Module-5

Subsurface investigation of ground water

The surface methods on the basis of physical properties Lo be measured, can include
(1) Electrical Resitivity Method,
(2) Seismic Refraction Method, and
(3) Gravity and Magnetic Methods.

SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Electrical Resistivity Method

The electric resistivity of a rock formation limits the amount of current passing through the
formation when an electric potential is applied. It may be defined as the resistence in ohms
between opposite faces of a unit cube of the material. If a material of resistance R has a cross-
sectional area A and a length L. then its resistivity can be expressed as

RA
ρ¿
L

Units of resistivity are ohm (m ^ 2) / m or simply ohm-m. Resistivity’s of rock formations vary
over a wide range, depending on the material, density, porosity, pore size and shape, water
content and quality, and temperature. 24 There are no fixed limits for resistivities of various 10 ^
2 rocks; igneous and metamorphic rocks yield values in the range to 10 ^ 8 ohm-m; sedimentary
and unconsolidated rocks, 10 ^ 0 to 10 ^ 4 ohm-m. Figure 11.3 provides a representative guide to
electric resistivity ranges of various sediments and rocks. In relatively porous formations, the
resistivity is controlled more by water content and quality within the formation than by the rock
resistivity. For aquifers composed of unconsolidated materials, the resistivity decreases with the
degree of saturation and the salinity of the groundwater. Clay minerals conduct electric current
through their matrix: therefore, clayey formations tend to display lower resistivity. Actual
resistivities are determined from apparent resistivities than do permeable alluvial aquifers.

which are computed from measurements of current and potential differences between pairs of
electrodes placed in the ground surface. The procedure involves measuring a potential difference
between 11.4) outside but in line with two electrodes (P in Fig. 11.4) resulting from an applied
current through two other electrodes (C in Fig. the potential electrodes. If the resistivity is
everywhere uniform in the subsurface zone beneath the electrodes, an orthogonal network of
circular arcs will be formed by the current and equipotential lines, as shown in Fig. 11.4. The
measured potential difference is a weighted value over a subsurface region controlled by the
shape of the network. Thus, the measured current and potential differences yield an apparent
resistivity over an unspecified depth. If the spacing between electrodes is increased, a deeper
penetration of the electric field occurs and a different apparent resistivity is obtained. In general,
actual subsurface resistivities vary with depth; therefore, apparent resistivities will change as
electrode spacings are increased, but not in a like manner. Because changes of resistivity at great
depths have only a slight effect on the apparent resistivity compared to those at shallow depths,
the method is seldom effective for determining actual resistivities below a few hundred meters.

Seismic refraction method

Electrical resistivity method is widely employed, seismic refraction method is also used by some
geophysicists. Shock or sound waves are generated by setting of a small explosion at a depth of
about one metre or more by a sledge hammer striking a metal plate on the ground. The waves
first propagated travel downwards into various rock layers and also are refracted back to the
surface from the interface between those layers the detectors called geophones, placed on the
ground surface. This geophones are connected with cables to central oscillograph or other device
for recording the arrival time of the first wave after detonation or striking of a sledge hammer on
a metal plate. The arrival times of different waves at different distances from the shot point or
utilized for calculating the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer. The
velocities or characteristics of particular rocks in particular condition, that is weather the rock is
dry, saturated with water, weather or jointed. The refracted waves arrive at the surface only if the
velocity of the propagation in underlying layer is higher than that of overlying layer. The
thickness of a layer should be adequate enough to allow transmission of the wave.

Magnetic methods

In magnetic methods of survey, variations in the magnetic field of the earth in relation to
subsurfaces geology is detected and measured. Magnetometers of various designs, working on
different principles, are used to measure variations of the horizontal and vertical components of
the earth's magnetic field. The unit of measurement of the intensity of the magnetic field is
gamma (7) = 10-5 oestred. Magnetic anomalies of high orders are generally associated with basic
rocks containing magnetite, ilmenite, etc. Granitic, gneissic and shistose rocks are somewhat less
magnetic, while sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale and limestone are mostly non-magnetic
or very feebly magnetic. Ferruginous layers, hard pans and placer magnetite and ilmenite may
give rise to high magnetic intensities even in sedimentary rocks.

