material properties for Water-CuO with varying Volumetric

Concentration. 42
4.26 Contours of Velocity Magnitude for Water-CuO with varying volumetric
Concentration. 43
4.27 Contours of Static Pressure for Water-CuO with varying volumetric
Concentration. 43
4.28 Scaled residuals for Water-CuO with varying volumetric
Concentration. 44

4.29 Contours of heat transfer coefficient for Water-CuO with varying

volumetric concentration. 44

4.30 Velocity vectors coloured by heat transfer coefficient for Water-CuO with
varying volumetric concentration. 45
4.31 Velocity vectors coloured by Static Temperature for Water-CuO with
varying volumetric concentration. 45
4.32 Material properties for Water-CuO Nano fluid. 46
4.33 Scaled residuals for water-CuO Nano fluid for varying flow rate. 46

4.34 Velocity vectors coloured by Static pressure for Water-CuO with varying
Flow rate. 47
4.35 Velocity vectors coloured by Static temperature for Water-CuO with varying
Flowrate. 47
4.36 Velocity vectors coloured by velocity Magnitude for Water-CuO with varying
Flow rate 48

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List of Graphs

5.1 Graph between Volume Concentration and Heat Transfer coefficient. 50

5.2 Graph between Flow Rate and Nusselt Number. 51

5.3 Comparison Graph between Heat Transfer Coefficient and Volume

Concentration for Theoretical and Experimental values 65

List of tables

Table.1 Heat transfer coefficient values for different volume concentrations. 64

Table.2 Specific heat values for different volume concentrations. 64

Table.3 Comparison of heat transfer coefficient values for different volume

Concentrations. 65

x
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1
Chapter1: Introduction

1.1 Project Definition: -

Theoretically, it is widely acknowledged that employing nanoparticles can enhance
the effectiveness of heat transfer. This research project delves into the practical application of
Nano fluids within a heat exchanger experiment.

Nano-fluids are a type of engineered colloid that combines a base fluid with Nano
particles, typically ranging in size from 1to100nm. These Nano-fluids demonstrate higher
thermal conductivity and improved heat transfer coefficients when compared to the original
base fluids. The concept of Nano-fluids involves utilizing suspended metallic or non-metallic
nanoparticles in the base fluids to create a new type of heat transfer fluid. The heat transport
capabilities of Nano-fluids are influenced by factors such as the properties and size of the
nanoparticles, as well as the concentration of solid particles in the fluid.

The convective heat transfer coefficient changes with the change in the inlet temperature
of the fluid. One of the difficulties in the experiment is agglomeration. It can be avoided by
using a sonication process or shear mixing process.

1.2 Details and Applications: -

Conventional heat transfer fluids, like water and ethylene glycol, have limitations in
their ability to efficiently conduct heat. This has prompted extensive research into developing
more effective heat transfer fluids to meet the demand for energy-efficient systems. Initially,
researchers attempted to incorporate larger particles, ranging from millimeters to
micrometers, into conventional fluids. However, this approach posed challenges. To
overcome these challenges, nanoparticles were introduced into the fluids, giving rise to Nano-
fluids. Nano-fluids are engineered suspensions where solid particles with high thermal
conductivity, sized in the nanometer range (< 100 nm), are dispersed within conventional
base fluids used in cooling applications. The smaller size and larger surface area of
nanoparticles prevent channel blockage and are expected to enhance the heat transfer
coefficient by leveraging the improved thermal conductivity of Nano-fluids.

Nano fluids have garnered attention due to their potential benefits in various applications
such as process cooling, automobile radiators, and power generation. Researchers have
identified their usefulness in dissipating heat from compact electronic chips and improving
energy efficiency in industrial cooling, defense, and space systems. Nano fluids also show
2
promise in domestic refrigerators, solar water heaters, and chillers. However, challenges
remain, including nanoparticle stability, high production costs, increased pressure drop and
pumping power, elevated viscosity, optimizing thermal performance, understanding
underlying mechanisms, and achieving consensus among research findings. Addressing these
challenges is crucial to fully harness the potential of Nano fluids in practical applications.
Advantages of nanofluids
Compared to conventional solid-liquid suspensions for heat transfer intensifications,
properly engineered thermal nanofluids possess the following advantages:
• High specific surface area and therefore more heat transfer surface between
particle and fluids.
• Reduce pumping power as compared to pure liquid to achieve equivalent heat
transfer intensification.
• Increasing properties like thermal conductivity and surface wettability byvarying
particle concentration to suit different applications.
Applications of nanofluids
• Nanofluids find most of their applications in thermal management of industrialand
consumer products as efficient cooling is vital for realizing the functions andlong-
reliability of the same. There are a large number of tribological and medical
applications for nanofluids.
• Nanofluids which are smart coolants are used for a number of applications in
industry and technology. As smart coolants they could be used for a variety of
choices. They come under heat transfer applications, automotive applications,
electronic and biomedical applications.
• Replacing water with the nanofluid can really create a very large energy profit in
the industries which will benefit the economy of nations.
• Owing to their enhanced thermal properties they could be used in engineering
applications from use in the automotive industry to the medical area to use in
power plant cooling systems.
• The earth’s crust is a source of energy required for using in industries and
technologies as a whole, but extracting geo-thermal energy is extremely hot. In
order to cool the big pipes used for the extraction of energy, nanofluids could be
considered as the best option in the new trend.
• In automotives, a large amount of heat is produced for the working of the

3
 sophisticated machines used. Nanofluids used reduce the heat energy and act as
excellent coolants.

Nanofluids are used in fuels increase the quality of fuels for combustionengines. The
biomedical applications of Nano fluids include cancer treatment andcryosurgery etc.

1.3 Applied Research: -

Cooling has become a significant technical challenge for high-tech industries, including
manufacturing, transportation, metrology, and microelectronics. The demand for smaller
device sizes, faster clock speeds, and higher levels of integration has resulted in increased
temperatures and heat generation rates in electronic devices. To ensure the longevity and
proper functioning, effective cooling methods need to be implemented.
This need is particularly prominent in powerful chips, where the power densities and
temperature scan reach levels that hinder reliable operation. While thermal engineers and
scientists are working on moving heat from the chips to the surrounding environment, there
are additional critical issues that must be addressed, such as managing high heat fluxes from
heat sources and cooling localized hot spots. These challenges are highlighted by Naser Aliet
al. (2018).

4
1.4 Project Objectives: -

Objective1: - Setting up the experiment equipment.

The project will focus on suspending nanoparticles in a fluid and subjecting it to

heating before passing it through a radiator. The experimental setup will involve a
household water heater, pipes, a car radiator, a pump and a fan. To ensure accurate
results, temperature and pressure gauges will be installed before and after the fluid enters
the radiator. This will enable precise monitoring of the system's performance.

Objective 2:- Doing the experiment to investigate the concept of Nano fluid in heat
Exchangers.

The aim of our project is to experimentally verify the theoretical findings that
nano-fluids can enhance system efficiency with minimal or no pressure drop. This
implies that nano-fluids have the potential to be used in industrial settings to improve
system efficiency at a reasonable cost. Given the short-term nature of our project, we
will not consider the possibility of corrosion in our experimental setup.

Objective 3: - Optimizing the results

Our research indicates that there might be an increase in the heat transfer
rate, convective heat transfer co-efficient and efficiency by using nanofluids. By
varying the internal temperature here might be optimized results.

5
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

6
 Chapter2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction: -
Assessing the heat transfer capability of a fluid requires analysing its thermo-physical
properties, especially when it contains particles ranging from micro to macro sizes. In such
cases, both the base fluid and particle properties must be considered. Maxwell pioneered this
research in 1881 by determining the effective thermal conductivity of suspensions. Later,
studies by Hamilton and Crosser in 1962, Wasp in 1977, and others explored additional
factors influencing thermal conductivity. While these models effectively predicted the
thermal conductivity of slurries, they were limited to suspensions with larger particles. To
overcome these challenges, nanoparticles were introduced into base fluids. In 1995, Choi
coined the term "nanofluid" and demonstrated a significant increase in thermal conductivity,
marking a breakthrough in enhancing heat transfer properties through nanoparticle
incorporation.

Literature review on Nano fluids of Metallic type:

The study investigated the convective heat transfer of Nano fluids using silver-water
Nano fluids in laminar, transition, and turbulent flow regimes. The nanoparticles increased
the convective heat transfer coefficient by 28.7% and 69.3% for 0.3% and 0.9% of silver
content, respectively. A correlation was developed to predict the Nusselt number of the
silver-water Nano fluid, with ±10% agreement between experiments and prediction [1].Nano
fluid is a suspension of nanoparticles with superior thermal, rheological, and wettability
properties, improving various applications like heat transfer, lubrication, drug delivery, and
oil recovery. However, its stability is a critical bottleneck for widespread use. This article
discusses Nano fluid stability from preparation to implementation in practical applications,
focusing on factors like temperature, pressure, confinement, composition, salinity, external
magnetic field, and shear rate. Future research on stability issues, hybrid Nano fluids,
quantum dots, hybrid stabilization techniques, wall effect, and porous media will further
enhance nanofluid's usability in practical systems [2].

