INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 System Overview 1
2 Understanding Rectifier with C-filter 3
3 Setting up gEDA, ngSpice and Octave 15
4 Simulation walk-through : Rectifier C-filter example 23
5 Designing the rectifier capacitor filter circuit 35
6 Startup surge limiting 49
Week 2
7 DC-DC converter concepts 58
8 Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost Converters 69
9 Simulation Example of Buck Converter 80
10 Understanding Buck Converter 91
11 Understanding Boost and Buck-Boost 101
12 Forward Converter Topology 112
13 Waveforms and Design 121
Week 3
14 Simulation of Forward Converter 129
15 Forward Converter with Lossless Core Reset 147
16 Transformer Design 157
17 Inductor Design 170
18 Flyback Converter Topology 176
Week 4
19 Pushpull Converter 184
20 Half and Full Bridge Converters 196
21 Close Loop Operation of Converters 200
22 Simulation examples 206
23 Multi-Output Converters 219
24 Concluding Remarks 227
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 01
System Overview

Good morning to all of you, in this video capsule we shall see a bird's eye view of the
DC-DC converter system.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

Consider a load such as this. This load is supposed to get only a DC voltage. The DC
voltage can be given by a DC source such as this. The DC source that we have used is a
battery, however the battery and the load maybe incompatible. For example, the battery
maybe a 12 volt battery or 24 volt battery or 48 volt battery and the load maybe a 5 volt
load. In such a case the battery cannot be directly connected to the load which expects of
high volt.

We need to have a power interface between chord and DC-DC converter and this was the
focus of optic and this is what we are supposed to do and design. However, in most cases
the input may not be a battery, the input maybe the AC grid itself. If it is the AC grid,

1
then the input wave shape will be an alternating bidirectional voltage wave shape 230
volts rms.

Now, this is not directly compatible to the DC-DC converter input. Therefore, we need to
do a further power conversion for this particular wave shape, that is we rectify it using a
rectifier and make the wave shape into a unidirectional wave shape. This unidirectional
wave shape is highly varying and the system further not compatible directly to be given
to the input of the DC-DC converter. So, we use another interface called the filter. The
job of the filter is to transform this highly varying unidirectional voltage into a low ripple
unregulated voltage. This low ripple unregulated voltage is fed to the input of DC-DC
converter. This gets transformed into a high quality DC output which can be fed to the
particular application of the load which expects a pure DC. (Refer Time: 02:46).

If you look at the rectifier, rectifier is nothing but a simple diode. It may be a half bridge
rectifier or a full bridge rectifier, but we shall discuss the most popular rectifier which is
used in most of the products today which is the full bridge rectifier. This would be
followed by a filter which could be LC filter or inductor capacitor filter or just C filter.
Here again we shall discuss the C filter which is the one which is most widely used in
most of the products.

In the case of the DC-DC converters the main components in it are the MOSFET or
IGBT or (Refer Time: 03:36) some power semiconductor switch there will be capacitors
and there will be inductors. So, all these major components will be together in specific
topologies to achieve specific outputs which we will discuss later on in this course.

The objective of this particular course is the DC-DC converter design. However, in the
initial stages or initial process we shall discuss the rectifier and filter because we need to
obtain DC output. The DC output at this point so that can be fed to the input of the DC-
DC converter from the source, the wall outlet source which is a 230 volt AC voltage.

So, the initial discussion this week will focus on the rectifier and filter design.

2
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture - 02
Understanding Rectifier with C-filter

In this video capsule, we shall look at Rectifiers and Capacitor filter. We will be focusing
on the full bridge rectifier and only the capacitor filter for the filtering circuit. We should
understand that there are many circuits that convert ac to dc; however, the full bridge
rectifier capacitor filter combination is one of the most popular ac to dc converter that
you will find and you will find it almost in every product. Even though the full bridge
rectifier combination has lot of disadvantages, like very low power factor, it draws peaky
currents and things like that, it has the advantages like very low component count, low
cost and very high volumetric efficiency-It is very compact.

Because of these, it has become very popular and we will study this particular circuit and
later on I will describe to you some other problems, you will encounter with the circuit
and the corrections needed and protections needed to handle those issues and probably
later on when, we talk about dc-dc converter, I will also talk about the power factor
improvement techniques and methods.

So, now we will talk about the rectifier circuit- its operation and the wave forms.

3
(Refer Slide Time: 02:01)

So, first let us start with the source. The source is generally the wall outlet 230 volts, 50
hertz grid, it is sinusoidal in voltage wave shape and this needs to interfaced by load
which expects unidirectional voltage wave shape. The key point here is that through the
load, the current should always flow in the same direction whatever may be the polarity
of the source. Let us now interface the diodes, step by step. First, when the source is
having a polarity, positive polarity, this is positive with respect to the other terminal.
Diodes need to be connected in this direction such that the current flow completes as
shown here. Notice the current flow direction here through the load, which is in this
direction.

Now, let us say that polarity of the source is reversed, now it is in the blue signal level.
These 2 diodes will become reversed biased and turn off. I will explain a little later. Let
us first see the current flow direction. This is positive with respect to this. So, you will
see that here, this is positive during the negative half and the flow of current will be in
this direction and again entering here at the same point terminal through the load resistor
and then, comes back to the source. Note again here, importantly that the current
direction has been retained. Thereby, you will see that the voltage across the load is uni-
directional, whether the source voltage is positive or negative.