This method has been extensively applied in exploration for oil to study the structure and
tectonics of large basins. The major application of the method to ground-water studies has been
to delineate aquifers like basalts and to determine the configurations of basement rocks
underlying water- bearing sedimentaries (see Zohdy et al., 1974), folds and faults. Dykes which
control the movement of ground water have often been successfully identi- fied and mapped.
Weathered zones in crystalline rocks are usually less magnetic than the parent rocks due to the
alternation of magnetite to less magnetic or non-magnetic minerals. Where electrical resistivities
of formations are alike, the magnetic method can be applied to trace formation boundaries
provided there is sufficient contrast in magnetic intensities.

The method has the advantage that it can be applied more rapidly and less expensively than most
other surface geophysical methods. Its use, how- ever, is restricted in urban areas where
distortions in the natural magnetic field may be caused as a result of the extensive use of iron and
steel for constructional purposes, water-supply, etc. Aeromagnetic surveys have been proved to
be effective for rapid reconnaissance survey of sendimentary basins.

SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Geophysical logging consists of lowering sensing element called sonde into a well or bore hole
(Figure 4.15) and recording its output to produce a depth trace or log (Figure 4.16) of the
parameter in question. Logging techniques (including self-potential, resistivity, gamma, neutron,
gamma'-gamma, temperature and caliper log) are finding increased application in the water-well
industry. Self-potential and resistivity logging, collectively called electric logging, are among the
most commonly used techniques.
Self-potential Logging

A log of self or spontaneous potential (SP) is obtained by recording the naturally occurring
voltage difference between an electrode that is placed in the surface soil near the bore hole and
another electrode that is lowered into the hole. The hole must be uncased and is filled with
drilling fluid when the SP log is to be obtained . Variations in the recorded voltage difference
will occur as the hole electrode passes through formations. These variations are due to
electrochemical effects between dissimilar layers, different streaming potentials and other electro
kinetic effects associated with the movement of water through various layers. The resulting
recorder trace thus serves as a fairly accurate indicator of the depth of discontinuities and types
of materials existing.

The right-side boundary of a SP-log is called shale line as shown in Figure 4.16. it indicates
impermeable beds like clays, shale and other rocks. The output of the recording potentiometer is
so arranged that the shale line represents the zero or reference potential, so that the recorder
output to the right of the shale line is positive and to the left of the shale line is negative. The
left-side boundary of the recorder tracing is called sand line and it represents more permeable
strata such as sands, gravels, sandstones, and rock with secondary porosity. Any negative
deviation from the shale line may indicate a permeable . stratum, particularly if the deviation
extends only over a short depth interval. For some strata, such as sand aquifers containing water
with a very low salt content, the SP trace may move to the positive or right side of the shale line.
The self-potential becomes more negative with increasing salt content of the formation water,
thus, also indicating zones of saline water.
Resistivity Logging

To obtain a log of apparent resistivities of formations an alternating current is applied to two

electrodes and the potential difference between these electrodes or two other electrodes is
measured with a recording potentiometer. Total current is measured with an ammeter. Various
electrode arrangements are used, the simplest being the single-point electrode where one current
electrode is placed in the surface soil near the well and the other is lowered into the bore hole
(Figure 4.15). The hole must be uncased and is usually still filled with drilling mud. The
potential difference is measured between the current electrode in the borehole and a potential
electrode placed in the soil near the well (singly-point device, Figure 4.15).

The resistivity of a water-bearing formation primarily depends on the salt content of the water
and the porosity of the material. Interpretation of resistivity logs usually is most successful when
used in conjunction with self-potential logs. Resistivity value: are highest for dense, solid rock
and lowest for clay and shale layers. Medium resistivities in combination with negative self-
potentials indicate sand aquifers. If the formation material and porosity are known, the measured
resistivity may furnish estimates of the salt content of the formation water.
Gamma ray-logging

Logs of the natural gamma ray emission of various soil/rock strata are obtained by lowering a
gamma-ray detector into the well and recording its output (counts per second). Since gamma rays
pass through metals, the technique can also be used in cased holes. Gamma ray logs, however,
are mainly used to distinguish between clay and non-clay materials. Clays and shale’s contain
much more of the gamma-emitting elements (for example, daughter products of uranium and
thorium) than limestone’s and sands. In this way, gamma logs enhance the usefulness of the
interpretation of electrical logs.