This study focuses on synthesizing pristine Cu-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH)
Nano fluid using a one-step method and studying its thermal properties. Nitrate salts of Cu,
Al, and Na were mixed in a specific ratio, and various dispersion techniques were used to
disperse the Nano fluids. Characterization techniques were employed to determine crystallite
size, composition, morphology, and interlayer anion vibration. Particle size analysis, dynamic

7
light scattering, and zeta potential and visual phase separation studies were conducted to
confirm the formation of the Nano fluid [3].

The high thermal conductivity of nano-materials like CNTs, CuNPs, and AuNPs has
the potential for fluidic heat transfer applications. This study used mono-type nanoparticle
suspensions, with CuNPs showing the greatest enhancement. Hybrid suspensions did not
show the same improvement. Experimentally measured thermal conductivities were
consistently greater than theoretical predictions. Mechanisms for this enhancement are
discussed[4]. The framework analyzes Alumina and Copper-water Nano fluid over a sheet
with thermal radiation effects. It incorporates effective thermal conductivity and viscosity for
nanoparticles, analyzing temperature influence in the restricted domain. Partial differential
equations are obtained from momentum and energy equations[5].

Literature review on Nano fluids of Metallic Oxide type:

The thermal performance of metallic oxide nanofluids—in particular, coolants based on TiO2
in heat transfer applications is assessed in this work. According to research, adding
nanoparticles to traditional coolants improves convective heat transfer and thermal
conductivity. Operating circumstances, base fluid composition, and nanoparticle
concentration are important variables that affect performance. Experiments on TiO 2
nanofluids in car radiators show that heat transfer efficiency increases with increasing
temperatures and flow rates, reaching an 8.5% improvement over base fluids. These results
demonstrate metallic oxide nanofluids potential for sophisticated heat management
applications.[6]. The potential of TiO2 nanofluids to improve heat transfer efficiency in
automobile radiators is highlighted in this study's evaluation of the literature on the subject.
TiO2 nanoparticles have been shown to enhance stability, viscosity, and thermal conductivity
when dissolved in base fluids like ethylene glycol and water. According to studies, increased
TiO2 concentration speeds up heat transfer because it intensifies Brownian motion and thins
the thermal barrier layer. Long-term stability and corrosion impacts are still important factors,
though. TiO2 is a feasible coolant for automotive applications because it has stable
thermophysical properties during longer usage and lower corrosion rates than other
nanofluids.[7].

With an emphasis on their economic viability and thermal efficiency, this study examines the
use of TiO2 nanofluids in internal combustion engines. By lowering engine temperatures and
improving heat transfer efficiency, TiO2 nanoparticles improve coolant characteristics.
According to experimental results, thermal conductivity is improved by 40.8% when TiO 2
nanoparticles are added at concentrations as high as 0.6%. An ideal concentration of 0.26%
yields the best performance-to-cost ratio, according to an artificial neural network (ANN)
model. Using TiO2 nanofluids in engine cooling systems also lowers fuel consumption,
according to economic research, with a payback period of less than four years.[8].

8
This study investigates how TiO2 nanofluids can increase heat transfer efficiency and
improve radiator performance. When mixed with CuO to create hybrid nanofluids, TiO 2
nanoparticles exhibit better thermal conductivity than traditional coolants. According to
experimental findings, convective heat transfer is improved by increasing TiO2 concentration;
the greatest benefit is seen at 0.35% mass concentration. According to the results, TiO 2
nanofluids considerably raise total heat transfer coefficients, which makes them a viable
substitute for sophisticated cooling applications in car radiators.
[9]. TiO2 nanofluids thermal and stability properties are assessed in this work, underscoring
its potential to improve heat transfer in a range of applications. TiO 2 nanoparticles are well
known for their superior thermal conductivity, low toxicity, and chemical stability, which
make them appropriate for use in industrial and renewable energy applications. TiO 2
nanofluids have been shown to have enhanced thermal efficiency and heat absorption,
especially in solar thermal systems. Furthermore, the performance of TiO 2 nanofluids is
greatly influenced by variables such base fluid composition, dispersion methods, and
nanoparticle concentration. To improve long-term stability and optimize their efficacy in real-
world applications, more tuning is needed.[10].

Literature Review on Carbon based Nano fluids:

The study investigated the effects of silica Nano spheres, MWCNTs, and hybrids
H1 and H2 on distilled water viscosity and density. Results showed that Nano fluids
increased with concentration, while temperature reduced them. H2 showed the least increase
in viscosity at high concentrations, while H1 showed the least increase in base fluid density
[11]. The study prepared hybrid carbon Nano fluids (HCNFs) using an acetylene flame
synthesis system for heat exchange applications. The HCNFs were analyzed for basic
characteristics and applied to an air-cooled heat exchanger to evaluate pumping power
consumption, heat exchange capacity, and system efficiency factor under turbulent flow [12].

This study investigates thermoelectric power generation from cavities with

ventilation ports using a rotating conic object and carbon nanotube particles. It examines the
effects of parameters like Reynolds numbers, object size, and nanoparticle volume fractions
on fluid flow, interface temperature, and output power [13]. The study evaluates the thermo-
hydraulic performance of metallic (copper, titanium) and non-metallic (MWCNT) Nano
fluids as coolants for an automobile radiator, reducing size and weight while improving heat
transfer [14]. Graphene-based Nano fluids, such as Graphene (G) and Graphene oxide (GO),
offer high thermal conductivity and chemical stability. This research focuses on their
performance and heat transfer in thermal systems. Nanoparticles are dispersed in a base fluid
with a 60:40 ratio, and simulations are performed to evaluate temperature drop, enthalpy,
entropy, heat transfer efficiency, and total heat transfer rate [15].

9
Literature Review on Preparation Methods and Calculation of Thermo-Physical
properties of Nano fluids:

This study aims to attract young scholars and experts in heat transfer by
discussing hybrid Nano fluids applications and challenges. It covers their history, synthesis
techniques, thermo physical properties, research gaps, future directions, current status, and
leading groups, organizations, and countries. Despite advancements in hybrid Nano fluids,
researchers still face challenges in implementing them in commercial and personal devices.
The authors identify important work orientations and existing problems that hinder their
performance and implementation. Recent research has improved thermo-physical properties,
preparation techniques, and stabilizers, but further attention is needed for developing
correlations/models to predict thermo-physical properties, make them cost-effective, and
improve their implementation [16]. Over two decades have passed since the discovery of
Nano fluids, which are colloidal suspensions with small, solid nanoparticles less than 100 nm
in size. These fluids are used for heat transfer due to their favorable thermal and fluid
properties. Numerous numerical studies have been conducted on Nano fluids, but capturing
both macro-scale and Nano-scale effects is challenging due to their small size and large
numbers. This article reviews the latest developments in modeling Nano fluid flows and heat
transfer, focusing on 3D simulations. The review is intended to be helpful for researchers
working on numerical simulations and for scholars studying experimental aspects of Nano
fluids to understand the underlying physical phenomena [17].

This paper reviews 160 papers from 1995-2017 on hybrid or composite Nano
fluids, focusing on their preparation and thermo physical properties. It also discusses the
applications and challenges of these fluids, aiming to stimulate further research in this field
[18]. Nano fluids are promising thermo fluids for heat transfer applications due to their two-
phase nature. Solid nanoparticles in base fluids increase thermal conductivity and enhance
heat transfer characteristics. Hybrid or composite Nano fluids, which include two or more
nanoparticles, show better thermal and rheological enhancements compared to mono-
nanoparticle-based Nano fluids. This paper reviews research on the preparation,
characterization, properties, and stability of hybrid Nano fluids, discussing potential
applications, challenges, and stability methods[18]. Conventional heat transfer fluids like
water and engine oil are widely used in automobile radiators. To improve thermal
performance, nano-sized solid particles can enhance thermal conductivity in working fluid
[19].

10
 Nano fluids have gained significant attention in recent years, with numerous papers
discussing their applications. This paper reviews their use in different PHE geometries [20].
Hybrid Nano fluids offer promising thermo physical properties, heat transfer rate, and
stability, offering potential in various heat transfer applications. This paper summarizes
factors affecting their performance and presents conclusions based on data [21]. Rapid
research on Nano fluids shows their potential as heat transfer fluids in engineering
applications, influenced by nanoparticle thermal conductivity, particle volume
concentrations, and flow rates [22]. The experiment examined the impact of particle size,
weight fraction, and working temperature on the thermal conductivity ratio of alumina/water
Nano fluids [23]. The thermodynamic analysis evaluates Nano fluid’s effect on improving
PV/T hybrid solar collector efficiency in Qatar climate using experimental and computational
data [24].

A procedure for preparing Nano fluids, consisting of Nano phase powders and base
liquid, is presented, with TEM photographs illustrating stability and evenness. The thermal
conductivity of Nano fluids is studied using a hot-wire apparatus, considering factors like
volume fraction Richard P. Feynman proposed nanotechnology in 1959 at the American
Physical Society's annual meeting [25]. Nanoparticle suspension in base fluids attracts
attention due to its unique thermal performance in engineering sciences. Hybrid Nano fluids,
combining nanoparticles, show higher heat transfer rates compared to unitary Nano fluids
[26]. Researchers have shown the potential of Nano fluids in various systems, particularly
automotive thermal management. Their idiosyncratic thermal and hydrodynamic behavior
make them ideal candidates for evaluation [27].