4
Now, let me just tell you how this diode gets reversed biased here. So, you saw that when
the blue color diodes are conducting, this is positive with respect to this terminal. So,
when this blue diode is conducting this terminal, this point is at a positive potential with
respect to this. So, this diode sees a reverse biased voltage-reverse voltage. Therefore, it
is reversed biased and is off. Likewise, this point is at the positive potential compared to
this point. Again this diode sees the reverse voltage and it is reversed biased and in the
off situation.

By similar argument it can be seen that the other 2 diodes, that is, this diode and this
diode will be turned off when the voltage polarity is positive, when this is positive with
respect to this. So, these other 2 diodes will be conducting and will make these 2 diodes
go off.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:00)

So, the total schematic of the rectifier is like this, as shown. Now to this we have to
connect a filter, because this is a varying voltage, we need to connect a filter. It is a
simple matter of connecting a capacitor like this as shown. This is a capacitor C.

5
Now, this capacitor will act as a filter and try to pass current through the load which is
more or less like a dc. Now this point may be interesting to see some real components of
the rectifier and the capacitors.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:02)

I would like to show you some common rectifier diodes. Now this is a very common
rectifier diode used in most of the products 1N4001 and 1N4007 kind of series kind of
diodes. It can handle just about 1 amp or so. And pretty popular and common. They
come strips like this and then, you will be mounting 4 of them to form a full bridge
rectifier like this. You also have these smaller diodes these are 1N4148 type diodes,
much smaller, handles only around 500 milliamps or 800 milliamps in that range for
much smaller circuits.

You have some FR series high amps higher amps 1 also you see here, this is the 1N11.
Which I am right now showing is around 3 amps range FR series diode, rectifier diodes
can be used for rectification and then, this is a 6 amp diode what I am right now
showing. So, these can also be used for rectification. An interesting thing here, I would
like to show you this you see this is full bridge rectifier complete. It is having four diodes
within it. So, 2 of the leads are connected to the ac and 2 of the leads are connected to the

6
unidirectional port that is plus minus and to that unidirectional port; that means, you
connect a load resistor and a filter capacitor.

So, this comprises 4 diodes within is a full bridge rectifier component available to you.
Another interesting piece is this you will see here it is having 5 pins this is actually a 3
phase rectifier. You connect the A phase, B phase, C phase to these 3 terminals and then
you can take the plus and the minus outputs from these and connect the capacitor and the
load at this point. This is a 3 phase rectifier and you will see that the back side there is a
aluminum phasing, which can be used for connecting to the heat sink for thermal
regulation. So, the heat sink can be of this type like or any other type depends upon the
design and one will mount it in this fashion to get the better thermal flow.

So, like this rectifiers I have few capacitors also to show to you. So, these are the
aluminum electrolytic capacitors which will be used. In the smaller ones you will use this
kind of aluminum electrolytic capacitors the one with the line mark is the negative
polarity usually and slightly bigger one with this is 4700 micro farads this is also an
aluminum electrolytic. Most of the time it is aluminum electrolytic that will be used. I
have still bigger one normally used as dc link capacitors in high powered circuits in
inverts and things like that 1 where there are terminal lugs you connect the lugs there and
this is from aerovox. This is 450 volt dc, high voltage and thousand micro farads
capacitor this is also an aluminum electrolytic. Yeah these are some of the components
actually you see these are the 2 sets of components that will be using in the rectifier
circuits. yeah back to the circuiting.

7
(Refer Slide Time: 10:55)

So, we have the full bridge rectifier and the capacitor connected as a filter here across the
load. Now let us name the parts. We will call the input source as Vin. diode D1 and diode
D4 connect during the positive half cycle of the input diode D2 and diode D3 conduct
during the negative half cycle of Vin. There is a capacitor C and a load Ro for now, we
have put a resistive load. The point that is of interest is here and that is called Vc. Vc or
voltage across the capacitor is of importance to you because that is the voltage that the
load will also be seeing and this will actually be the filtered voltage. Another point of
interest or points of interest are the 3 currents that flow at this node. This is the current
coming out of the rectifier. This is the current that flows into the capacitor and this is the
current that flows into the load.

So, here we expect that, at this point, the current to be a dc and around here, we expect
the current to be spiky, peaky current. Here, through the capacitor, we expect the current
to have gone down by the load current value, something like that. Anyway we will
discuss this current wave shape in more detail in the slides to come, but this is generally
the idea that I want to convey-that this is a current which is having an average value plus
an AC component. The average value part goes into the load resistor and the AC
component part the one which does not have AC average value- zero average value flows
through the capacitor. We must know that in the steady state, the capacitor can handle

8
only a pure AC current. There should not be an average value otherwise there will be
charge build up.

So, under steady state the zero average part of the current or the only the ac component
flows through the capacitor. So, that it is the action of the filter.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:46)

Now let us see the wave form in detail. Before that let us name the parts. So, the current
that is coming out of the rectifier we will call it as I the current that goes through the
capacitor as Ic the current that flows into the load Ro as Io. Let us have this template.
This is the sine wave shape of each rectified half. So, this is the positive half of the input
source this is the negative half of the input source, rectified and placed in this fashion the
unidirectional fashion.

Let us start from this point-this peak point as a reference and then, we will come back to
it and extend it and let us say it is in the steady state which means that there is some
charge accumulated in the capacitance. So, if I say we are starting at this point, the
voltage of the capacitance will also be of this value Vm. So, at this point the capacitor is
discharging through the load with some time constant. So, there is the discharge part of
the capacitance; whereas, the input wave shape is following this path. So, if you look at

9
the diodes in the full bridge, the node voltage here is higher and the voltage on input side
is lower and all the diodes are reversed biased and off.