Neutron Logging

Exploration of Ground Water

Neutron logs are obtained by lowering a probe with a fast-neutron source, e.g., 3 mCi of
americium-beryllium, into the bore hole and recording the intensity of the slow neutrons caused
by backscatter and attenuation of the fast neutrons by hydrogen in the surrounding formation.
The intensity of the slow neutrons, which is measured with a detector in the same probe, can then
be related to the water content of the formation material around the probe (Figure 4.16). The
method can be used on both, cased or uncased holes.

Neutron logs yield information about water content and, if the formation is saturated, about
porosity of the material around the well. Measured changes in water content may be helpful in
locating water tables.

Gamma-gamma Logging

Gamma-gamma logs are obtained by lowering a probe with a gamma-radiation source, e.g., 10 to
35 mCi of 60Co, into a bore hole and measuring the intensity of the backscattered and attenuated
gamma rays with a detector in the same probe. This intensity is related to the density of the
surrounding material (Figure 4.16), so that bulk density and porosity of formation material
around the probe can be detected.

Other Logging Techniques

Acoustic Logging: Acoustic logging is also called sonic logging. The method utilizes many
frequencies not audible to the human ear. Basically all acoustic logging devices contain one or
two transmitters that convert electrical energy to acoustic energy. The energy is transmitted
through the bore well and the rock surrounding. The receiver converts the acoustic energy to
electric energy. The tool is constructed so that the shortest path for the acoustic wave is through
the rock surrounding the well and then refracted along the borehole well. The method is used to
locate the positions of inflow of water in the hole.

 Importance of Geophysical methods

  Geophysical methods measure physical properties of materials that can be used to  infer
information about the surface and subsurface of the Earth.
 These minimally invasive to non-invasive methods have been used in oil and mineral 
exploration since the early 1900s and modified over the past several decades to support
the characterization and remediation of contaminated hazardous waste sites.
 Geophysical methods provide both quantitative and qualitative information.  Properties
such as electrical resistance, seismic reflection/refraction, or magnetism can be used to
interpret geologic characteristics such as porosity, permeability, water content of the
formation, and/or mineralogy.
 Geophysical data can also be used to identify the top of bedrock; other geologic 
contacts; geologic features, such as joints and faults; and buried objects, including drums
and other potential subsurface sources of contamination and potential pathways for
contaminant migration (such as more permeable layers in the subsurface).
 Geophysical tools can be used at the ground surface or in boreholes. These tools can  be
deployed on a variety of platforms, depending upon site conditions and data needs. For
example, simple small-scale surveys can use handheld instruments or instruments towed
behind all-terrain vehicles. However, more complex surveys may employ boats or
aircraft.
 Knowledge of the local and regional geologic setting, as well as historical land use, 
should always be considered when interpreting the results of a geophysical survey.
 Because geophysics is an indirect measurement of subsurface features, in some cases  a
survey can return multiple solutions.
 It is necessary in these instances to provide more data (e.g., boring log or other 
geophysics) to constrain the interpretation model. For example, borehole logs can help
distinguish whether seismic velocities indicate a sandstone or a shale; historical land use
information can help identify whether an anomaly might represent a buried tank or
utilities

Laws Existing in India

Past policies in india

The Easement Act, 1882 The need to consider water rights emerges when water resources are
scant and the unbending disposition of clients requires a clear meaning of rights and
qualifications. As per the Indian Easements Act (1882), the government has the sole right to
direct the assortment, confinement and conveyance of the waters of waterways and streams
streaming in natural channels and/or natural lakes or lakes or the water streaming, gathered, kept
or dispersed in/or by any channel developed at the public cost for water system. Numerous
experts have contended that the state might guarantee such a right for the major and medium
waterways and the networks ought to reserve an option to use waters of little streams and minor
streams. It is contended that this approach would prompt a more feasible utilization of water.
Nonetheless, this could bring about questions because of infringements in one another's
jurisdiction .

