Indian Monsoon

Indian Monsoon
• The word ‘monsoon’ is believed to have originated from the Arabic word for season ‘mawsim’. Monsoons
are basically seasonal winds that reverse their direction according to the change in season. They are
hence, periodic winds.
• The monsoons travel from the sea to the land in summers and from land to the sea during winters, hence,
are a double system of seasonal winds.
• Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon winds as land and sea breeze on a large scale.
• Historically the monsoons have been very important because these winds were used by traders and
seafarers to move from place to place. Though there is monsoon in the Indian subcontinent, central-western
Africa, Southeast Asia, and a few other places, the winds are most pronounced in the Indian subcontinent.

• India gets southwest monsoon winds in the summers and northeast monsoons during the winters. The
former arise because of the formation of an intense low-pressure system over the Tibetan Plateau. The
latter arises due to the high-pressure cells that are formed over the Siberian and Tibetan plateaus.
• South-west monsoons bring intense rainfall to most of the regions in India and north-east monsoons bring
rainfall to mainly south-eastern coast of India (Southern coast of Seemandhra and the coast of Tamil Nadu.).
• Countries like India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the annual rainfall during south-
west monsoon season where as South East China, Japan etc., during north-east rainfall season.
Indian Monsoon [Link]

Mechanism of Indian Monsoon

• The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S. Monsoon is a
complex meteorological phenomenon. The origin of monsoons is not fully understood. There are several
theories that tried to explain the mechanism of monsoons. To understand the mechanism of the monsoons,
the following facts are important.
Thermal Concept
• Halley, a noted astronomer, made a hypothesis that the primary cause of the Indian monsoon circulation
was the differential heating effects of the land and the sea. According to this concept, monsoons are
the extended land breeze and sea breeze on a large scale. During winter the huge landmass of Asia cools
more rapidly than the surrounding oceans with the result that a strong high-pressure centre develops over
the continent. On the other hand, the pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower. As a consequence
the pressure- gradient is directed from land to sea. Therefore there is an outflow of air from the continental
landmass towards the adjacent oceans so that it brings cold, dry air towards the low latitudes.
• In summer, the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed. Now, the huge landmass of Asia heats
quickly and develops a strong low-pressure centre. Moreover, the poleward shift of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a position over Southern Asia reinforces the thermally induced low-pressure
centre. The pressure over the adjacent oceans being high, a seato-land pressure gradient is established. The
surface airflow is, therefore, from the highs over the oceans towards the lows over the heated land. The air
that is attracted into the centers of low pressure from over the oceans is warm and moist.
• Halley’s concept is criticized on the following lines:
• It fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon such as the sudden burst of monsoon, breaks in monsoon, the
spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon. The low-pressure areas are not stationary. The rainfall is not
only convectional but a mix of orographic, cyclonic, and convectional rainfall.

Recent Concept about the Origin of Indian Monsoon

After world war second, the upper atmospheric circulation has been studied significantly. It is now believed that the
differential heating of sea and land alone can’t produce monsoon circulation. Apart from it, the recent concept of
monsoon rely heavily on the role of
• Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier and a source of high-level heat.
• Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
• Existence of upper air circum-polar whirl over north and south poles in the troposphere.
• The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) in the South Pacific ocean
• Walker cell in Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean Dipole

Role of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau

• In the 1970s, it was found that the Tibet plateau plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon circulation. The
plateau of Tibet extends over an area of about 4.5 million sq. km. The average height of these highlands is
4000 m. Due to its enormous height, it receives 2-3oC more insolation than the neighboring areas. The
heating of these areas leads to clockwise air circulation in the middle troposphere and two-wind streams
originate from this area.
One of these wind
streams blows southward
and develops into the
tropical easterly jet
stream (TEJ). The other
stream blows in an
opposite direction
towards the North Pole
and becomes the westerly
jet stream over Central
Asia.
Indian Monsoon [Link]

Role of Jet Stream

• As already discussed, the sub-tropical
westerly jet stream is bifurcated by the
high-land Tibet in winters. The
northward branch extends up to 20N-
35N. Tropical easterly jet stream (TEJ),
that branch off from anticyclone
developed over Tibet, sometimes
reaches to the tip of Peninsular India.
Apart from this, Jet speed winds are also
reported over other parts of Peninsular.
This jet descends over the Indian Ocean
and intensifies its high-pressure cell
known as Mascarene High. It is from this
high-pressure cell that the onshore winds
start blowing towards the thermally
induced low-pressure area, developed in
the northern part of the Indian
subcontinent. After crossing the equator
such winds become south-westerly and
are known as the southwesterly summer
monsoon.

