CHAPTER SEVEN

REPROGRAPHY
This is the name given to various processes which can be used to make a number of copies from
a master. There are different methods of making copies either from a given original or a
prepared master.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING THE METHOD TO BE USED

 Factors Influencing Choice of Reprographic Method
1. Number of Copies Required
o Small vs. large quantities may require different methods (e.g., photocopy for few,
offset for many).
2. Frequency of Demand
o How often copying is needed — regular use may justify investment in advanced
machines.
3. Speed of Reproduction
o Some methods are faster than others, which matters when time is limited.
4. Type of Copy Paper
o Some machines handle thick, glossy, or specialized paper better than others.
5. Nature of Original Material
o Whether the original has:
 Text
 Halftone illustrations (photos)
 Line drawings
o Affects choice of equipment and process.
6. Economy of Operation
o Consider the cost of:
 Materials (ink, toner, paper)
 Labour (operator)
 Machine maintenance
7. Enlargement or Reduction Needs
o If resizing of documents is required, choose a method that supports zooming.
8. Number of Colours Required
o Colour printing is more expensive — relevant when branding or illustrations are
involved.
9. Durability
o How long the image and master copy will last (fading, smudging, etc.)
10. Appearance of Output
o Whether you need:
 Typewritten look (basic)
 Typeset or printed quality (professional)
11. Quality of Appearance Required
o High-quality visuals may need digital or offset printing over basic photocopying.
12. Need for a Master Copy
o Some duplication processes (like spirit duplicators) need a reusable master.
13. Type of Original Document
o Handwritten, printed, photo-based, or mixed formats affect method choice.

REPROGRAPHIC METHODS
They are broadly divided into:
a) Photocopying
b) Duplicating
c) Printing

a) Photocopying
This is the name given to the process of obtaining a copy of a document directly from an
original document by the actions of light, heat or electrostatic charge. As compared to
duplicators there are no needs to prepare a master from the original document before
copies are made. This is because photocopying is a direct replication of the original hence
there is no need to check for errors.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE CHOICE OF PHOTOCOPYING MACHINE

1. The kind of copying that needs to be done.
2. The amount of copying to be done.
3. The speed required to reproduce the documents
4. The money available to purchase.
5. How much the cost would work out per copy produced.
6. Who will use the machine
7. Whether colour is required
8. Other copying options available.
9. The quality required

ADVANTAGES OF COPYING
Exact copies of the original are reproduced without loss of any data
 There is no need to check the document for accuracy as there can be no copying errors.
Errors may occur when duplicating masters are typed.
Where few copies are required it is generally cheaper.
 It is quick method since no master needs to be prepared before copies are made.
  No special training is required to operate the equipment.
 Complicated drawing and graphs can be easily copied directly from the original.

DISADVANTAGES
 It is an expensive method where large number of copies are required
 Depending on how they are handled the reproduced copies may fade away over time
 There is tendency to make copies unnecessarily because it is easy to make even when
duplicating or carbon copying would be cheaper. There are various items that should be
available to obtain a copy by photocopying;
i) Light  this could be by diffusion or transfer which depends upon the action of ultra-
violet rays on the sheet of paper coated with diazo salt.
ii) Heat (energy)
iii) Dye line (diazo)
iv) Electrostatic.
b) Duplication
It is a process whereby a master copy is prepared from which are obtained large number of
other copies.

METHODS OF DUPLICATING
There are two methods of duplicating:
i. Stencil duplicating.
ii. Spirit duplicating.

Duplicating process
A spirit or stencil master is prepared and placed around a roller, by the time of turning the
handle or switching on power, the papers are fed into the machine. First under a drum moistened
by the spirit, just as it comes into contact with negative impressions on the master, the carbon
from this goes on to damp sheets making a readable copy.

1. Stencil Duplicating
Stencil duplicating is also called ink duplicating. Duplicating stencils are made of a fine
fibrous tissue coated with a wax-like substance that is ink resistant. The aim of
preparing a stencil is to cut the safe coating while leaving the fibrous base intact. The
stencil can be cut using
a) A stylus pen.
b) Typewriter.
c) Thermal copier
d) Electronic scanner
The stencil is fixed into a duplicator ink drum and the drum is rotated the copy paper is
fed between it and an impression roller. Then ink is forced through the stencil onto the
paper reproducing image from the stencil on to the copy paper.

Advantages of stencil duplication.

1. Stencil may be drawn, written, typed or produced electronically by thermal copier.
2. Copies are produced very quickly.
 3. It is economical when many copies are produced
4. Stencils can be re-used more than once if properly stored.
5. If the stencil is machine  cut it will take less than 2 minutes
6. Different coloured inks and different coloured paper can be used to create an
attractive effect.