The Indian Easements Act (1882) presents the proprietor of the land, with the right to gather and
arrange, inside his own limits, all water under the land which doesn't pass in a characterized
channel. This empowers the proprietor to full control of the water underneath his property and he
is allowed to pull out and involve it as he feels fit. In any case, this has prompted a circumstance
where a resourceful rancher can dig further cylinder wells and siphon enormous amounts of
water and consequently deny close by land proprietors from their genuine rights. This has also
brought about the mining of groundwater in many places.

The Merchant Shipping Act, 1970

After the independence to suit the prerequisites of a sea country like India, the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1958 was passed by the Indian Parliament. This Act had made great the
fundamental lack in the previous laws that they didn't accommodate an enrollment of what might
be named as Indian Ships. Certain empowering arrangements were also consolidated in the Act
to speed up the speed of advancement of transportation in the postindependence period. This Act
is separated into 24 parts, each part managing specific parts of shipper delivering like enlistment
of boats, cruising vessels and fishing vessels, National Shipping Board, monitoring of boats,
commitment, release and bringing home of sailors and understudies, security of traveller and
freight ships, control of Indian endlessly transports participated in the drifting exchange, impacts,
counteraction and control of pollution of the ocean by oil from ships, impediment of shipowners'
obligation, the common risk for oil pollution harm and so on .

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 The Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 means to accommodate the duty and assortment of a cess
on water drank by people carrying on specific businesses and by nearby specialists, so as to
expand the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the counteraction and control
of water pollution comprised under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978 For the reasons for
estimating and recording the amount of water consumed, each purchaser will attach water
meters, venturi meters or orifice meters with integrators and recorders in congruity with the
standards set somewhere around the Indian Standards Institution and where no standards have
been set somewhere around that foundation in similarity with so much standard as might be
specified by the Board

Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Cess Act, 2003

Industrial waste is one of the reasons for water pollution. Frequently the waste from the
businesses is being discarded into the waterways which contaminate the stream to a significant
degree. As per Section 2 of this Act, enterprises incorporate any activity or cycle or sewage or
removal treatment or any modern gushing. Section 3 of this Act gives an exclusion to businesses
from imposing cess on those enterprises, which polish off the water beneath as far as possible.
Water gets polluted through the poisonous or non-biodegradable substances while the handling
of these materials is being done in any industry, and such businesses are expected to pay cess
under this law

Indian Laws on water

India has several laws and regulations that govern water resources and their management. Some
of the key laws related to water in India are:

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This law aims to prevent and control
water pollution by regulating the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: This law imposes a cess on the
use of water by industries and other users to finance pollution control measures.

The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: This law provides a mechanism for resolving
disputes over the sharing of water resources between states.

The River Boards Act, 1956: This law provides for the establishment of river boards to regulate
and develop water resources and ensure their proper utilization.

The Groundwater (Management and Regulation) Act, 2009: This law regulates the extraction
and use of groundwater and aims to prevent its over-exploitation.

The National Water Policy, 2012: This policy provides a framework for the development and
management of water resources in India, with a focus on ensuring equitable and sustainable use
of water.

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020: This notification provides a
framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of development projects, including
those related to water resources.

In addition to these laws, there are several state-level laws and regulations related to water
management and conservation. The implementation of these laws is overseen by various
government bodies, including the Central Water Commission and the Central Pollution Control
Board. Though there are lots of laws in this regard in spite of that the problems related to the
waters are worsening day by day.

Future of water management in India Water management in India is an ongoing challenge due to
several factors such as rapid urbanization, climate change, and increasing demand for water. The
future of water management in India depends on various factors, including government policies,
community participation, and technological advancements. And the steps that need to be taken to
ensure sustainable water use.

Government Policies: The government plays a critical role in managing water resources in rural
India. In recent years, the Indian government has launched several initiatives to address the water
crisis, such as

National River Rejuvenisation Mechanism:

Recently the National Green Tribunal (NGT) directed the ministry of Jal Shakti to devise an
appropriate National River Rejuvenisation Mechanism for effective monitoring of steps to curb
pollution and for rejuvenisation of all polluted rivers stretched across the county.