So, during this part and up to this part you do not see any diode conducting because they
are reversed biased and the capacitor portion is isolated from the input portion. So, the
capacitor is discharging on it is own till it reaches at this point when the input wave
shape has taken a turn and it is rising up. The moment the input rises beyond this, the
diodes conduct.

So, in this case the blue color diodes conduct and the capacitor follows the input the
moment the diodes conduct the capacitor node point is directly connect to the source and
it will just follow the source, up to this point and then again after this point the red
repeats and you will see the capacitor discharging in this fashion and the moment
capacitor starts discharging like this and the input also starts to flow down along the
sinusoidal path, you will see there is a difference in potential, the diodes are reversed
biased and they turn off. Likewise and this would be the steady state wave form wave
shape for the output at node Vc. So, this is also the ripple that the output would see
across the load and this ripple is controllable through design we will see that later.

Now, if you see only during this portion we see conduction in the diode only during this
portion we see conduction of the diode. So, let us mark that all and during that only we
will see the current here current I flowing. So, what would be the type of the current? So,
the moment the diodes turn on at this point, voltage source is seen connected to a
capacitance. So, that is direct connection of two potential devices. So, there will be a
huge current rise here and it is limited only by the track inductance,e diode impedance
and any ESR of the capacitance etc only these kind of non idealities only will limit the
current. So, the current wave shape will be something like this, it will have a very sharp
rise and it will have a time constant based on only the series impedance coming in the
path.

Now, this current will repeat every half cycle as shown here what happens during the
first cycle when the capacitance starts charged? We will look a bit later. Let us first
clarify the other components of the current.

10
(Refer Slide Time: 18:19)

Now, we see that this is the wave shape of the voltage with a ripple and this is the current
that is flowing output of the rectifier just before the filter. Now during this time, D1 and
D4 are conducting and other 2 diodes are conducting during this peak D2 and D3. So,
basically this would form the diode currents and if you calculate, if you draw the wave
form of the input current this is the wave shape during the positive half cycle and during
the negative half cycle, this would be in reverse like this.

Now, this is the wave shape for the input current.

11
(Refer Slide Time: 19:31)

Now, let us look at the load current and the capacitor currents. now the load current will
follow the voltage at that node Vc node. So, that Vc value divided by R will be the Io
and it will have some ripple as seen here. we can approximate the average is right
through this as shown and for practical purposes. We can take this Io as the current
flowing through the output, ripple free. But be aware that there will be a small ripple.
now if you remove this average component from this I current you will get the current
that flows through the capacitance. So, let us draw the capacitance wave form during this
period of conduction then, you will see that the capacitance current would have gone
down by an amount of Io value as shown here.

In the steady state you should note that this area is equal to this area.

12
(Refer Slide Time: 20:51)

I would now like to revisit the wave forms to discuss about the current during starting.
So, let me remove this part of the wave form now, if you see at the time of starting the
capacitor voltage is 0. So, probably it will be at this level. Now if we apply a voltage and
that voltage is starting at this point, then you see the capacitor built up the charge
gradually from here on up to this point as the capacitor is building up the charge there is
current flow to the rectifier and therefore, the rectifier current will be for this whole half
cycle. So, you see the conduction period will start increasing and will be for the complete
half cycle. likewise the current wave shape also we will get modified something like this.

But if you understand that the capacitance had zero voltages and therefore, zero charge
unlike in the case of the steady state condition at this point the charge of the capacitor
was finite and there was some energy it was only making up the difference energy. Now
this whole energy has to be made up. So, you will probably land up with current wave
form at the first startup value which will be much higher than the following and the
steady state currents. So, this may be the shape of the wave shape you will see from
startup for the currents. But a problem could occur, what if at the time of turn on was not
synchronized with the 0 of the input voltage, but it occurs somewhere here which means
the turn on occurs somewhere at this point and which means that capacitor voltage is 0

13
and the grid voltage is pretty high value and you are connecting two potential devices
together there could be a huge surge current.

So, what happens to the current wave shape the current wave shape might look
something like this, but the amplitude may just go out of the screen it may be a very
large current and then, you will start having the steady state, but the effect would be that
by the time the first cycle is over the current would be. So, large the devices, the diodes
may blow off. If some of the diode is blown off, the rectifier circuit will not see the
second half cycle at all. So, it never even goes beyond the first half cycle.

So, it is very important that we do limit the first current surge. Of course, I will discuss
about the protection circuits and see how we limit the turn on current surges, but keep
this in mind that all is not rosy and all is not well and good with the circuit that, we have
just discussed. The turn on currents are just can be pretty high and it would be a big drain
even on the wall socket outlet they have to be rated for such high currents. Therefore, we
would like to put series impedance somewhere here and limit the current surge.

14
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 03
Setting up gEDA, ngSpice and Octave

In this video capsule we shall look into the installation process for installing the open
source software packages on to our system such that you will be able to make effective
simulation for this course. The plan is to install gEDA software toolset. This is the
electronic design automation toolset and then we shall install ngSpice a very popular
package for circuit simulation and then after this, we shall install octave. Octave is a
MATLAB like environment which is very helpful in scripting and automating many of
your design tasks. So these three set of software packages, we need to install. I will show
you by taking a walkthrough and then configuring the system to our needs.

I have a fedora 23 Linux desktop. So, I will show you by taking a walkthrough the
process in this particular operating system. My students have checked it out on ubuntu
also. So, I guess that it should be fine even in other Linux distributions. On windows, I
have not tried nor have my students tried. So, I am not too aware on how it will perform
on windows. So, I suggest that if anybody of you are trying it on windows that is EDA
ngSpice and Octave, you can try and then let us know how it performs. Or you can use
alternative packages whatever is available on the windows platform. With this, we shall
start now the process of installing these software packages.