Disadvantages
1. In case of any creases in the stencil the finished result is disfigured.
2. It is expensive where only few copies are required
3. Colour printing is difficult as it required changes of stencils and barrels and alignment
of print.
4. Inking the drums may be dirty especially where older machines are used.

2. Spirit duplicating method

It is a fast and simple copying method/process which can be used to produce single
/multiple coloured copies in a single operation. This is a simple method of
duplication where less than 250 copies are required; and where quality of image is
not important. This method uses various carbon master image, and masters can be
made by writing, typing or by using thermal copiers.

Advantages
1. Spirit duplication is cheap in terms of machines used the master and the copying paper.
2. Several colours can be obtained from one master by simply changing the colour of
the hectograph carbon.
3. Errors on the master are easily corrected.
4. It is easy to prepare the master
5. It is convenient for producing relatively few copies.

Disadvantages
1. Copies made are not usually clean.
2. Copies tend to fade with time.
3. Only about 250 copies can be made from one master
4. The spirit used could present a fire hazard if not properly stored.
5. The spirit master cannot be stored for a long time without fading away.

3. Offset Litho duplicating method.(printing)

Offset Litho duplicating is a printing process that transfers ink from a metal plate to a rubber
cylinder, then onto paper, allowing high-quality and large-scale duplication of text and images.
Offset Lithography is a high-quality, large-scale printing process that works on the principle that
oil (ink) and water do not mix. It is widely used for printing newspapers, books, magazines,
posters, and other materials that require sharp and clear images or text.
In this process the masters are plates made of either papers plastic or metal material. The
outlines of the letters, lines and figures on the master are produced in grassy ink while
the remainder of the surface is covered with a film of water (dampened). The process
relies on the principle that oil and water cannot mix, hence when the plates comes into
contact with greasy printing ink in the machine, the dampened part rejects the greasy ink
while parts that are already greasy accepts ink. This extra ink forms itself into the shape
of characters in the master and is then offset or transferred in reverse form onto a rubber
blanket which ten rotates onto the copy paper in upright form then the final copy is made.
 Advantages of lithography
1. High quality papers are produced.
2. It is normally very fast (quick)
3. Plates have long life if properly stored
4. It can produce photographs and drawings
5. The copies are long lasting i.e. they dont fade away.
6. It is economical for long runs.

Disadvantages
1. It is economical for short runs. E.g. less than 50 copies
2. It is more expensive than alternative methods.
3. Making of plates is time consuming and expensive

 Complex Setup Process

 Requires skilled labor for plate preparation, inking, and machine operation.

 High Initial Investment

 The machinery and materials (plates, inks, dampening systems) are expensive to
purchase and maintain.

 Not Ideal for On-the-Spot Printing

 Due to its setup time, it's unsuitable for urgent, on-demand printing like
photocopying.

 Limited Paper Types

 Not all types of paper (especially very textured or thick papers) are suitable for
offset printing without special handling.

OTHER METHODS OF REPROGRAPHY

Manifolding (Carbon Copying)
Also known as carbon copying, this method involves placing carbon paper between
sheets of ordinary paper so that multiple copies are produced when pressure is
applied by writing or typing.
Carbon paper comes in different colours and weights — heavier carbon paper can be
reused more times.
✅ Advantages of Carbon Copying / Manifolding

1. No special skills required to use it.

2. It is a cheap method of copying.
3. No duplicating machine needed, so no maintenance costs.
4. Instant copies are produced while writing or typing.
5. Suitable for mobile or manual work (e.g. field forms, receipts).
6. Lightweight and portable materials.
❌ Disadvantages of Carbon Copying / Manifolding

1. Hard to correct mistakes once made.

2. Copies fade over time.
3. Can only produce few copies at a time (usually 2–4).
4. Easily damaged by mishandling.
5. Can create messy or smudged prints.
6. Ink may transfer unintentionally to other surfaces or documents.

2. NCR (No Carbon Required)

This is a system where special chemically coated paper creates duplicate or triplicate
copies without carbon paper. Writing or typing on the top sheet automatically
transfers the content to the sheets below due to chemical reactions on the coating.
✅ Advantages of NCR (No Carbon Required)

1. No carbon paper is needed.

2. Does not require special skills — easy to use.
3. Multiple copies (2, 3, or more) can be made simultaneously.
4. Cleaner and less messy than carbon paper.
5. Faster than inserting carbon sheets manually.
6. Widely accepted in business forms like receipts and invoices.