National Water Policy2012: It aims to take cognizance of the existing situation, to propose a
framework for creation of the system of laws and institutions and for plan of action with unified
national perspective

National Water Mission 2010: It ensure integrated water resource management leading to water
conservation, less wastage, equitable distribution forming better policies

The Government of India has established National Water Mission as one of the eight National
Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. The main objective of NWM is
“conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both
across and within States through integrated water resources development and management”.
NWM has identified five goals as under:

 Goal 1: Comprehensive water data base in public domain.

 Goal 2: Assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources.
 Goal 3: Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, augmentation and
preservation, and Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas.
 Goal 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%.
 Goal 5: Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

National River Conservation Program (NRCP): The National River Conservation Plan
(NRCP) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests aims at preventing pollution of rivers and
improving water quality.

Jal Jeevan Mission: Since August 2019 the Indian Government has been working with the states
to carry out the Jal Jeevan Mission which aims to provide drinkable tap water to every rural
home in India by 2024 including those in habitation where the water quality is poor.

The Jal Shakti Abhiyan and the National Rural Drinking Water Programme : These initiatives
aim to provide safe and clean drinking water to rural communities and ensure the sustainable use
of water resources.36 The future of water management in rural India depends on the
effectiveness of these initiatives and the government’s commitment to addressing the water
crisis. The government needs to invest in infrastructure such as dams, canals, and reservoirs to
ensure water availability during times of drought. The government also needs to develop policies
that promote water conservation, such as rainwater harvesting and wastewater treatment.

Central Water Commission

 It is a premier technical organization in the country regarding water resources.

 It is responsible for initiating, coordinating, and advancing schemes to control, conserve,
and utilize water resources across the country.
 This includes flood control, irrigation, navigation, drinking water supply, and water
power development in consultation with the concerned State Governments.

The evolution of water policies in India reflects the country’s growing awareness and response to
the complexities of water management. The National Water Policy, 2012, and the draft revisions
highlight the importance of treating water as an economic good, ensuring equitable distribution,
and integrating modern techniques for efficient use. As India faces new challenges, including
climate change and dwindling water resources, the proposed National Water Policy aims to
address these issues through innovative solutions, community participation, and enhanced
regulatory frameworks. By focusing on conservation, efficiency, and resilience, India can
achieve its water management goals and secure a sustainable future for its water resources.

WATER FOOTPRINT

The water footprint of a product is an empirical indicator of how much water is consumed and
polluted, when and where, measured over the whole supply chain of the product. The water
footprint is a multidimensional indicator, showing volumes but also making explicit the type of
water use (consumptive use of rainwater, surface water or groundwater, or pollution of water)
and the location and timing of water use. The water footprint of an individual, community or
business, is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the 162 The Water
Footprint Assessment Manual goods and services consumed by the individual or community or
produced by the business. The water footprint shows human appropriation of the world’s limited
freshwater resources and thus provides a basis for discussing water allocation and issues that
relate to sustainable, equitable and efficient water use.

Water footprint is environmental indicator that measures the volume of fresh water needed to
produce goods and services demanded by society. It enables us to determine magnitude of the
impact generated by human activity and obtain objective data. More sustainable decisions can
then be made to reduce the consumption of water and increase water efficiency.
The concept of water footprint was coined in 2002 by the researchers A. Hoekstra and M.
Mekonnen from the University of Twent in The Netherlands. According to the Water Footprint
Network's ranking, currently the top five countries with the largest water footprint per capita are:

1. Mongolia: 10,000 liters of water per person per day

2. Nigeria: 9,600 liters
3. Bolivia: 9,500 liters
4. United Arab Emirates: 8,600 liter
5. United States: 7,800 liters
According to Official organizations in Spain the main productive sectors (agriculture, live stock,
forestry, industry etcetera across it’s different regions represent an “intense” use of water
amounting to 6700 litres per person per day
So, what is known as water footprint? In order to calculate this, the internal water footprint (the
water used for producing goods and services consumed by the population) and external water
footprint (the water used in other countries to produce goods and services) were taken into
account

Types of water footprint

If I look further into it, there are 3 types of water footprint that we are aware of depending on
where the water comes from:

Green water footprint

This is the water that is superficially stored in the soil or on plants such as water from rain or
snow. The green water footprint calculates volume of water used in agricultural horticultural and
forestry products.