We shall begin the installation process by first downloading the resource from the
Google drive this is the fedora desktop and let us open the folders and here I have created
a dc-dc converter folder and within that folder, I have downloaded this [Link]
folder file. This is located in Google drive and the link for this is given in the course
website.

15
(Refer Slide Time: 03:19)

This has two folders and one file [Link] file. There is a bin folder and a symbols
folder. Of course, I will explain to you later what the functions are and how we will use
that one. For now extract that unzip it and within that you see this folder. Readme dot
text gives you a step by step instruction on how to go above this process of installation.
So, open that [Link] file and keep it to one side and all we have to do is follow
through the steps. The commands are given here and you just may have to copy and
paste it if it is a fedora system or equivalently type in the command line commands if it
is (Refer Time: 04:35) system.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

16
Again go to the desktop and open a terminal. Let me adjust the size, so that I will be able
to see that. Now let us copy this and paste it here. It will ask for the password and then
execute it. So, in my case I have already installed all these packages. It will search and
look for the packages in the repository and install them. So, you have a gschem check,
the gschem docs, netlist symbols, utils, gschem, the gEDA, g schematic. This is what we
will be using at great length in this particular course. So, dependency is resolved nothing
to do, everything has been installed. In your case if you are not yet installed gEDA you
will see that it will give a list of packages and ask you whether to install or not. You say
yes and it will get installed.

Next we need to configure gEDA. You can In fact, open g schematics and see what
happens what pops up (Refer Time: 06:03). So, let me type g schem enter and you will
see something like this opens up. There is a status dialog which opens which just gives
you an indication of a the paths which, from where it takes this is the g schematic r c file
where it is located it is located in user share gEDA; however, this need root permission
to modify these files; however, if you want to customize you need to have a copy of
these files in your [Link] folder which I will tell you about shortly. Close this; this is
how the gEDA user interface will look like. This is having a dark background. Some
people may like this background fine, but I would prefer to have a light background and I
would like to have the default g schem opening with a light bg.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

17
Now, here are the components and this is where you have libraries where a list of
components coming here and then you can choose these components to place on to a
sheet. Close this for now; we know that gEDA is installed working and running and it is
opening up. At this point, I would like to configure it. I will show you how to configure it
to make it into a light background one. You may want to change it or you may not want
to change it you may want to retain the dark background, it is up to you, but let me show
you how to go about doing that.

So, you see here in the [Link] file, g netlist, just go through this command syntax
copy and then paste. So, obvious this is just a gEDA command. What it would do, is that
it will create a .gEDA folder in the users root (Refer Time: 08:37) directory and into that
directory is where we would like to have the rc files. So, if I go into home and do
control+ H or alternate the hide, it will show the hidden files with the dot prefix. So, you
see that this has got created .gEDA and in into of this you have logs and a geometry file.
Here we have to put the g schem rc and the gaf rc files anyway. We will come back to
that later and we will see what to do next.

Next we would like to make a gaf directory and this is where we would like to place the
symbols of gEDA. The symbol the custom symbols that we make that has to be placed
within this. So, we will give it a place. So, just copy this and paste it here on to the
terminal and press enter. So, what it would have done now is create this gaf directory gaf.
It is right now empty, but we want to fill it up with symbols; custom symbols. Next we
create within gaf another sub directory called symbols or that is where we shall place our
symbols; copy, paste, enter. This, if 2 than redirect to [Link] is just an indication if
there are any errors to see you can go and look at this log file see what happened there
are no errors nothing will be entered there.

So, now after having run this particular line within gaf you would have this and inside
that let us place the symbols. So, what we shall do, we go into this dc-dc converter folder
and within that we have the resource folder and in that we have the symbols folder. In the
symbols folder there are three sub folders; one is called A block, A bond and A comps. A
block has many symbols associated with add clock gain integration, multiplication, PID,
PWM bridge, PWM single phase, sample and hold SR latch, summations so and so forth.
So, these are custom blocks something more logic oriented not much of power flow and
interesting to have them.

18
I will come to this later. We may not be using this, but anyway I would like to share that
with you. The A comps are the component block the d folder the generic components
capacitor, default diode, a power diode, a source, a flow source, current source, a gyrator
an inductance, power switch, a resistance, SCR, signal switch, a transformer, a
transformer for bridge, another fly back transformer, forward converter transformer, a
push pull transformer and a normal transformer. So, these are symbols which will be
useful this is particularly symbols used for a bond graph simulation. So, people who are
familiar with bond graphs and have done bond graph modeling and simulation, they may
use it, but right now we shall not use it, but; however, I will share this thing, the folder
also with you, you copy all these, copy and go into the gaf, go into symbols and paste
them and now we are in business. We have all the symbols in the proper directory now
we have to assign the proper path.

So, now that we have done that, we will assign the path and create the respective files.
Now there are two commands here; one is a command: component library search, where
it will search through this path: dollar within braces home is an environment variable
which will take root users path then into gaf and into symbols. Now this should be the
path of all the component library search and they should get reflected in your g
schematic when you open it and this is pushed into a file which is residing in .gEDA and
into a gaf rc file if gaf rc is not there it will get created. So, this is your own custom gaf
rc file it will look search for there and then see this and then set the path environment
path. So, we can have this copy and paste it here and run that.

So, once you run that if you go down into the hidden .gEDA file, I have unhidden that.
So, into that you will see that there is a gaf rc file that is created. So, into the gaf rc file
see whatever we have typed. Common library search that would have come in here. So,
when gEDA opens up it will look into this file see this path declaration and then
appropriately remember the path.