Hybrid Nano fluids are a new class of working fluids made up of two solid materials
dispersed in conventional fluids. These fluids have been studied for their thermo-physical
properties, heat transfer, and flow characteristics. Experimental and numerical results show
that hybrid Nano fluids improve heat transfer in heat exchangers. Further research is needed
on different combinations, mixing ratios, stability, and mechanisms contributing to heat
transfer enhancement [28]. Nano fluids are nanoparticles in base fluids with unique features,
making them widely used in heat transfer industries. These Nano fluids are derived from
water and a 50-50 mixture of Ethylene Glycol with water. Car manufacturers are exploring
nanotechnology for hybrid cars, which represent green products. Water-based Nano fluids
have better heat transfer than EGW-based Nano fluids, and higher concentrations result in

11
better heat transfer. The thermal conductivity of nanoparticles directly affects the Nano fluids'
thermal conductivity [29].

Literature review on application of nanofluids in heat exchangers:

The study analyzes the impact of nanoparticle volume concentration and

proportion on heat transfer performance (HTP) of Al2O3 – Cu/water hybrid nanofluid in a
single pass shell and tube heat exchanger. The multiphase mixture model is used, and the
finite volume method is used to solve three-dimensional governing equations. The results
show that optimized nanoparticle volume concentration and proportion dominate HTP, with a
139% increase in heat transfer coefficient and 25% increase in Nusselt number. This results
in the highest heat transfer performance for hybrid nanofluid systems, with an effective heat
exchanger efficiency of almost 124% [30]. The study investigates the optimal design of
perforated branching fins for electronic cooling applications under laminar natural convection
conditions. Circular perforations with diameters ranging from 1.1mm to 6.6mm are used,
with less surface area than non-perforated fins. Two orientations are considered: vertical base
horizontal fin (vBhF) and horizontal base vertical fin (hBvF). The optimum values for
perforation diameter, pitch, and branching angle are d = 3.3mm, PH = 1.05d, PL = 1.5d, and
α = 45o. The stack of perforated fins enhances heat dissipation at every inter-fin spacing in
vBhF orientation, while the maximum total heat flux is 1.6 times higher in hBvF orientation
due to convection heat transfer [31].

The study numerically studied the laminar forced convection flow of aluminum
oxide, silver, and hybrid Nano fluids in a micro-channel. It found that solid region conduction
significantly affects heat transfer characteristics. The channel was designed with finite
thickness for heat source or electronic component [32]. Mini channel heat sink analyzes heat
transfer and pressure drop using hybrid Nano fluids, consisting of 9 parallel channels with
3mm depth and 1mm width [33]. This paper investigates the effective pumping power needed
for cooling thermoelectric generators (TEGs) at five temperature differences. It considers
temperature distribution and pressure drop in micro channels at four flow rates. Results show
a unique flow rate maximizes net power at each temperature difference [34]. Experimental
study examines forced convective heat transfer enhancement in Suzuki Mehran 2016 radiator
using Zinc oxide water-based Nano fluids. Three Nano fluids with varying concentrations of
ZnO nanoparticles were used to understand their effect on heat transfer [35]. Advanced heat
removal technologies are crucial for high-performance automotive engines. Conventional

12
fluids, based on DW and EG, have limited heat removal. Nano fluids have gained popularity
for improving heat transfer performance, but short-term results may not be accurate over
time. This paper presents a best practice for analyzing Nano fluid usage in car radiator
applications [36].

The study evaluates the enhancement of convective heat transfer performance of

hybrid Nano fluids (Ag, Cu, SiC, CuO, TiO2) in TiO2 Nano fluid as coolants for louvered FN
automobile radiators [37]. Conventional heat transfer fluids like water and engine oil are
widely used in automobile radiators. To improve thermal performance, nano-sized solid
particles can enhance thermal conductivity in working fluid [38]. Radiator heats and cools
fluids, such as automotive engine cooling and HVAC dry cooling towers, to improve
efficiency and effectiveness in IC engines. Enhancing radiator performance is crucial for
overall performance improvement [39]. The automobile industry aims to maximize engine
efficiency while maintaining compactness. This can be achieved by decreasing the frontal
area of a car, enhancing aerodynamics. Higher thermal conductivity coolants transfer heat
faster, reducing engine volume, pumping power, and radiator size. This leads to smaller
frontal areas, improved fuel economy, and reduced emissions. Nanofluids, with their
enhanced thermal conductivity, offer better heat dissipation than conventional coolants,
making them a potential practical application [40].

13
 CHAPTER-3
SYSTEM DESIGN

14
 Chapter3: System Design

3.1 Design Constraints: -

Our primary focus is to establish are liable experimental setup that investigates the
theory stating that heat transfer rate can be enhanced by introducing nanoparticles into fluid
layers. Our main concern lies in identifying and mitigating potential sources of errors to
ensure trustworthy results. In essence, we will carefully address the potential errors and
implement measures to prevent or minimize their impact during the experiment. By doing so,
we aim to establish a robust experimental framework that yield reliable and accurate
outcomes.

An important challenge we face is the control of nanoparticle flow, which is discussed in

detail in the subsequent chapter. Additionally, the relationship between the quantity of
nanoparticles in the water flow and heat transfer efficiency follows a direct proportionality.
However, at a specific point known as the "breaking point," this relationship reverses.
Furthermore, the pressure drop exhibits an inverse proportionality with heat transfer
efficiency. Consequently, it is necessary to optimize these parameters to achieve the high
possible efficiency while minimizing pressure drop. This entails finding the optimal balance
between Nanoparticle concentration, heat transfer performance, and pressure drop.
As engineers, we understand the importance of adhering to engineering standards and
taking into account various factors such as environmental impact, economic feasibility,
manufacturing considerations, and safety concerns. With these considerations in mind, we
have carefully considered engineering standards when selecting the parts and equipment for
our prototype. The key equipment in our prototype includes a fan, car radiator, electric water
pump, heater, and a water container, as well as supporting components such as tubes, valves,
pressure gauge, and temperature sensors. To ensure compliance with quality and safety
standards, we have sourced most of the parts and some of the equipment from local suppliers
who adhere to the relevant standards, such as the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization
(SASO) standards. By adhering to engineering standards and incorporating locally made
components that meet the required specifications, my aim to ensure the performance,
reliability, and safety of our experimental setup while considering factors such as
sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and compliance with relevant regulations.
From an environmental perspective, the prototype design has been developed with
minimal environmental impact in mind. The design ensures that there are no harmful exhaust

15
emissions, and the water consumption is kept to a minimum, aligning with our goal of
conserving water resources. To further address environmental concerns, we have
incorporated an additional outlet in the water container specifically for water discharge. This
allows for efficient management of water flow and ensures that only the necessary amount of
water is utilized in the system. Moreover, we have implemented a container to collect and
contain the waste discharged water, which includes nanoparticles. This approach helps
maintain a clean and dry working environment, preventing any potential contamination.
Bytaking these measures, we strive to create a prototype that is environmentally responsible,
promotes resource efficiency, and safeguards the surrounding environment by minimizing
water consumption and effectively managing waste materials.

Figure 3.1: Manufacturing work done in the container

Safety has been given paramount importance in the project. We have ensured the use of high-
quality equipment that meets safety standards. The fan, water pump, and heater, being
electrical equipment, required expert technicians to properly wire the musing efficient and
safe wires and cables. In addition, to enhance safety measures, we have placed warning signs
around the fan frame. These signs serve as a reminder for anyone passing by to exercise
caution and avoid touching the fan when it is switched on. This proactive step helps minimize
the risk of accidents and promotes a safe working environment. By prioritizing safety
considerations, utilizing qualified technicians, and implementing clear warning signs, we aim
to mitigate potential hazards and ensure the well-being of everyone involved in the project,
including operators, technicians, and passersby.

16
3.2 Design Methodology and Calculations: -

Figure (3.2) presents the project architecture, showcasing the system's functionality
and the interaction between various devices. The system design process commenced by
selecting a suitable heat exchanger, and in our case, we opted for a car radiator equipped with
a fan. However, it should be noted that the water pump commonly used in cars is
mechanically connected to the engine and does not align with the requirements of our
experiment. To address this limitation, we have identified the need for a different water pump
that can be effectively integrated into the experiment setup. By selecting a water pump
specifically suited for our experimental needs, we ensure the smooth operation and
functionality of the entire system. The project architecture depicted in Figure (3.2) provides a
clear overview of how the devices within the system interact and work together to achieve the
desired goals. It serves as a visual representation of the system's design and operation, aiding
in the understanding and communication of the project's technical aspects

Figure 3.2: Project architecture diagram

3.3 System and Components

In summary, our design is a project focused on transferring heat from hot water in a heat
exchanger to a Nano fluid. To ensure accurate temperature measurements, we have
incorporated six thermocouples in the cycle for temperature calibration. The complete system

17
includes flow meters installed in the pipes that carry the Nano fluid. These flow meters
allows to monitor and measure the flow rate of the Nano fluid, as depicted in Figure (3.3).
This feature enables us to precisely control and analyze the flow characteristics of the Nano
fluid within the system. By incorporating temperature calibration, heat transfer analysis, and
flow rate measurement, our design aims to provide comprehensive insights into the heat
transfer performance and behavior of the Nano fluid. This setup allows for accurate
experimentation and evaluation of the Nano-fluid's properties and performance within the
heat transfer system.