Role of ENSO

• The Indian monsoon is also influenced by EL-Nino, southern oscillation, and Somalian current. We know that
El Nino is the reversal of normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean’s sea surface temperature. Though there is
no direct correlation between bad monsoon and El Nino, but both are generally associated. There are years
when India faced severe drought and those are not El -Nino years and vice-versa. Southern Oscillation is the
see-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific oceans. The oscillation
has a period varying from 2-7 years. It is measured with Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) by measuring the
pressure difference between two points in the Pacific Ocean (Tahiti and Darwin). A negative value of SOI
implies high pressure over the north Indian Ocean during the winter season and a poor monsoon.

• The Somalian current changes its direction of flow after every six months. During the North-East Monsoon,
the Somali Current flows to the south-west, while during the South-West Monsoon it is a major western
boundary current, comparable with the

• Gulf Stream. Normally, there remains a low-pressure area along the eastern coast of Somalia. In exceptional
years, after every six or seven years, the low-pressure area in the western Arabian Sea becomes a high-
pressure area. Such a pressure reversal results into a weaker monsoon in India.
Walker Cell
• It is observed that there is an east-west atmospheric circulation over the tropical oceanic regions. Such
circulation in the Pacific Ocean is generally called walker cell. However, many scientists use the term ‘walker
cell’ for all east-west circulations in different oceans. Walker cell is associated with southern oscillation and
its strength fluctuates with that of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). With a high positive SOI, there would
be a zone of low atmospheric pressure over Australia and the Indonesian archipelago. The rising air from this
region deflects in the upper atmosphere in both directions towards Africa and South America. In the Indian
Ocean, the air descends down at a high-pressure zone from where surface winds blow as Southwest
monsoon towards the Indian sub-continent in summers. During La-Nina Indian ocean branch of the walker
Indian Monsoon [Link]

cell gets strengthened and surface winds are more intense. La-Nina condition is generally associated with
good monsoon.

• During the appearance of El-Nino or negative SOI, the ascending branch of the Walker cell shifts to the
central regions of the Pacific Ocean from the western pacific region. In a result, the Indian Ocean cell shifts
towards the east. The surface winds or Southwest monsoon winds are weaker than normal conditions.

Indian Ocean Dipole

• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) also known as the Indian Nino is a coupled Ocean-atmosphere phenomenon
in the Indian Ocean. It is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two areas (or poles,
hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the
eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia. The IOD Involves a periodic oscillation of sea-surface temperatures
(SST), between “positive”, “neutral” and “negative” phases. A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-
surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean region, with a corresponding
cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean—which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of
Indonesia and Australia. The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite conditions, with warmer
water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler and drier conditions in the west.
• The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the El
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean. Positive and negative IOD both have been seen
coupled with La Nina. Thus, there is no direct correlation between IOD and ENSO.

• The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent. Positive IOD which is associated
with warm sea-surface temperatures of the western Indian Ocean is favorable for monsoon.
Indian Monsoon [Link]

Nature of Indian Monsoon

Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to understand the salient features of
the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:
1. Onset and advance of monsoon
2. Rain-bearing systems and the relationship between their frequency and distribution of
3. monsoon rainfall.
4. Break in the monsoon
5. Retreat of the monsoon
Onset and Advance of Monsoon
The differential heating of land and sea is still believed to be the primary cause of the monsoon by many
meteorologists. Low pressure at ITCZ which is located over north India in month of May becomes so intense that
it pulls the trade winds of the southern

• hemisphere northwards (Figure – summer monsoon winds).

These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in
the air circulation over India.
• Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with
them moisture in abundance. With the northwards shift of
ITCZ, an easterly jet stream develops over 15N.
• The rain in the southwest monsoon season begins rather
abruptly. One result of the first rain is that it brings down the
temperature substantially. This sudden onset of the
moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and
lightning is often termed as the “break” or “burst” of the
monsoons.
• Southwest monsoon, first of all, reaches in Andaman-Nicobar
Islands on 15th May. Kerala coast receives it on 1st June. It
reaches Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June.
By 15th of July, Southwest monsoon covers the whole of
India.