Next we would like to make the background light. So, that is this load build par gda
gschem rc into that gschem rc we will put this; g sym color map light bg. So, instead of
dark b g we want a light b g and then put that into .geda gschem rc file. So, we will copy
that and paste it here. So, that would have got entered in there. So, you see here gschem r
c has been created and within that, this has been copied. So, it will look into there and
automatically put in the proper background color.

19
Now, I will do control+H and hide all the doc prefix files so that it does not clutter up the
folders. Now again now you can run gschem. Now you see the background is light. You
see that it takes the rc from the local users .gda directory gschem r c also from the local.
So, which working properly you can open it to full screen. You can use the wheel button
of the mouse to zoom in zoom out and then go into the components now you see that our
custom libraries A block, A bond, components are reflecting here. So, if I open it see they
are all coming in here the symbols and that is very nice and then the component. Now
close this and back again to the terminal. Going back to the [Link] file the next part
of the simulation is installing ngSpice.

So, installing ngSpice is pretty straight forward. You just copy this; dnf install ngSpice
and let me clear this terminal screen, control+L and that is cleared, paste.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

So, sudo (Refer Time: 18:12) now install ngSpice enter the password and of course, in
my case here it is already installed and case you yours is not installed it will save at this
particular package has to be installed whether to install or not click yes and then you will
be through and then after that you need to install tcl spice also though actually you may
not tcl spice there are some libraries in tcl spice that are useful for ngSpice and kindly do
install tcl spice too and here again it is already installed here and then you will get such a
message.

20
So, now ngSpice is also in place and if you want to test that you just type in ngSpice
--help. So, that will give you menu of options and how to use go through that and I
would recommend that would down load the ngSpice manual and read through it if you
are not if you do not know how to spice. It is very very similar to pSpice of the windows.
It is actually a world out of the Berkeley (Refer Time: 19:40) spice and quite universally
used by many people. Look at I just type (Refer Time: 19:51) ngSpice and it will go into
the ngSpice and run. It is ngSpice version 26 plus and developed by Berkeley CAD
(Refer Time: 20:04) group then you have the ngSpice environment prompt.

So, I will quit from this, here knowing that ngSpice is working. And now we have one
more package to install and that is Octave. Octave is a very very powerful tool you
should have that it is an open source equivalent of MATLAB. Sometimes I find it much
more powerful than MATLAB any way that is a good package to have on your system.
Paste it here. I have used dnf install I have used dnf everywhere while during this process
because this fedora 23. Fedora 22 onwards we have to use dnf for the package installer or
the package installer before fedora 22 it used to be yum.

So, people having fedora version earlier than 22 kindly use yum. And in the case ubuntu
people can use the apt get package installer. So, use this press enter and the rest the
package installer will do the job and here again you see everything is already installed
and dependency are resolved nothing else to do. Now, to test whether octave is running
properly or not just type octave; you will now see a gui popping up very nice gui it looks
much like the MATLAB gui this is where the work space window is and this is where
you will probably windows all the work.

So, octave is working this is (Refer Time: 21:57) version four plus. Much of the earlier
versions of the octave they may not have a gui integrated, but it will work on the
terminal just like the ngSpice environment. So, if you want to work in such an
environment which I also prefer you type octave--no gui. So, then you will get it in the
terminal. This is very fast and you will be able to do equivalently good programming
with this terminal environment too.

So, let me quit that and with this we have installed three packages. One is the EDA
Electronic Design Automation. Next is the spice, ngSpice and tcl spice have been
installed and then octave and we have installed it on fedora system. I hope that you will

21
not have a problem in other distributions too kindly follow it and then look into help on
the net too, if you run into problems and there is of course, a forum to discuss. There is
one last job which we need to do which is the step four and that is something which you
need not do, but something that I would like to share and which may be of help.

So, this is not compulsory. So, what I request you to do is if you do not have a bin folder
in your user home create one; create a bin folder. So, you see that a bin folder is created
then go into the dc dc there is this bin folder there are six files here ng plot, ngsim, qplot,
qsim, spice read file and this updatenet.m. So, you just copy all of them and go back
there into the bin and paste. Fine ngsim and qsim should be made executable. They both
are octave scripts. Octave scripts meaning that it starts with the #! user bin octave. So, it
calls-it runs octave directly from the terminal. So, these are useful scripts. I will tell you
of more about this at the time they are needed, but its better you keep it ready.

So, to make these two executable, in the read me file, I have put these two comments.
Change mod u + x qsim. So, they will be made executable. So, what you have to do go
into the terminal cd bin. So, you will see that it has the six files. ch mod u + x ngsim. So,
that will be made executable. ch mod q + x qsim, that also will be made executable. So,
that is it. Your software installation portion is over.

Next, we can start on building our simulation schematics and simulate the circuits. This
portion, this installation portion is one time. So, it is worth putting the effort to do this
work neatly and properly now and then forget about it. Next only you can thing on
circuits and simulation.

22
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 04
Simulation walk-through: Rectifier C-filter example

In this video capsule, we shall take a walk through the simulation process. We shall draw
a schematic and we will take the full bridge rectifier capacitor filter circuit. As an
example, generate the net list and use ngSpice to simulate it, see the way form, plot the
way forms and try to get some inside of the circuit. One thing that you have got to
understand is that simulation is for mature people, the values of the simulation or the
results of the simulation is as good as the models that we put in.