Figure 3.3: Experimental Setup

3.3.1 Radiator

Obtaining a suitable heat exchanger for our project posed some challenges, but I
managed to acquire a radiator that meets our requirements. The radiator has specific
dimensions, with a length of 0.75m and a width of 0.55m. It is designed with 25 tubes
incorporated within it. Each tube in the radiator has a diameter of 0.016m and a length of the
radiator tube is16.25m. These tubes play a crucial role in facilitating the heat transfer process
within the system. The radiator has a total capacity of 115kW, indicating it stability to handle
as significant amount of heat transfer. With these specifications and capacity, the radiator
serves as a key component in our experimental setup, ensuring efficient heat exchange
between the hot water and the Nano fluid. Its design and dimensions have been carefully
chosen to meet the demands of our project and provide optimal heat transfer performance.

18
 Figure 3.4: Radiator
3.3.2 Water pump

To facilitate the water circulation within the system, a locally purchased water pump is
utilized. This water pump is responsible for pumping water from the storage tank to the
radiator, where the heat exchange process occurs. Once the water has passed through the
radiator and absorbed heat, it is then directed back into the water storage tank using another
pump. The use of these pumps enables a continuous flow of water through the system,
ensuring efficient heat transfer and maintaining the circulation of the water within the
experimental setup. By strategically positioning the pumps and controlling the flow, we can
effectively regulate the movement of water and achieve the desired heat transfer objectives.
3.3.3 Fan

To enhance the cooling of water within the radiator, a 2HP fan is employed in our setup.
The fan serves the purpose of increasing the air circulation around the radiator, thereby
facilitating the dissipation of heat from the water. By directing a flow of air over the surface
of the radiator, the fan helps to cool the water and maintain its temperature within the desired
range. The use of a 2HP fan ensures a robust and effective cooling mechanism, allowing for
efficient heat transfer in our experimental system.
3.3.4 Instrumentation System

To accurately measure and monitor various parameters in our experimental setup, we

have incorporated several instruments and displays. Firstly, a pressure gauge is utilized to

19
measure the pressure within the system. This gauge provides real-time information about the
pressure levels, enabling us to assess the performance and efficiency of the heat transfer
process. Secondly, thermocouples are employed for measuring the temperature at different
points within the system. These thermocouples are strategically placed to capture temperature
variations and provide accurate temperature readings, helping us analyze the heat transfer
characteristics and monitor any changes throughout the experiment. Additionally, a flow
sensor is installed to measure the flow rate of the fluid within the system. This flow sensor
enables us to quantify and monitor the flow of the Nano fluid, allowing for precise control
and analysis of its behavior. To monitor the temperature values, pressure values, speed of the
fan, and motor speed, we have incorporated digital displays. These display provider-time
information and allow us to conveniently observe and record the measured parameters during
the experiment. By integrating these measurement instruments and displays into our setup,
we can effectively monitor and analyze the performance of the system, ensuring reliable and
accurate data collection throughout the experimental process.

3.3.5 Storage Tank

In our experimental setup, we have included a storage tank made of mild steel to store
the fluid used in the system. The storage tank has a capacity of 100 liters, providing ample
space to hold an adequate volume of the fluid. By utilizing mild steel as the material for the
storage tank, we ensure durability and strength to withstand the pressure and demands of the
system. Mild steel is commonly used in such applications due to its corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties, making it suitable for storing fluids in various industrial settings. The
storage tank serves as a central reservoir, supplying the fluid to the system as required. It
ensures a continuous and controlled flow of the fluid throughout the experiment, contributing
to the smooth operation of the overall setup.

3.3.6 Fluid

In order to prepare the titanium oxide (TiO2) and copper oxide (CuO) Nano fluids,
two-step method is employed. The purpose of this method is to prevent agglomeration of the
nanoparticles and ensure a stable suspension. Shear mixing involves subjecting the mixture to
mechanical forces, typically through the use of a high-speed mixer Sonicator. This helps to
disperse the nanoparticles evenly throughout the fluid, ensuring a uniform distribution and
preventing agglomeration. This result shows that in a well-dispersed Nano fluid with
enhanced thermal properties, suitable for use in heat transfer applications.

20
3.4 Fluid Preparation

In our experiment, the initial fluid used is water. A total volume of 60 liters of water is
employed for the setup. Water is a common base fluid in many heat transfer applications due
to its excellent thermal properties and availability. By using 60 liters of water, we ensure an
adequate amount of fluid to facilitate the flow and circulation throughout the system. The
water serves as the primary medium for the heat transfer process and allows us to observe the
effects of the Nano fluid on enhancing heat transfer efficiency. Water has a high heat capacity
and thermal conductivity, making it an efficient heat transfer medium. Its abundance and low
cost also make it a practical choice for experimental purposes. The use of water as the base
fluid provides a baseline for comparison when evaluating the performance of the Nano fluid.
Overall, the inclusion of 60 liters of water in our experiment allows us to study and analyze
the impact of the Nano fluid on enhancing heat transfer capabilities in comparison to the
traditional base fluid.

3.5 Method of preparation of Nano-fluid

Two step method: -The most commonly used method for preparing Nano fluids involves
two steps.

In the first step, Nanomaterials such as nanoparticles or nanotubes are prepared using
physical or chemical methods. These methods allow the production of dry powder forms of
the Nano materials. In the second step, the dry powder is dispersed in a base fluid. However,
since the preparation of nanoparticles and Nano fluids is done separately in this method, there
is a higher chance of agglomeration occurring during the dispersion process. To improve the
dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fluid and minimize agglomeration, various techniques
can be employed. One such technique is the addition of surfactants, which help to stabilize
the nanoparticles and prevent them from clumping together. Other techniques include
ultrasonic agitation and high shear mixing, which promote the breakup of agglomerates and
enhance the dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fluid. By employing these techniques, the
dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fluid can be improved, resulting in well-dispersed
Nano fluids with minimized agglomeration. This is essential for ensuring the stability and
optimal performance of Nano fluids in various applications, including heat transfer systems.

21
 CHAPTER-4
CFD ANALYSIS

22
 Chapter 4: CFD ANALYSIS

CFD is a discipline of fluid mechanics that solves and analyses issues involving fluid
flows using numerical methods and algorithms. Computers are utilized to do the millions of
computations necessary to model fluid and gas interactions with complicated engineering
surfaces. In many situations, however, even with reduced equations along with high rates
supercomputers, only approximate answers may be obtained. More precise programs capable
of correctly and quickly simulating even complicated circumstances which include
supersonic or a turbulent flow have been under development.

4.1 Discretization Methods in CFD

CFD has three discretization methods: finite difference method (FDM), finite volume
method (FVM), and finite element method (FEM).
These procedures are detailed below.

4.1.1 Finite Difference Method (FDM)

The discretization method finite difference method (FDM) is based on the differential
form that allows the PDE to be solved. Each one derivative has been substituted with an
estimated difference formula (which may be calculated using the expansion of the Taylor
series in general). The computing domain is typically split onto hexahedral cells (also known
as the grid), with the solution obtained at each node. The FDM is simplest to grasp while an
actual grid is Cartesian, but it may be generalized to domains that are not simply represented
by brick-shaped pieces by using curvilinear transformations. Discretization produces a
system of equations for a given variable on nodal points, after a solution is identified, it
provides a discrete illustration of the solution.

4.1.2 Finite Volume Method

The finite volume method (FVM) the discretization process depends on an integral
version of the PDE that needs to be solved (e.g., mass, momentum, or energy conservation).
The PDE is formulated in a way that allows it to be computed for a specific finite volume (or
else cell). The computational domain has been divided into finite volumes, and the 12
equations regulating it are solved for each volume. The resultant system of equations
frequently includes fluxes related to the conserved variable, hence flux computation is critical

23
in FVM. The primary benefit of this approach over FDM is that it does not need the usage of
structured grids, therefore the work required to internally convert the provided mesh to a
structured numerical grid is fully avoided. The resultant approximate solution is discrete, as
with FDM, although the variables are often set at cell centers rather than nodal points. This is
not always the case, as face-centered finite volume approaches exist. In any scenario,
interpolation is used to acquire the value of field variables on no storage locations (e.g.,
vertices).

4.1.3 Finite Element Method

A discretization using the finite element method (FEM) is based on a piecewise

description of a solution in terms of defined basis functions. The domain of computation is
partitioned into lesser domains (finite elements), and each element's solution is built from the
basic functions. The actual equations are produced by reiterating the conservation solution in
weak form results in the field variables can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
function; the equation is then multiplied by suitable test functions, followed by integrated
across an element. Because the FEM solution can be expressed in terms of particular basis
functions, it is far more well-known than the FDM or FVM solutions. This constitutes a
double-edged sword because the selection for basic functions is critical, therefore boundary
conditions can become more complex to define. Furthermore, a set of equations (typically for
nodal values) was created that must be solved in order to achieve a solution. A comparison
between the three ways is challenging, owing to the numerous variances of the three systems.
FVM and FDM offer discrete solutions, but FEM offers an ongoing (all the way up to a
certain point) solutions. FVM and FDM are typically seen to be easier to programme than
FEM, however opinions differ. FVM are typically thought to have higher conservation
properties, however opinions differ on this as well.

