Chapter 5 - Fundamental Unit of Life - Notes

A) Cell - A Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life. It is called a structural unit
because all living organisms are made up of cells, and it is a functional unit because it is the
smallest structure capable of performing basic life processes.
Two postulates of the cell theory are
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. All cells originate from pre-existing cells.
B) B) Who discovered cell-It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
Other discoveries about the cell are:
a) Robert Brown –Nucleus of the cell in 1831
b) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – Free living cells in pond water (bacteria) in 1674
c) Purkinje – Fluid substance of the cell (Protoplasm) in 1839
d) J.E.Virchow- Expanded cell theory (all cells arise from pre-existing cells) in 1855
e) M.J. Schleiden and T. Schwann – Gave cell theory (cell is the basic unit of life) in 1838-39
f) The discovery of the electron microscope in 1940 helped to understand the complex
structure of the cell and its organelles.
C) What are cell organelles?
Each cell has certain basic components within it known as cell organelles. Each kind of cell
organelle performs a special function that is why a cell can live and perform all its functions
in any organism. These organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
D) Basic components of a cell- Plasma membrane, Nucleus, and cytoplasm.
E) PLASMA MEMBRANE:
a) It is the outermost layer of an animal cell, while in plants, it lies beneath the cell wall.
b) It gives shape to the cell and provides mechanical support and protection to the inner
contents of the cell.
c) It is a protective covering of the cell.
d) It is called a selectively permeable membrane as it allows the entry and exit of some
materials in and out of the cell.
e) It is a highly flexible, living membrane made up of organic molecules- proteins and lipids.
f) According to the fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer and Nicholson, the plasma
membrane is a dynamic structure comprising proteins and lipids arranged in a bilayer, with
proteins interspersed between the lipid layers.
g) This lipid-protein composition grants flexibility to the membrane.

F) What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?

G) G) What happens when we put an animal cell into a solution of salt or sugar?
Solute + Solvent ---------- SOLUTION
Three things can happen
a) Higher water concentration than a cell in the surrounding medium i.e. the solution is
dilute. Forms a hypotonic solution- Cell gains water and swells up (becomes turgid)-process
is Endosmosis.
b) Lower concentration of water than a cell in the surrounding medium i.e., the solution is
concentrated-forms Hypertonic solution- Cell loses water and shrinks (plasmolysed )-process
is Exosmosis.
c) Same concentration inside and outside the cell-forms. Isotonic solution- No change and
remains a normal cell. Conclusion: Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion through the plasma
membrane, which can be affected by the amount of substance dissolved in water.

H) What is Plasmolysis?
When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is a shrinkage or contraction of
the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is called as PLASMOLYSIS.
I) What is Endocytosis?
It is the process that enables the cell to engulf food and other material from its external
environment. It takes place as the cell membrane is highly flexible. Example – Unicellular
organism Amoeba, acquires its food through this process.

J) What is Cytoplasm- It is fluid medium present within a cell between cell membrane and
nucleus in which all the cell organelles remain suspended. It is the main medium in which all
cellular reactions take place in the cell.
K) NUCLEUS
a) It is known as the brain of the cell as it regulates all major activities of the cell.
b) It is surrounded by double double-layered covering called as nuclear membrane, which has
tiny pores called NUCLEOPORES.
c) The fluid within the nucleus is called NUCLEOPLASM. It contains two types of nuclear
structures- NUCLEOLUS and CHROMATIN.
d) In the nucleoplasm thread like coiled structures are present called chromatin network. They
carry chromosomes which carry genes. They are highly coiled and made up of DNA
molecules.
e) A small spherical structure called NUCLEOLUS is also present within the nucleus which helps
in making RNA (Ribo nucleic acid) molecules. It is a site where ribosomes are formed.
f) When a cell divides the chromatin condenses to form short thread like structures called
chromosomes which are composed of DNA (Deoxy-Ribo Nucleic Acid) and proteins.
g) Nucleus also regulates cell division (formation of cells from one cell), synthesis and storage of
proteins.
h) Functional segments of the chromosomes are called genes, which are the carriers of
hereditary information from one generation to the next.

L) CELL WALL
a) It is composed of cellulose i.e. Complex carbohydrate. It provides structural strength and
rigidity to plants.
 b) It is present only in plant cell, is non-living, fully permeable.
c) It gives proper shape to the cell.
d) It protects aquatic plants living in hypotonic medium by preventing them from bursting.

M) Cytoplasm

• The fluid content/protoplasmic mass of the cell inner to plasma membrane and excluding
nucleus is called cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm has two parts: cytosol and cell organelles.

• Cytosol forms the aqueous, nearly transparent, structureless ground substance inside the
cell.

• Cell organelles are subcellular structures which have characteristic form, structure and
function where certain processes are localized in eukaryotes.

N) Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Endoplasmic reticulum is a complex network of membrane bound channels or sheets,

tubules and vesicles. It does not work alone.

• The ER works closely with the Golgi apparatus and ribosomes. It creates a network of
membranes found through the whole cell.

• Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum ;

• Smooth and Rough Smooth ER/Agranular ER : It has smooth membranes which do not bear
ribosomes. It acts as a storage organelle. It is important in the synthesis and storage of lipids,
fats, and steroids. It is mainly made up of vesicles and tubules.

• Rough ER/Granular ER : It has a rough membrane because a number of ribosomes are

attached to its outer surface. RER is engaged in protein synthesis. It is mainly made up of
cisternae. Tubules are very few.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

• RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to
its surface. The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein
manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell
depending on need, using the ER.
• The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
• Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is
known as membrane biogenesis.
• Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
 • Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network
system.
• One function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially
proteins) between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
• The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the
biochemical activities of the cell.
• In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial role in
detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

O) Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged
approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
• These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER and therefore
constitute another portion of a complex cellular membrane system.

→ Function of Golgi Body

• The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside
and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
• Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In
some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
• The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.

P) Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
• It helps to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell
organelles.
• Lysosomes have membrane-bounded structure whose sacs are filled with digestive
enzymes.

→ Functions of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes break foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food as well as old
organelles into small pieces.
• They contain powerful digestive enzymes which are made in RER which is capable of
breaking down all organic material made in RER.
• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism such as when the cell gets damaged,
lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also
known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

Q) Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
→ Structure of mitochondria
• Mitochondria have two membrane coverings.
• The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
• These folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.

→ Functions of mitochondria
• The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules.
• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for
making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able to
make some of their own proteins.

R) Plastids
• Plastids are present only in plant cells.
• There are three types of plastids:
(i) Chromoplasts (coloured plastids).
(ii) Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
(iii) Chloroplasts (contains the pigment chlorophyll).

→ Structure of Plastids
• The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded
in a material called the stroma.
• Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes like mitochondria and similar to its
structure.

→ Function of Plastids
• Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
• Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
• Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein
granules are stored.
 S) Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
• They are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.

→ Function of vacuoles
• The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
• In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
• Many important substance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles which include
amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
• In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the
Amoeba has consumed.
• In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling
excess water and some wastes from the cell.

T) Cell Division
• Cells are structural and functional units that carry out respiration, nutrition, and waste
disposal.
• Cell division, the process of replicating, is crucial for growth, tissue repair, and reproduction.
• In most cells, division occurs through Mitosis, producing two identical daughter cells. In
reproductive cells, division occurs through Meiosis, producing cells with half the genetic
material necessary for reproduction.