So, remember that many a times we will put kind of idealized model for diodes or the
transistor or various components and expect the simulation to give the waveforms, which
you would get on the oscilloscope for a real system. However, there will be considerable
difference because there are many non-idealities and many of the uncertainties, which we
will not be taking care in the simulation; keep in mind that simulation is to give you good
insight on the concept or the operation of the system. It can be used for design the rating
of the various components, but the real test is when you put them into the hardware;
physical hardware and realize the actual waveforms and results on the real hardware. So,
use the simulation and simulation results with the pinch of salt and use it for
understanding and design purposes.

So, with this kind of limitation you try to go ahead with the simulation. So, let us now
begin this simulation work using gEDA for generating the schematics and ngSpice for
simulating. Let us begin the simulation process by opening the gEDA schematic. Last
time we had used the terminal to open, but we could also go into the show applications
menu. There is the gEDA schematic start up, click a icon, click on that one, you will
have gEDA open up, we have light background gEDA as we have started, set it up last
time, use the mouse wheel to zoom in and out dynamically. So, first let us save it as file
that we can name it as a rectifier dot schematic. So, what we can do is go into file, we do
a save as I have this DC DC here. I have cleaned up DC DC, there is nothing else. We
can name it as [Link]. So, it can be located in that place.

23
(Refer Slide Time: 03:16)

Next, we go to the components and try to draw the components from the libraries. So,
first let us go and draw the circuit components which is the diode, the sources and the
capacitors, load, the Acoms folder library which we had installed; yes in the last section
contains the generic components. You can use it for the most of the simulation because
they are generic models. Let us pick the capacitance, we need that we need a diode, a
power diode, we need 4 of them. So, let us install core I am using ER to rotate the
devices and I will rotate this device too, then we will need load resistance. We will put
one resistance here and I will also need another resistance to act as track resistance,
otherwise you will land up in convergence problems. So, I will place that here you will
see, we will correct it into the circuit then we need to take the source.

So, the resource you can take from the spice simulation elements, library. The source is a
sine source. We will pick a sine source, we also need to pick one more item here there is
spice include directory. We need to include a file which contains the library of models,
custom models that we would be creating. So, we will give a pointer to the file that that
would be our library; our custom library. Next, we need to take from the power rails
library the generic; this is a generic, marking the symbol which can pick out the
potentials of any points of circuit. We will keep on the many a ground symbol, this is
important without a ground symbol spice will not work.

24
So, I think we have most of them in place. So, let us position these elements. So, let me
put the source here, let me have a series impedance, this will be very small impedance.
Let us position the diodes some in the form of a full bridge nature, just position them and
then you can adjust it later on like this. Then one more diode, then we can have the
capacitance positioned like this. Now, I will rotate this load resistor and position it like
this here, this we will leave it for now. Let us draw the wires.

The wires can be drawn using this add nets. So, click on that, now you are in add net
mode, you see it searches and links to this net. Now, I will start putting wires, click-right
click now, I will go here click. right click, click, click, right click, click, click, click,
click, right click I am completing the wiring by right clicking. click, click, right click,
click, right click and so on. You make the connection for the diodes too, the diodes is a
sub circuit model that is why we have an x mark, x at the beginning. All sub circuits will
have x at the beginning. Then the source is connected to the central portion of the bridge
and we have the circuit in place. Change over the cursor.

Now, the ground we could probably, See ground is a virtual concept, it is just a
recurrence or the zero node with respect to which the voltage is measured. If you keep
the ground here then when you measure this node you will get directly the output
voltage. We give the ground here then you will have to get the output, voltage will have
to take voltage of this minus the voltage of this node. That is something which you
already know-circuit analysis.

Now, let us place these labels here. Placing these labels are important because when you
run the simulation in spice, the net list are generated according to the labels that you
would provide. If you do not provide the labels, then it will assign sub numbers. Then, it
will be difficult for you to keep track of the circuit node points. If you consciously assign
labels then you will be able to get more insight, analyse and know, understand the net list
much better.

So, let me call this as node ‘a’ and I will copy this paste it, I will rotate it and I will call
this node ‘b’. By this, what I have done? I have given a conscious label to this node.
Now, when I want to refer to the input source, I will say Va minus Vb, which will give
me the value of the result of that waveform. Then we could give a node number here and
let us say we call this as and we could give a node for this point, we will call this as ‘c’.

25
We can give one more node here. I would like to place a track impedance here to
introduce a non ideality, later on.

So, for now I will just not give this label. I will remove this label and denote this label as
‘o’ so, that we know it is an output label. So, we have the labels, we have the ground, we
have the components in place. We have wired it, we have to give the component names.
So, you double click on those, we will call this as Rs, series resistance and it should have
a value and let us not give 100 ohms, it is too much of a series resistance, 0.1 ohm, is a
reasonable value to take care of the track.

We will come to the source later, we will give names for this diodes x, d 1 we will call
this d1 we will call this d2, d4, d3 and the diodes are labelled then after that. Let us label
this capacitance we will call it as filter capacitance Cf, we will call this as load
resistance, I will call it as Ro. So, we will give some value, we could keep this at around
25 ohms, so that you see some amount of current, we will put 1000 micro farad
capacitance like what we saw yesterday, the capacitance value and now the source we
need to give some value, let us first give it name Vin.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:46)

So, we have the name Vin and we need to provide the parameter for the sine attribute.
So, here we will have to give the sine wave parameter, any doubt you can always refer to
the manual, I had recommended in the last session that it is a good practice to download
the ng spice manual and keep it by your side, just to look at the parameter of the sine

26
wave or let me go to the manual. This is the n g spice manual, you see the general syntax
sine, V offset, V amplitude, frequency, delay and the damping factor.