4.2 CFD Analysis Procedure

You must choose appropriate physical models for a certain situation, such as
turbulence, combustion, multiphase, and so on.

Defining the attributes of the material

1) Fluid
2) Solid

24
 3) Mixture
4) Specify operational circumstances
5) Specify boundary conditions throughout the boundary zones
6) Offer an initial solution
7) Configure solver controls
8) Install convergence monitors.

4.3 CFD Code Working

CFD programs are built around numerical techniques that can solve fluid issues. All
commercial CFD software feature sophisticated user interfaces for entering issue parameters
and seeing the results in order to provide simple access to their solution capabilities. As a
result, all codes comprise three primary parts.
1. Pre processor
2. The solver
3. The post-processing

1. Pre-Processing

The initial phase in creating and analyzing a flow model is to create one. The
preprocessor consists of an operator-friendly interface for input of a flow issue and
subsequent processing of this input into a form appropriate for use by the solver. Pre-
processing user activities include
• Geometry of the region defined: The realm of computing.
• Grid generation is the split of the domain into several of smaller, non-
overlapping subdomains (or control volumes or pieces).
Definition of fluid properties
Cells that coincide with or contact the border are given suitable boundary conditions.
A flow problem's solution (velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.) is specified at nodes within
each cell. The total amount of cells across the grid determines the precision of CFD solutions.
In general, the more cells there are, the more accurate the solution. The level of fineness of a
grid affects both the correctness of the answer and its associated expenses in terms of
required computer gear and computation time. CFD programs with (self) adaptive meshing
capabilities are being developed. Eventually, such programs will improve the grid
automatically in areas of fast fluctuation.

25
2. Solver

The CFD solver performs flow computations and outputs the results. Some examples
of solvers are FLUENT, FIDAP, CFX, Flow Wizard, and POLYFLOW. FLUENT is utilized
in almost every industry. Fluent's Flow Wizard is an initial general-purpose quick flow
modeling application for design and production engineers. ANSYS created two solvers, CFX
and FLUENT, independently. They have certain similarities but also have substantial
differences. Both rely largely upon a pressure-based solution approach for broad application
and are control-volume oriented for high precision They differ mostly in the manner in which
they integrates the fluid flow calculations as well as the way they solve equations. To
discretize the domain, the CFX solver employs FE (cell vertex numerical), which are
comparable to those used in mechanical analysis. The FLUENT solver, on the other hand,
works with finite volumes (cell-centered numeric). The CFX program concentrates on a
single technique for solving the equations that govern the process of motion (which is
coupled algebraic multigrid), whereas the FLUENT product includes many ways (density-,
segregated-, and coupled-pressure-based methods). Because the CFX code is very interactive,
we may make modifications to the evaluation at any moment during the process.
Which saves time and allows for more efficient design refinement. The graphical user
interface (GUI) will be user-friendly, which helps to minimize the learning curve and
accelerate the modeling process. Furthermore, CFX has a unique dynamic and adaptive mesh
capability that works using an extensive variety of physical models. This capability enables
and simplifies the modeling of complicated moving objects in respect to flow. This solver
offers the most comprehensive set of rigorous physical models validated against large-scale
applications, allowing us to precisely simulate real-world conditions such as multiphase,
responding, rotating machinery, moving as well as deforming things turbulence, radiation,
acoustics, and dynamic meshing.
Considering an extensive variety of CFD applications, the CFX solver has been
demonstrated to be quick and reliable. The time to solution is reduced since the suite of tools
allows us to remain inside one interface through geometry creation through solution, post-
processing, and final output. The numerical resolution of Navier-Stokes equations in CFD
codes typically requires a discretization method: derivatives products in the solution of partial
differential equations have been approximated through algebraic expressions that can be
obtained using the finite-difference or finite-element methods.
Otherwise, in a method that differs from the one that preceded it, the discretization
26
equations are able to be determined using an integral version for the conservation equations:
that approach, referred to as the FVM, is carried out in CFX Solver due to its adaptability to a
wide range of grid structures. As a consequence, a collection of algebraic equations is
generated that predicts energy, momentum, and mass flow at discrete places in the domain. In
the specified freeboard model, the segregated solver is used to solve the governing equations
sequentially.
Due to the governing equations were nonlinear and linked, numerous iterations within
the solution loop are required before a convergent solution is produced, and each iteration is
executed as follows. If the computation has reached the start of the iteration, the fluid
characteristics are updated in reference with the current solution; otherwise, the fluid
characteristics are updated in accordance with the initialized solution. For updating the
velocity field, the three momentum formulae are calculated sequentially using the current
pressure value.
Because the velocities acquired in the preceding phase may not fulfill the continuity
equation, a new equation for pressure correction is generated using the continuity equation as
well as the linearized momentum formulas: once solved, it produces the right pressure,
ensuring continuity. The SIMPLE algorithm, which is included in the CFX default
parameters, is used to create the pressure-velocity coupling. While inter-phase coupling is
needed to be taken into account, the source in terms in the suitable continuous phase
equations must be revised via the discrete phase trajectory calculations. Finally, the set of
equations convergence is tested, and the method is repeated until the convergence conditions
are fulfilled.
The conservation equations have been linearized in accordance to the implicit system
with regard for the dependent variable, resulting in a system for linear equations (one
equation in each cell within the domain) which can be dealt with simultaneously by
simulation software. In a nutshell, the segregated implicit technique computes each individual
variable field while taking into account all of the cells around the same time. The code saves
discrete values for every scalar quantity in the cell center; face values need to be interpolated
from cell center values.
A second-order upwind approach is used to do interpolation on all scalar values in
order to achieve high order precision. The sole exception is pressure interpolation, in which
the usual approach has been used.

27
3. Post processing
It's the final phase in CFD analysis, which entails organizing and interpreting
projected flow data, as well as creating CFD pictures and animations. Fluent program has
comprehensive post-processing features. CFX analysis sends CFD information for third-party
post-processors and visualization tools including Ensight, Field view, and TechPlot, as well
as VRML format. Furthermore, CFX CFD solutions integrate readily with structural codes
like ABAQUS, MSC, and ANSYS, as well as different engineering process simulation
applications.
As a result, CFX is a versatile computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program that is
well suited for incompressible and moderately compressible flows. CFX offers physical
models for an extensive variety of applications, such as turbulent flows, heat exchange,
reactive fluxes, chemical combining combustion, and multiphase flows, and it uses a
pressure-based separated finite-volume technique solver. CFX offers physical representations
on unstructured meshes, allowing for quicker issue preparation and improved accuracy
through mesh solution adaption.
CFX is a software suite for simulating fluid flow issues using computational fluid
dynamics (CFD). It solves the governing equations of a fluid using the finite-volume
approach. It enables the use of various physical models that include incompressible or
compressible, turbulent or laminar, and so on. GAMBIT, the preprocessor included with
CFX, is used to generate geometry and grids. Because of the growing popularity of
engineering workstations, many of which have exceptional graphics capabilities, the best
CFD are now outfitted with comprehensive data visualization tools. These are some
examples:
• Display of domain geometry and grid.
• Plotting vectors.
• Contour plots, both line and shaded.
• Surface plots in 2D and 3D.
• Particle detection.
• Check out manipulation (translation, rotation, and scaling, for example)
Geometries in this work are chosen after reading the essay. ANSYS design modular can
be utilised to generate the geometry model and quickly change the modifications. In the
beginning, ANSYS workbench is selected, and it displays the number of solvers and types of
analyses on the left side of the interface. Flow analysis (FLUENT) is chosen, and it includes
geometry, meshing, solution, analysis, and findings.
28
 Figure 4.1: Geometry model of Car Radiator.

In this window geometry is selected, once the geometry is selected, we will be in design
modeler page. Initially, sketch is created on XY plane to create circle with 1 mm diameter
and was extruded to 16.25m which means total length is 16.25m. In this window geometry is
selected, once the geometry is selected, I shall be in design modeler page. Initially sketch is
created on XY plane to create circle with 1mm diameter and draw the pipe of diameter 1 mm
and length 16.25m. By using Boolean operation, the two solid bodies form a single part. Then
using Pattern operation, enter 10mm pitch distance and enter 53 copies which means total
length is 16.25m.

Figure 4.2: Geometrical Information

29
Total Bodies: 2
Total number of Nodes: 924798
Total number of elements: 798995
Types of mesh: Hexahedral mesh

Figure 4.3: Meshed model detail view

Meshing is a next step once the model is completed. The entire domain material is
assigned as FLUENT, every edge of domain is planned to divide to gain hexahedral or
tetrahedral meshing. If right click on mesh, we get generate option by using this option, mesh
will be generated as shown in Figure.4.3.