The green water footprint is an indicator of the human use of so-called green water. Green water
refers to the precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the groundwater but is stored
in the soil or temporarily stays on top of the soil or vegetation. Eventually, this part of
precipitation evaporates or transpires through plants. Green water can be made productive for
crop growth (but not all green water can be taken up by crops, because there will always be
evaporation from the soil and because not all periods of the year or areas are suitable for crop
growth). The green water footprint is the volume of rainwater consumed during the production
process. This is particularly relevant for agricultural and forestry products (products based on
crops or wood), where it refers to the total rainwater evapotranspiration (from fields and
plantations) plus the water incorporated into the harvested crop or wood. The green water
footprint in a process step is equal to:

WF proc,green = Green Water Evaporation + Green Water Incorporation [volume/time]

Blue water footprint

This is the water stored in large masses, from surface and groundwater sources, such as rivers,
lakes, and aquifers. A blue water footprint calculates the volume of water consumed resulting
from irrigated agriculture industry in domestic use.

The blue water footprint measures the amount of water available in a certain period that is
consumed (in other words, not immediately returned within the same catchment). In this way, it
provides a measure of the amount of available blue water consumed by humans. The remainder,
the groundwater and surface water flows not consumed for human purposes, is left to sustain the
ecosystems that depend on the groundwater and surface water flows.

The blue water footprint in a process step is calculated as:

WFproc,blue = BlueWaterEvaporation + BlueWaterIncorporation + LostReturnflow

[volume/time]
The last component refers to the part of the return flow that is not available for reuse within the
same catchment within the same period of withdrawal, either because it is returned to another
catchment (or discharged into the sea) or because it is returned in another period of time

Grey Water footprint (Water Quality)

The grey water footprint refers to the volume of water that is required to assimilate waste,
quantified as the volume of water needed to dilute pollutants to such an extent that the quality of
the ambient water remains above agreed water quality standards.

It refers to the volume of fresh water required to dilute the load of pollutants from production
processes until a concentration below the maximum allowed by the regulations in force is
achieved.

The grey water footprint is calculated by dividing the pollutant load (L, in mass/time) by the
difference between the ambient water quality standard for that pollutant (the maximum
acceptable concentration Cmax, in mass/volume) and its natural concentration in the receiving
water body (Cnat, in mass/volume).

L volume
WFproc,grey = [ ]
Cmax−Cnat time

The blue water footprint shows the volume that has been effectively taken out of the total run-off
flow, so it shows the ‘appropriated tap capacity’. The grey water footprint shows the
‘appropriated waste assimilation capacity’.
Calculation of water footprint

There's no mathematical formula that can be applied to all cases to determine the water footprint
of an individual consumer, good, service, or specific geographical area. Depending on the
calculation to be performed and the activity sector at stake, there are two methodologies that can
be applied

On the one hand, the Water Footprint Network's methodology is based on calculating the water
used (including the water needed to dilute the discharge of pollutants to meet environmental
standards). In this case, there are three different types of water footprint as previously seen: blue
and green for quantifying the consumption of water and gray to calculate the pollution level.

On the other hand, the ISO 14044 standard's methodology is an environmental tool for assessing
the impact a product, packaging, or process has throughout its entire life cycle. It's divided into
four phases:

 Goal and scope definition

 Inventory analysis of the water footprint
 Impact assessment of the water footprint
 Interpretation of results
Regardless of the methodology chosen to calculate the water usage, it's very important to check
each link of the production and supply chain to ensure that the results are as objective as
possible. Thanks to these calculations, a realistic representation is obtained in order to take
specific actions aimed at achieving a more sustainable use of water.