Rain Bearing Systems and Distribution of Rainfall

• The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch near
the southernmost end of the Indian Peninsula. Hence, it arrives in India in two branches: the Bay of Bengal
branch and the Arabian Sea branch. First originated in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of
north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which brings rain to the west coast
of India. The latter extends toward a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times
stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch.
• The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three branches:
• A. One branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds climb the slopes of the Western Ghats and
as a result of the orographic rainfall phenomenon, the windward side of Ghats receives very heavy rainfall
Indian Monsoon [Link]

ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm. After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds descend and get heated
up. This reduces humidity in the winds. As a result, these winds cause little rainfall east of the Western
Ghats. This region of low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.

B. Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and
Tapi river valleys, these winds cause rainfall in extensive areas of central India. The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm
of rainfall from this part of the branch. Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of Bengal
branch.

C. A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kutch. It then passes over west
Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal
branch. These two branches, reinforced by each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas.

• The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is, however, related to two factors:
• The offshore meteorological conditions.
• The position of the equatorial jet stream along the eastern coast of Africa.
• The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh. But the
Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian
subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from the south and
southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into two under
the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.
• One branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains. The other branch
moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast, causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch
strikes the Garo and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the
highest average annual rainfall in the world.

• The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because it is situated in the rainshadow area of the
Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon and lies parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest
monsoon.
• The frequency of tropical depressions originating over the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year. The path
of these depressions also keeps changing with the position of the ITCZ, also known as the monsoon trough
(Figure – position of Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the month of January and July). As the axis of
the monsoon trough oscillates with the apparent movement of the sun between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
of Capricorn, there are fluctuations in the track and direction of these depressions, and the intensity and the
amount of rainfall vary from year to year. The amount of rainfall in north India varies with the frequency of
the tropical depressions. On average, one to three depressions are observed every month and the life span
of one depression is about one week.
• The rain which comes in spells displays a declining trend from west to east over the west coast, and from the
southeast towards the northwest over the North Indian Plain and the northern part of the Peninsula.
Rajasthan desert receives low rainfall in spite of being in the path of the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon.
This branch blows parallel to the Aravalis mountain chain without obstruction and thus, does not release
moisture here.
Break in the Monsoon
• During the southwest monsoon period after having rained for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as a break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common during the rainy
season. These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons:
• In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the
monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
• Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.

Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)

• During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough
or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-
pressure system. The southwest monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning
of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The months of October November form a
period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by
Indian Monsoon [Link]

clear skies and a rise in temperature. While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The
land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, the
mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India.

• The low-pressure conditions, over northwestern India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early
November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the
Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread rain.
These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna,
and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes,
these cyclones arrive at the coasts of Orissa, West Bengal, and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of the
Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones.
Features of Monsoon Rainfall
1. Monsoon rain is seasonal in character which occurs between June and September.
2. Spatial distribution of rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance the windward side of
the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the northeastern states can
be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern Himalayas. Rainfall ranges from 20 cm in western Rajasthan
to more than 400 cm in certain parts of Western Ghats and North-East India.
3. The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Rainfall decreases from
east to west in plains as one branch of monsoon enters from eastern side. Kolkata receives 119 cm,
Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm only.
4. Breaks (discussed above) in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly formed at the head of the
Bay of Bengal, and their crossing into the mainland. Besides the frequency and intensity of these
depressions, the passage followed by them determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
5. The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage to standing crops and
making the sowing of winter crops difficult.

Monsoons and the Economic Life in India

• Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is because about 64
percent of people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on the
southwest monsoon.
• Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperatures above the threshold level to grow the crops
or plants throughout the year.
• Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
• Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on time and adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails,
agriculture is adversely affected mainly in areas where irrigation is not developed.
• Sudden monsoon burst creates the problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.

Monsoon as unifying factors:

• It is already known the way the Himalayas protect the subcontinent from extremely cold winds from central
Asia. This enables northern India to have uniformly higher temperatures when compared to other areas on
the same latitudes.
• Similarly, the peninsular plateau, under the influence of the sea from three sides, has moderate
temperatures. Despite such moderating influences, there are great variations in the temperature conditions.
• Nevertheless, the unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The
seasonal alteration of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions provide a rhythmic cycle of
seasons. Even the uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much typical of the monsoons.
• The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire agricultural calendar, and the life of the people,
including their festivities, revolve around this phenomenon. Year after year, people of India from north to
south and from east to west, eagerly await the arrival of the monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the
whole country by providing water to set the agricultural activities in motion. The river valleys which carry
this water also unite as a single river valley unit.