Figure 4.4: Meshed model with fins

30
In the above image, Hexahedral meshing is used. In this model, number of nodes are 9,
24,798 and number of elements are 7,98,995. Faces to the Air domain is allocated inlet,
outflow, side, adiabatic and heat names. These are useful in FLUENT software for obtaining
boundary conditions.

Figure 4.5: Assigning the naming to face region.

The next stage is to find a solution. When you double-click on a solution, the
geometry as well as finite volume data is loaded into FLUENT software. Because the
geometry is in 3D, this 3-D fluid is immediately picked.

Figure 4.6: Fluent software main window.

31
 In the FLUENT some steps have to be followed to complete the solution that model,
turbulence, cell zone condition, boundary condition, reference conditions, monitor conditions,
solution method, initialize and run the analysis. Here, in the model k-e epsilon model is
chosen and material air is assigned to domain in cell zone condition.

Inlet condition is edited according to Reynolds number is selected before starting the
analysis. In this analysis, velocity of air from the inlet is selected. The velocity for individual
Reynolds number is calculated and assigned to inlet.

Titanium dioxide with Varying Volume Concentration:

The better Volumetric Concentration in the water- TiO2 in the taken Volumetric
Concentration is 0.16%. That is analyzed in the software. Material properties are taken for
that particular volumetric concentration.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
Material properties like Density, Specific heat, Thermal Conductivity and
Viscosity is defined in the Create/ Edit Material Window. The properties of the material are
imported from the Fluent data base, if some materials are not defined in the data base, then
user can define the properties of the new material by clicking user defined data base. Material
properties is defined for Radiator, air and Nano fluids. Radiator material is Aluminum.

Figure 4.7: Assigning Material properties of Radiator in the ANSYS

32
 Figure 4.8: Assigning Material properties of Air in the ANSYS

Thermo physical properties like Density, Specific heat Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity
of Air is given.

Figure 4.9: Assigning Material properties of TiO2 in the ANSYS

Thermo physical properties like Density, Specific heat Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity
of TiO2 is given.

33
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

Figure 4.10: Inlet boundary conditions of Air

Figure 4.11: Inlet boundary conditions of water

Inlet boundary conditions for air and water are given. The boundary conditions include Inlet
velocity of water, Inlet velocity of air, Inlet pressure of air and water. These inlet boundary
conditions are constant for all the volumetric concentrations and flow rates.

34
 Figure 4.12: Outlet boundary conditions of water

Figure 4.13: Outlet boundary conditions of Air

The outlet condition is kept as pressure outlet with value as zero because flow
distribution flows from high pressure to low pressure. If pressure value is set as zero in outlet
condition, inlet flow model pass from inlet to outlet. The outlet boundary conditions are
constant for all volumetric concentrations and flow rates.
Interface region between fluid domain is taken as pipe wall. If we provide the
boundary condition as wall, the flow cannot pass inside the wall and also the flow hits the
wall. In FLUENT software, we can directly find the heat transfer coefficient on the wall. The
35
main aim of this work is how heat transfer coefficient varies once we change inlet velocity.
Standard initialization from inlet is used for every analysis, it allows all variables that
are directly considered as initial fluid. From this condition, the entire set up will start such as
x,y velocities, temperature and pressure. Remaining all are taken as constant fields in the
entire domain.
Once the above steps are completed, analysis should be performed. FLUENT
software will solve the problem with different iterations until solution was converged. The
converged solution depends on geometry, number of nodes and elements. In this work,
convergence criteria selected as 100 iterations for velocity in xyz directions, turbulence and
continuity.

Figure 4.14: Residual curves plot for Titanium dioxide with varying volume
concentration.

In this plot, we can show how the xyz velocity, continuity and turbulence curves from
starting of iterations. It has high deviations and after some iteration at the beginning of the
analysis, it will reduce and once it reaches 100 iterations the solution will be stopped and the
results are taken.

36
 Figure 4.15: Contours of Static Pressure of Titanium dioxide with varying volume
concentration.

The above image shows the pressure distribution on radiator tubes. Here red indicates
the maximum pressure and blue indicates the minimum pressure area of average of pressure
difference can be seen from the above image.

Figure 4.16: Contours of Static Temperatures of Titanium dioxide with varying volume
concentration.

The above image shows the temperature distribution on plane tube. Here the red indicates the
maximum temperature and blue indicates the minimum temperature. Area of average of
temperature difference can be seen from the above image. Here inlet temperature is 308K and
Outlet is 316K.

37
 Figure 4.17: Contours of Heat transfer coefficient of Titanium dioxide with varying
volume concentration.

VELOCITY VECTORS:
Velocity vectors provide an excellent visualization of the flow around the
module, depicting details of the wake structure. Vector is drawn at the center of each cell,
with the length and color of the arrows representing the velocity magnitude.
The velocity vectors that are considered in this work are
• Velocity vectors colored by Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Velocity vectors colored by Static Pressure
• Velocity vectors colored by Static Temperature
• Velocity vectors colored by Velocity Magnitude

Figure 4.18: Velocity Vectors Colored by Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient

38
 From Figure.4.18, it was found that heat transfer coefficient of water is 17.08 W/m2 -
K when the velocity is 4.83 m/s. As the fluid velocity constant, its heat transfer rate also
constant, leading to a higher heat transfer coefficient. At a Reynolds number of 4000, the
fluid heat transfer coefficient reaches to 466.56 W/m2K. In the car radiator, a combination of
Nano fluids and water flows thorough the tubes, while air flows perpendicularly to the fluid
flow. The velocity vector field provides information about the magnitude and direction of the
fluid motion within the system.

Figure 4.19: Velocity Vectors Coloured by Static Pressure

Figure.4.19 shows the pressure distribution for water is displayed when it is used as a
working fluid with a velocity of 4.83m/s and a constant heat of 375W on the pipe wall. The
pressure drop within the tube is directly proportional to the flow rate of the fluid, which
means that as the flow rate increases, so does the pressure drop. Consequently, higher
pumping power is required and more power is consumed at a high Reynolds number due to
the increase in pressure drop. In the car radiator, a combination of Nano fluids and water
flows thorough the tubes, while air flows perpendicularly to the fluid flow. The diagram
shows that the direction in which static pressure applied on the fluid motion is within the
system.

39
 Figure 4.20: Velocity Vectors Coloured by Static Temperature

Figure.4.20, shows the temperature distribution for water. The water flows into a
plain tube at a velocity of 4.83m/s, with an inlet temperature of 323K (indicated in red
colour). As a constant heat as 375W applied to the pipe wall, the water absorbs heat from the
wall and reaches a temperature of 318K (indicated in blue colour). As the Reynolds number
increases within the range of 7833.34 to 8401.23 the exit temperature of the water in the tube
decreases and the heat transfer coefficient decreases. The combination of Nano fluids and
water flows thorough the tubes, while air flows perpendicularly to the fluid flow in the car
radiator.

Figure 4.21: Velocity Vectors for Titanium dioxide

40
 The combination of Nano fluids and water flows thorough the tubes, while air flows
perpendicularly to the fluid flow in the car radiator. The diagram shows that the direction in
which velocity of fluid in the car radiator and the fluid motion is within the system.

Titanium dioxide with Varying Flow rate:

The better flow rate in the water- TiO2 in the taken Volumetric Concentration is
0.16%. That is analyzed in the software. Material properties are taken for that flowrate and
0.16% volumetric concentration.

Figure 4.22: Assigning Material properties of TiO2 in the ANSYS

Figure 4.23: Contours of Surface Hear Transfer Coefficient

41
Figure 4.24: Contours of velocity magnitude Titanium dioxide with Varying Flow rates

In Figure 4.24 We can observe the contours of velocity magnitude for titanium dioxide
with varying flow rate. The Red colour indicates the highest velocity that had reached. We
can observe different types of colours in the above figure.

Copper Oxide with Varying Volumetric concentration:

The better volumetric concentration in the water- CuO is 0.16%. That is analysed in the
software. Material properties are taken for 0.16% volumetric concentration.

Figure 4.25: Material properties for Water-CuO with varying Volumetric

Concentration

42
 Figure 4.26: Contours of Velocity Magnitude for Water-CuO with varying volumetric
concentration

The above figure 4.26 shows the Contours of Velocity Magnitude for Water-CuO
with varying volumetric concentration. The Velocity magnitude increases as it’s become
nearer to surface. The red colour represent the higher in velocity magnitude.

Figure 4.27: Contours of Static Pressure for Water-CuO with varying volumetric
concentration

In figure 4.27, the contours of static pressure for Water- CuO with varying volumetric
concentration remains same from inlet to outlet.

43
 Figure 4.28: Scaled residuals for Water-CuO with varying volumetric concentration

In this plot, we can show how the xyz velocity, continuity and turbulence curves from
starting of iterations. It has high deviations and after some iteration at the beginning of the
analysis, it will reduce and once it reaches 100 iterations the solution will be stopped and the
results were taken.

Figure 4.29: Contours of heat transfer coefficient for Water-CuO with varying
volumetric concentration

44
Figure 4.30: Velocity vectors coloured by heat transfer coefficient for Water-CuO with
varying volumetric concentration

In the car radiator, a combination of Nano fluids and water flows thorough the tubes,
while air flows perpendicularly to the fluid flow. The velocity vector field provides
information about the magnitude and direction of the fluid motion within the system.