So, you can give a damped sine wave also. This is an example of the sine. You have the
Vin between the positive node and the other node sine, the 0 offset 1 amplitude 100 meg
frequency, what we need to give is 0 offset 3 Vm root2 or 325. 230 root2 or 325 volts
amplitude 50 hertz 0, 0. So, that is what we will do. So, we shall make it as sine Spice
case insensitive 0, 320 volts is what we have given 50 hertz what we want no delay and
no damping. So, that is set that is source is set. Now to the input directory, directive you
make as value 1 and the file. So, right now I will write in a file e d t 01 dot sub is
electronic design technology 01 dot sub you can have your own name whichever is
convenient and goes. So, it will reflect here and this is a file that will get included when
you generate the net list.

So, good time to save. Save the file. let us close the circuit this schematic and now you
see that in the DC-DC folder we have rectifier dot s c h. So, we have now the schematic
ready, but we have to add 2 more files; 1 file we will save as into the DC-DC, I will
name it as rectifier dot cir always keep the same name as that of the schematic file name
and only the extension you change it to cir. save that. Here first line is always a
comment. So, start from the second line.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:40)

27
We would like to do, sorry we would like to have a transient analysis performed, step
time of 50 microsecond up to 100 millisecond using the initial conditions. Also include
the rectifier dot net. Rectifier for dot net is not yet generated, but we will shortly generate
that. I will let you know how to do that. So, these 2 control statements for simulation,
include it in a separate file never include it into the net file. It is better if you do it in this
kind of an organized way.

So, that later on for modification, complex simulations, it would be very easy. Save that
and close this file. So, now, you have rectifier dot cir also, here. One more file we will
include. You remember that we had edt 0 1 dot sub file which is suppose to contain the
models. So, let me save this in the same directory and this time e d t 0 1 dot sub and save
that. So, this we have linked in as an include directive and what should this contain? This
would be a library of my custom components.

So, you could have Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, can have your own thing,
what we say that we need to a model, we used the diode there and it was a power diode.
Let us have a model for that. So the power diode is consisting of 2 parts: a model for the
diode-a default diode and the model- sub circuit model for the power diode. So, I will
just write this, I think you know how to use spice, how to make sub circuits. So, I will
not write now teach about how to go about making sub circuits because it is outside the
scope of this course. So, I assume that you know spice modelling. Model, I will give a
name def now this is a default diode- model of a default diode.

Now, let me model the power diode. Now, it is a macro model, it is useful to have this
macro model sub circuit model because there are lot of non idealities, which you will not
take care in the default ideal diode which you can take care in the sub circuit model and
it will, the convergence numerical convergence will be much better. So, dot sub circuit. I
just put that in cap caps just to recognize that. However spice is case insensitive. So, let
me write down the model first and diode let me take a normal ideal diode, I will say a
default power diode. Can give some descriptive names.

I have put Rshunt between 102 and 103 and some high value 10000 ohms. And Cshunt
103, 101, 0.01 micro farad. Dot model. Default power diode d which has Rs series, 0.01,
junction capacitance of 100 pf. dot ends. End the sub circuits. So, this is the sub circuit.
Save that. So, I think you recognize this. You have the diode between 101 and 102 and

28
you have a resistance-shunt resistance. Then again in series with a shunt capacitance. So,
R shunt and RC shunt are in series and across the diode dx. So, this can be closed and we
have the required files. This is referred already in the schematic this rectifier dot cir gives
you what is the type of analysis that you want to perform and we need now to generate
the net list.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:32)

So, generating the net list is pretty simple. Open a terminal and we will go into that
folder to the terminal to see that all these files are there. So, let us generate the net list
from the schematic. The command is like this G net list slash g spice s d b dash o
rectifier dot net. We want the output to rectifier dot net from rectifier dot s c h schematic.
So, when you run this it will generate the net list. So, if you look there is a rectifier dot
net generated, now these 3 files are the ones that will go into ngSpice for simulation. So,
if you look at the net you see the generated net list the models taken from the edt sub
because of the include edt dot s u d, you see the V in between a and b, we have apply the
labels and it has take the label names for the nodes Rs Ro the power diodes and the
capacitance now we just have to simulate.

So, let us go through the simulation process you are already in the DC-DC folder, you
have to call ngSpice. So, you say ngSpice rectifier dot cir. you call rectifier dot cir
because within cir you already have said include rectifier dot net. So, it will
appropriately take the net list from here. So, now, you go into the n g spice environment.

29
So, the n g spice environment has the circuits taken into its memory space, work space.
Type the command run, it will run the circuit and these are the nodes part vectors that
you will have.

What we have to do next is plot let us plot Vo or V output you can always open the
schematic for reference keep it by your side here, and let us say we want to plot this plot
Vo plot V naught you will see the plot comma, you can double click on that and then you
see the capacitance charging from the start up and then the ripples has be had discussed
in theory close that you want to probably see the source current here.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:18)

So, let us say plot Vo and also I would like to plot the current of which branch V in
branch V in branch here and then you will see that. You see the current. Now, the current
through the source is always considered in the opposite direction. Therefore, you see that
it is shown minus, but actually the current is in flow in this direction. So, whenever you
take the resource branch you can give minus of that by, for example, you can say plot Vo
minus I, V in sorry plot Vo 0 minus Iin, this was the proper direction of the current you
see that initial starter current is higher than the normal steady state current as we had
discussed in the last session, after this quit and you are out. So, this completes the one
simulation process there are few points and tips that I would like to mention at this point
which I will do.