❌ Disadvantages of NCR

1. More expensive than ordinary carbon copying.

2. Difficult to correct errors once written.
3. Can be damaged easily by rough handling.
4. The copies may not be as dark or legible as carbon paper.
5. Chemical coatings make it unsuitable for certain printers.
6. Limited reuse – only good for one-time writing.

THE PHOTOCOPYING PROCESS

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Photocopying is the process of producing exact copies of an original document by the
actions of light, heat or electrostatic charge.

As compared to duplicators, there is no need to prepare a master from the original

document before copies are made. Since photocopying is a direct replica of the original,
there is no need to check for errors.

The following are some of the points to consider when selecting photocopying equipment

a) Initial cost. If the machine required is likely to involve a large capital

outlay, then the alternative of hiring the machine may be considered.
b) Operating cost. The cost of producing a master (where this is required) and
copies is an important factor. This cost depends on;
i) number of copies normally required at any one time. Eg if the number
of copies normally required does not exceed 10, then it may not be cost
effective to buy a photocopying machine
ii) purposes for which copies are required. Eg are they for internal or external
use. This will determine the quality of copies and thus the cost of
operation.
iii) Comparison with the cost of typing, duplicating and checking.
c) Originals. The machine must be of a size and type capable of copying from
originals of the size form and quality commonly used.
d) Simplicity of method. Most photocopying machines are relatively simple in
operation.
e) Speed of operation. If copies are required in large quantities, it will be necessary
to select a machine capable of producing copies at great speed.
f) Size and weight. A small portable machine may be useful for a small office
where it may be kept on a shelf for locked away when not in use. While a
large machine needs enough accommodation.
g) Master. Where masters are produced, to what extent can they subsequently
be used? And if so what provision should be made for their storage.
h) Maintenance. The cost of maintenance and the facilities provided by the
manufacturer are also considered.
i) Special features may be considered in relation to the machines available
eg capability to copy from bound books, built-in counting mechanism etc.
j) Others include..
Who will use the machine
The alternative copying options available.
Whether colour is required

Advantages
i. Exact copies of the original are reproduced without loss of any detail.
ii. There is no need to check documents for accuracy as there can be no
copying errors as those which can occur when duplicating masters are typed.

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 iii. Where few copies are required it is generally cheaper to produce them using this
method.
iv. It is a quick method of producing copies since no master needs to be prepared
before copies are made.
v. Complicated drawing and graphs can be easily copied directly from the original
vi. No special training is required to operate the equipments
vii. Some machines can reduce large sized documents or even enlarge small
documents
viii. Color copies can be produced by some machines.

Disadvantages
i. It is an expensive method where large number of copies are require.
ii. Depending on how they are produced and handled copies may fade away over time.
iii. There is tendency to make copies unnecessarily because they are easy to make when
some form of duplicating or even carbon copying would be cheaper.
Features of an Ideal Office Copier
An ideal office copier should be efficient, reliable, cost-effective, and suitable for the specific
needs of a busy office environment. Below are the key features:

✅ 1. Speed and Volume Capacity

 Fast copying speed (e.g., 20–60 pages per minute or more).
 High monthly duty cycle to handle large volumes of work.
 Suitable for bulk copying and printing without overheating.

✅ 2. Multi-Function Capability (MFP)

 Should offer multiple functions:
o Copy
o Print
o Scan
o Fax (optional)
 Saves space and cost by combining machines.

✅ 3. Duplexing (Double-Sided Copying)

 Automatically prints or copies on both sides of the paper.
 Saves paper and is eco-friendly.

✅ 4. Automatic Document Feeder (ADF)

 Allows multiple-page documents to be copied or scanned automatically without manual page
feeding.

✅ 5. High Print Resolution

 Should have a minimum of 600 x 600 dpi (dots per inch) for clear, sharp images and text.
 Important for copying graphics, photos, and professional documents.

✅ 6. Energy Efficiency
 Should be energy-saving (Energy Star certified).
 Includes automatic sleep mode when idle to reduce power consumption.
 ✅ 7. Network and Wireless Connectivity
 Connects easily to office networks.
 Wi-Fi, USB, and Ethernet support for remote printing and scanning.
 Cloud printing (e.g., Google Cloud Print) is a plus.

✅ 8. Paper Handling Capacity

 Large input and output trays to hold more sheets.
 Supports various paper sizes and types (e.g., A4, A3, envelopes).

✅ 9. User-Friendly Interface
 Intuitive touchscreen display for easy operation.
 Programmable shortcuts for regular tasks.

✅ 10. Security Features

 User authentication, PIN printing, or password protection.
 Prevents unauthorized access and data breaches.