Figure 4.31: Velocity vectors coloured by Static Temperature for Water-CuO with
varying volumetric concentration

Copper Oxide with Varying Flow rate:

The better flow rate in the water-CuO in the taken Volumetric Concentration is 0.16%.
That is analyzed in the software. Material properties are taken for that flowrate and 0.16%
volumetric concentration.

45
 Figure 4.32: Material properties for water-CuO Nano fluid

Thermo physical properties like Density, Specific heat, Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity
of CuO is given.

Figure 4.33: Scaled residuals for Water-CuO Nano fluid for varying flow rate.

In this plot, we can show how the xyz velocity, continuity and turbulence curves from
starting of iterations. It has high deviations and after some iteration at the beginning of the
analysis, it will reduce and once it reaches 100 iterations the solution will be stopped and the

46
.Figure 4.34: Velocity vectors coloured by Static pressure for Water-CuO with varying
Flow Rate
From figure 4.34, Velocity vectors coloured by static pressure is decreases from inlet to
outlet.

Figure 4.35: Velocity vectors coloured by Static temperature for Water-CuO with
varying Flow rate

The above figure represents the static temperature of a fluid water-CuO at varying flow rate.

47
 Figure 4.36: Velocity vectors coloured by velocity magnitude for Water-CuO with
varying Flow rate

The above figure represents the contours of velocity magnitude of Water-CuO with varying
flow rate.

48
 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

49
 CHAPTER - 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
GRAPHS:

Volume concentration Vs Heat transfer coefficient

1600
Heat transfer coefficient(W/m2.K)

1400
1200 Heat Transfer co-efficient of
titanium dioxide and copper
1000
oxide
800
Heat Transfer Co-efficient of
600 copper oxide
400
200 Heat Transfer co-efficient of
Titanium dioxide
0
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.16
Volume Concentration (%)

Figure: 5.1 Graph between Volume Fraction and Heat Transfer Coefficient

Figure 5.1 shows that the graphical representation effectively illustrates the
correlation between the Volume Concentration and heat transfer coefficient. In this context,
Heat transfer coefficient of the combination of titanium dioxide and copper oxide increases
with increase in volume concentration.

50
 Flow Rate Vs Nusselt number
7000

6000

5000
Nusselt Number

Nusselt number of Titanium

4000
dioxide
3000 Nusselt number of Copper Oxide

2000
Nusselt number of Titanium
1000 dioxide and Copper oxide

0
3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5
Flow Rate,m3/hr

Figure: 5.2 Graph between Flow Rate and Nusselt Number

Figure: 5.2 The graphical representation effectively illustrates the correlation

between the flow rate and Nusselt number. In this context, it is noteworthy that Titanium
dioxide consistently outperforms other fluids in each scenario examined. These findings
underscore Titanium dioxide superior performance when it comes to enhancing the Nusselt
number across various flow rates.

51
Conclusion:
This research provides an in-depth exploration of the latest developments in
the fabrication, evaluation, and examination of the thermophysical characteristics of hybrid
nanofluids, while also investigating their practical deployment in various thermal
management systems. The adoption of nanofluids has been linked to significant
enhancements in heat transfer efficiency, albeit with the trade-off of an increased pressure
drop due to elevated viscosity. The key driver behind this improvement in heat transfer is the
increase in thermal conductivity offered by nanofluids (HyNF).

The thermophysical properties of nanofluids play a crucial role in dictating their

heat transfer and fluid dynamic behaviour. These characteristics are influenced by several
variables, such as the type of nanoparticles used, their concentration, size, shape, the chosen
base fluid, operational temperature, and the preparation methods employed. While TiO 2 and
CuO nanoparticles are the focus of considerable research, the effectiveness and applicability
of various hybrid nanofluids necessitate thorough experimental and computational studies
across different heat transfer contexts.

Experimental findings suggest that nanofluids with 0.16% of combination of

TiO2 and CuO in water exhibit marginally enhanced heat transfer coefficients compared to
other concentrations. The empirical models for Nusselt number and friction factor have
shown strong agreement with experimental data, providing deep insights into the nanofluids'
heat transfer behaviours.

Moreover, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses provide detailed

understanding of the complex interactions between temperature, pressure, and velocity within
the system, extending to a meticulous evaluation of heat transfer coefficients. The use of CFD
in designing automotive radiators is a critical step forward, significantly improving their
cooling efficiency.

The study thoroughly examines temperature fluctuations, pressure variances, and

velocity patterns, noting the essential interplay among these elements in optimizing radiator
performance. Ultimately, CFD analysis proves to be an essential instrument, central to
advancing the cooling efficiency of automotive radiators. Through detailed scrutiny of
temperature, pressure, and velocity distributions, the overall efficacy of the radiator system is
thoroughly evaluated and enhanced.

52
Future scope

1. Velocity Variation Studies: While the current analysis focused on constant velocity with
varying temperatures and pressures, future research could explore the effects of velocity
variation. Understanding how changes in velocity impact heat transfer and fluid dynamics
could offer new insights into optimizing radiator performance.

2. Exploration of Hybrid Nanofluids: The potential for using a variety of hybrid nanofluids
to enhance car radiator performance is vast. Future studies could systematically investigate
how different combinations of nanofluids affect the thermal and mechanical properties of the
radiator, potentially leading to groundbreaking improvements in efficiency.

3. Dimensional Analysis of Radiators: Modifying the dimensions of car radiators could

have significant effects on their performance. Future work could involve a systematic study
of how changes in size and shape influence heat dissipation, aiming to optimize radiator
design for various automotive requirements.

4. Surface Tension Impact: Investigating the role of surface tension in nanofluids could
unveil new mechanisms to enhance heat transfer. Understanding how surface tension
influences the flow and heat transfer characteristics could lead to innovative approaches to
improve radiator efficiency.

5. Mesh Variation in CFD Studies: Employing varying mesh densities in Computational

Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations could refine the accuracy of the results. Future research
could focus on how different mesh configurations affect the simulation outcomes, aiming to
achieve more precise and reliable data for radiator performance analysis.

6. Varying Heat Input: Altering the heat input in studies could provide deeper insights into
the radiator's performance and the behavior of nanofluids under different thermal conditions.
This approach could help in understanding the adaptability and efficiency of nanofluids in
various operating environments.

53
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58
 APPENDIX-I
Evaluation parameters
VDh
Reynolds Number, Re =


4( / 4) D2
For Circular Tubes, Dh = = D (m)
D
 Cp
Prandtl Number, Pr=
k
q
Convection heat transfer coefficient, h = (W / m2 − K )
A( T w − Tb )

Nusselt Number is given by Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr0.4 (1+ Pr ) − 0.012

(1+)0.23
nf w nf

2 D P
Friction Factor, f =
 LV 2

Correlations for calculating the thermo-physical properties of water:-

Density of water is calculated by

 
w=10001.0− (Tw − 4.0)2 ( )2
 119000+1365Tw − 4 Tw 

Dynamic Viscosity of water is calculated by using

w =0.00169−4.2526e − 5Tw +74.9255e − 7(Tw )2 − 2.09935e− 9(Tw )3

The thermal Conductivity of the Water is calculated by using

kw = 0.56112+0.00193Tw − 2.60152e − 6(Tw )2 − 6.08803e −8(Tw )3

59
Correlations for calculating the thermos-physical properties of Nanofluids by varying
volumetric concentrations:

The density of the Nanofluid is calculated by using

  
   + 1−  w
 nf =     100
100
   

Specific heat of Nano fluid is calculated by

 
(  C ) + (1− )(  C )
p p p w
Cnf = 100 100

nf

Thermal conductivity of the Nano fluid is calculated by using

 
0.27 −0.0336
  p  
knf   1+ Tnf  1+ d p 
1.37 0.01737
kr = 
= 0.89381+ 

kw   100  70   150  w  

knf = kw  kr

Dynamic Viscosity of Nanofluid is calculated by using

   11.3 −0.038 −0.061

r = = 1+
nf  Tnf 
 1+ 1+ d p 


w  100  70   170

nf = r w

Sample Calculations: -

1. Density of the Nano-fluid was determined by Pak and Cho's equation

𝜌𝑛𝑓 = 𝜑𝜌𝑝 + (1 − 𝜑)𝜌𝑏𝑓

2. The specific heat of Nano-fluid was determined by Xuan and Roetzel’s equation

𝜑(𝜌𝐶𝑝)𝑝 + (1 − 𝜑)(𝜌𝐶𝑝)𝑏𝑓
(𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝑓〗 =
𝜌𝑛𝑓

60
3. Heat transfer co-efficient of nano-fluid

𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇1 − 𝑇6) 𝑇1 + 𝑇6
ℎ𝑛𝑓 = 𝑇=
𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) 2
𝑤