Freshwater availability on Earth is determined by annual precipitation above land. One part of
the precipitation evaporates and the other part runs off to the ocean through aquifers and rivers.
Both the evaporative flow and the runoff flow can be made productive for human purposes. The
evaporative flow
can be used for crop growth or left for maintaining natural ecosystems; the green water footprint
measures what part of the total evaporative flow is actually appropriated for human purposes.
The run-off flow – the water flowing in aquifers and rivers – can be used for all sorts of
purposes, including irrigation, washing, processing and cooling. The blue water footprint
measures the volume of groundwater and surface water consumed (in other words, withdrawn
and then evaporated or incorporated into a product). The grey water footprint measures the
volume of water flow in aquifers and rivers polluted by humans. In this way, the green, blue and
grey water footprint measure different sorts of water appropriation. When necessary, one can
further classify the water footprint into more specific components. In the case of the blue water
footprint, it can be considered relevant to distinguish between surface water, renewable
groundwater and fossil groundwater. In the case of the grey water footprint, it can be considered
valuable to distinguish between different sorts of pollution. In fact, preferably, these more
specific pieces of information are always underlying the aggregate water footprint figures.

Sustainability assessment

A sustainability assessment on water management evaluates how effectively water resources

are conserved, used, and governed in a way that meets current needs without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet theirs. This assessment typically includes environmental,
social, and economic dimensions. Here's a comprehensive breakdown:

Sustainability has an environmental dimension as well as a social and economic dimension.

• Environmental sustainability: Water quality should remain within certain limits. As an indicator
of what these limits are, one can best consider‘ ambient water quality standards’ that people have
agreed upon. In addition, river and groundwater flows should remain within certain limits
compared to natural run-off, in order to maintain river and groundwater dependent ecosystems
and the livelihoods of the people that depend on those ecosystems. In the case of rivers, the so-
called ‘environmental flow requirements’ form boundaries for run-off alteration, comparable to
the way in which water quality standards form boundaries for pollution (Richter, 2010). In the
case of green water, the ‘environmental green water requirements’ form the boundaries for green
water appropriation for human purposes.

• Social sustainability: A minimum amount of the freshwater available on Earth needs to be

allocated to ‘basic human needs’, most notably a minimum domestic water supply for drinking,
washing and cooking and a minimum allocation of water to food production to secure a
sufficient level of food supply to all. This criterion implies that only the fraction of available
freshwater supply that remains after subtraction of environmental water needs and water
requirements to sustain basic human needs can be allocated to ‘luxury’ goods. A minimum
domestic water supply for drinking, washing and cooking needs to be guaranteed at the
catchment or river basin level. A minimum allocation of water to food production is to be
secured at global level, since river basin communities are not necessarily self-sufficient in food,
provided that food security is ensured through food imports.

• Economic sustainability: Water needs to be allocated and used in an economically efficient

way. The benefits of a (green, blue or grey) water footprint that results from using water for a
certain purpose should outweigh the full cost associated with this water footprint, including
externalities, opportunity costs and a scarcity rent. If this is not the case, the water footprint is
unsustainable. When the green, blue or grey water footprint in a catchment does not fulfil one of
the criteria of environmental, social or economic sustainability

1. Environmental Sustainability
  Water Availability and Scarcity: Analyzes renewable water supply (surface and
groundwater), seasonal variability, and over-extraction trends.
 Ecosystem Health: Considers impacts on aquatic ecosystems, wetland preservation,
biodiversity, and flow regulation.
 Pollution Control: Evaluates sources of contamination (agriculture, industry, urban
runoff), water quality indices, and waste treatment efficacy.
 Climate Resilience: Assesses adaptive measures to droughts, floods, and climate change-
induced hydrological shifts.

2. Social Sustainability

 Equitable Access: Investigates distribution equity across urban-rural divides, income

levels, gender, and marginalized communities.
 Water Governance: Reviews the effectiveness, transparency, and inclusiveness of local,
regional, and national water policies and institutions.
 Public Health and Sanitation: Assesses the availability of safe drinking water and
sanitation infrastructure.
 Community Participation: Examines stakeholder involvement in planning, decision-
making, and conflict resolution.

3. Economic Sustainability

 Efficiency of Use: Looks at agricultural, industrial, and municipal water-use efficiency,

including water-saving technologies and reuse.
 Cost Recovery and Affordability: Balances the economic sustainability of water
utilities with fair pricing for users.
 Infrastructure Investment: Reviews funding adequacy, lifecycle maintenance of supply
systems, and innovation in water-saving infrastructure.
 Water-Energy Nexus: Considers the energy required for water extraction, treatment,
distribution, and reuse.