4. Thermal conductivity of the nano-fluid

𝜑
𝑘𝑝 + 2𝑘𝑏𝑓 + 2 100(𝑘 −𝑘 )
𝑝 𝑏𝑓
𝑘𝑛𝑓 = 𝑘𝑏𝑓 [ 𝜑 ]
𝑘𝑝 + 2𝑘𝑏𝑓 − 100(𝑘 −𝑘 )
𝑝 𝑏𝑓

0.01
40+2 (0.6395 )+2
= 0.6395 [ 100(40−0.6395) ] =0.657969 W/mK
𝑘𝑛𝑓 40+2(0.6395)− 0.01
100(40 −0.6395)

5. Density of the hybrid nano-fluid

𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 = 𝜑𝑛𝑝1𝜌𝑛𝑝1 + 𝜑𝑛𝑝2𝜌𝑛𝑝2 + (1 − 𝜑ℎ𝑛𝑝)𝜌𝑏𝑓

𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 = (0.05 × 4175) + (0.05 × 8900) + (1 − 0.01)1000 = 1643.75 Kg/m3

𝜑ℎ𝑛𝑝 = 𝜑ℎ𝑛1 + 𝜑ℎ𝑛2

0.01 = 0.05 + 0.05

6. Specific heat of the hybrid nano-fluids

𝜑1𝜌𝑛𝑝1𝐶𝑝𝑛𝑝1 + 𝜑𝜌𝑛𝑝2𝐶𝑝𝑛𝑝2 + (1 − 𝜑ℎ)𝐶𝑝𝑏𝑓

𝐶𝑝ℎ𝑛𝑓 =
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓
(0.05×4175×877)+(0.05×8900×383)+(1−0.01)4187
𝐶𝑝ℎ𝑛𝑓 = 1643.75
= 217.58 KJ/Kg.K

7. Viscosity of the hybrid nano-fluid

𝜇𝑏𝑓
𝜇ℎ𝑛𝑓 = 2.5 2.5
(1 − 𝜑𝑛𝑝1) (1 − 𝜑𝑛𝑝2)

0.547×10−3
𝜇ℎ𝑛𝑓 = (1−0.05)2.5(1−0.05)2.5 = 0.007069 Pa-Sec

8. Thermal conductivity of the hybrid nano-fluid

𝑘𝑛𝑝1𝜑𝑛𝑝1+𝑘𝑛𝑝2𝜑𝑛𝑝2 𝑘𝑛𝑝1𝜑𝑛𝑝1+𝑘𝑛𝑝2𝜑𝑛𝑝2
( 𝜑𝑛𝑝1 +𝜑 𝑛𝑝2 + 2𝑘𝑏𝑓) − 2(𝜑𝑛𝑝1 + 𝜑𝑛𝑝2) (𝑘𝑏𝑓 − 𝜑𝑛𝑝1 +𝜑𝑛𝑝2 )
𝑘ℎ𝑛𝑓 = 𝑘𝑏𝑓 ( 𝑘 𝜑 +𝑘 𝜑 𝑘 𝜑 +𝑘 𝜑 )
( 𝑛𝑝1 𝑛𝑝1 𝑛𝑝2 𝑛𝑝2
+ 2𝑘 ) + (𝜑 +𝜑 ) (𝑘 − 𝑛𝑝 𝑛𝑝1 𝑛𝑝2 𝑛𝑝2
)
𝜑𝑛𝑝1+𝜑𝑛𝑝2 𝑏𝑓 𝑛𝑝1 𝑛𝑝2 𝑏𝑓 𝜑𝑛𝑝1+𝜑𝑛𝑝2

61
 0.639(0.05)+0.659(0.05) 0.639(0.05) +0.659(0.05)
)
𝑘 = 0.6395 ( ( 0.05+0.05 +2(0.6395) )−2(0.05+0.05 )(0.6395 − 0.05+0.05
)
ℎ𝑛𝑓 0.639(0.05) +0.659(0.05) 0.639(0.05)+0.659(0.05)
(( +2(0.6395) )+(0.05+0.05 )(0.6395− ))
0.05+0.05 0.05+0.05

=1.321W/mK.

9. Specifications of The Automobile Radiator

Pressure difference 𝛥𝑃 = 20 KPa

Length L = 16.25m.

Diameter D = 0.16 m.

Surface area 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝜋 × 0.16 × 16.25 = 0.8168 m2

10. Mass Flow Rate of the Nano Fluids

• •

Mass flowrate (𝑚)

m = Av
• −4
𝑚 = 4175 × 2.010 × 10 × 3.5 = 2.93 Kg/Sec.

11. Friction Factor of Nano Fluids

𝛥𝑃
Friction factor 𝑓 = 𝐿𝑣2𝜌
𝐷2

20
𝑓 = ( 16.25×1.19282×1029.7 ) = 2.1506*10 -5
0.162

12. Heat Transfer Coefficient

Heat transfer Co-efficient: h = 𝑄

𝐴𝑠×(𝑇−𝑇𝑤)

375
ℎ=( ) = 204.04W/m2K
0.8168 × (47.5-42.25 )

13. Nusselt Number

ℎ×𝐷
Nusselt Number Nu= ( )
𝑘

204.04 ×0.016
𝑁𝑢 = ( ) =4.96
0.657969

62
14. Reynolds Number
𝜌×𝑣×𝐷
Reynolds Number Re = ( )
𝜇

4175×1.1928×0.016
Re = ( ) =12925.0684
0.00616469

𝑚
Velocity 𝑉 = ( )
𝜌×𝐴

1.001 𝑚
𝑉= = 1.1928
4175 × 0.000201 𝑠

63
 APPENDIX- II
Experimental values

Table 1: Heat transfer coefficient values for different Volume concentrations

Volume concentrations Heat transfer Heat transfer Heat transfer coefficient of

(φ) (%) coefficient of coefficient of Titanium dioxide and
Titanium dioxide Copper oxide Copper oxide
(W/m2K) (W/m2K) (W/m2K)
0.01 204.048 229.554 153.036
0.02 229.554 262.347 166.948
0.04 306.072 367.287 204.048
0.08 367.287 459.108 229.554
0.16 459.108 612.145 367.287

Analysing the outcomes of the above-mentioned nanofluids varying volume concentration of

nanofluid mixture, a significant amount of heat is effectively transferred. In this scenario, the
heat transfer coefficient registers at 612.145 W/m2K at 0.16% volume concentration of
Copper oxide, surpassing the values obtained in other nanofluids.

Table 2: Specific heat values for different Volume concentrations

Volume Specific heat of Specific heat of Specific heat of Titanium

concentrations (φ) Titanium dioxide Copper oxide dioxide and Copper oxide
(%) (J/Kg.K) (J/Kg.K) (J/Kg.K)
0.01 4050.458 3873.232 217.584
0.02 3922.069 3602.275 339.612
0.04 3686.992 3157.954 418.933
0.08 3288.262 2527.412 455.969
0.16 2692.281 1794.378 479.648

In this setup, the volumetric concentration is varying. As established knowledge

dictates, elevating the volume concentration leads to change in specific heat. Evidently, this
phenomenon is mirrored in our finding, the highest specific heat of hybrid nano fluid is
479.64 J/Kg.K.

64
 Comparison tables for Experimental and Analytical values

Table 3: Heat transfer coefficient values for different Volume concentrations

Volume Heat transfer Heat Heat transfer Heat Heat transfer Heat transfer
concentrations coefficient of transfer coefficient of transfer coefficient of coefficient of
(φ) (%) Titanium coefficient Copper coefficient Titanium Titanium
dioxide of oxide of Copper dioxide and dioxide and
(W/m2K) Titanium (W/m2K) oxide Copper Copper oxide
dioxide (W/m2K) oxide (W/m2K)
(W/m2K) (W/m2K)
(φ) (%) Experimental Analytical Experimental Analytical Experimental Analytical
0.01 204.048 222.412 229.554 250.213 153.036 166.809
0.02 229.554 249.066 262.347 284.646 166.948 181.138
0.04 306.072 330.557 367.287 396.669 204.048 220.371
0.08 367.287 398.506 459.108 500.427 229.554 250.213
0.16 459.108 500.427 612.145 664.177 367.287 398.506

The experimental investigation focused on examining the impact of volume concentrations

(φ) ranging from 0.01% to 0.16% on the heat transfer coefficients of Titanium dioxide and
Copper oxide composites. The results were compared against analytical predictions for
validation. Across the range of concentrations tested, and were observed between
experimental and analytical values, particularly evident in the case of Copper oxide.

Volume Concentration Vs Heat Trasnsfer Coefficient

700

Experimental Heat transfer

600 coefficient of Titanium dioxide
Heat Transfer Coeffecient(h)(W/m2.K)

500 Analytical Heat transfer

coefficient of Titanium dioxide

400 Experimental Heat transfer

coefficient of Copper oxide
300
Analytical Heat transfer
coefficient of Copper oxide
200
Experimental Heat transfer
100 coefficient of Titanium dioxide
and Copper oxide
Analytical Heat transfer
0 coefficient of Titanium dioxide
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.16 and Copper oxide
Volume Concentration (%)

5.3 Heat transfer coefficient values for different Volume concentrations

65
The above figure shows the graph between the volume concentration and the heat transfer coefficient for the
different nanofluids. The volume concentration is varying as the heat transfer coefficient is gradually
increasing

66
Thank You
.

67