30
Now, in the case of the simulation after generating the net list using n g spice, one issue
with the n g spice plot n g spice rectifier dot cir and let me run once, see that plot I have
take some example Vo though the plot is of a good quality and you can expand it
comprehensive and you see that you can also zoom it to the particular part. You will get
in expanded you also of that all these are possible the only way you can take this for
documentation is by making a screen capture shot of that. So, which can be pretty high a
memory when you are making the document and when you make the document, you will
get this black background and hard copy is only for directly taking it as a print out

Therefore, for the purposes of documentation, this n g spice plot is not very comfortable
manner you see. So, you can’t do some documentation with that, that is one issue with
and the other issue that we saw is at the time when we where generating this net list. So,
when we generated the net list from the schematic, we use the command like this g net
list dash g spice dash s d b so on. But every time typing is every time you make a change
in the schematic, you have to type this out and then generate the net list dot net file. What
you can do is put this into a script file and then keep calling it in a generic way for any
such simulation.

So, combining these 2 problems and making a script such that these 2 problems are
solved using octave. We have generate, we have made a script file and that is what you
had initially copied and put into the bin directory here. So, in the bin directory the last
section, we had copied 6 files and put it into this folder.

Now, that q sim is an octave script which takes care of the issue of this net list command
generating net list command and also to show you the waveforms using octave or
MATLAB type of commands and also to put an output in the form of pdf file. q sim,
what it will do is, it will take the net list do the spice simulation and then put the results
of the simulation into the raw file and the raw file is passed as a parameter to the spice as
spice read file dot m file. This is a open source tool function available from n g spice
which can downloaded, but I have included it in the resource you can use it.

So, it will read this raw file and then the octave’s gnu plot is used for plotting. gnu plot is
very powerful and you can have different types of output or svg output from that. So, that
is what we do and this is a small script file written by it is there are there is lot of scope
for improvement in this it is just a sample type of script file which goes to show what

31
you can do and there is lots that you can do. ngSim is actually are also similar to q sim
only that it also generates the rectifier dot cir file, but many times we forget what you
want to write or you know it is the step size ending time when you are a c, but if it is an
AC analysis or if it is bias point analysis.

So many other analysis which are there you may forget, so that’s where ngSim helps you
to do that part. So, I will leave you to go through that and the see if it is comfortable. I
will give just one small example with qsim. we are in the DC-DC folder, I will run
through same slash h for l. So, let know what to do. So, you have to give it in this form
slash h will give you particular screen q sim file name without the extension. So, q sim
rectifier without the dot sch just say q sim rectifier it will appropriately take the
appropriate files, generate the net file and then the n g spice or output file which will be
used by octave’s gnu plot. It will be read by the spice read file m dot m and then a q plot
dot m will be used to plot their outputs.

So, these are some of the syntax which you do not need to use this two syntax because
the g n u plot itself will give you an output for whatever format you want. So, let me just
run q sim rectifier. Now you do not need to a generated the net file. So, what we will do,
I will just delete this net file to show that was not needed immediately after you do the
schematics you have this, you should have this and of course, edit 0 1 dot sum q sim
rectifier will generate the net list will generate a raw file output which contains all the
results of a simulation.

32
(Refer Slide Time: 35:36)

Now, the default time, I can give it as Vo now, here I have to put comma separation I can
say current through V in inside that I can also give Va minus Vb, all this you trying to
see.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:52)

So, you will see it something like this gnu plot output and you see here, you will have,
you can save it into a file. Now, let us say I will save as test dot svg save and then I will
come out of qsim. So, here you will the test dot svg which can which can be taken into
any of the graphic package like vector graphic package like ink scape or any similar

33
packages, then you can do further editing and then put into the documentation. So, this is
how we go about doing a complete simulation starting from schematics and ng spice and
the plot outs.

34
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 05
Designing the rectifier capacitor filter circuit

Till now we have studied the rectifier circuit, with capacitor filter circuit. We have seen
it’s wave forms, we have learnt how to simulate the rectifier capacitor filter circuit. We
now have to do one important activity which is designing the components. You have only
two types of components one is the diode rectifier diode and the other one is the
capacitor. So, these two components you will have to rate such that, they will be able to
handle the electrical stresses and the thermal stresses in this course we will discuss about
rating for the electrical stresses like the current and the voltage stresses.

However, the thermal stress calculation will be another course in itself. So, therefore, it is
out of the scope as far as this course is concerned to calculate and rate the components
for thermal stresses. There is another point which is also there while you are designing
circuits that is to design for life. This is also out of the scope designing for a given mttf-
mean time to fail; However, keep that in mind that these are aspects that you will have to
consider when you are designing a practical circuit.

35
(Refer Slide Time: 02:04)

In this course now we will look at how to design for handling the electrical stresses here.
We are now back to the white board where we have the wave forms we had seen this
wave forms earlier this is the output voltage wave form with the ripple Vc what we call
Vc is the output voltage wave form across the capacitance. Io is the output current we
have shown the average value of the current they will be a small ripple, which will have
the same similar shape as that of DC divided by R. This green wave form is that of the
current out of the rectifier as we saw and we need also to define few more parameters
which we will do; now in order to do the calculations for the values of the capacitance
and the diode ratings.

Now, we know this is half the wave shape of the full sinusoid. So, this must be having an
angle of pi. Remember that this is whole 2ᴨ and this much is ᴨ which means T / 2 period
by 2 then another parameter, that we will define is the conduction period the period for
which the diode conducts and we will name it as α. Of course, from this point to this
point is also ᴨ again repeats every cycle. Another variable to define is the peak to peak
ripple. So, this is the peak to peak spring of the output voltage and therefore, we can call
that one as the peak to peak ripple. This definition Im is the peak current that is flowing
out of the rectifier as shown here.

36
You see normally when, we are rating or designing of the components there is not much
that we would get by trying to calculate exactly the nature of this current because we
need to anyway give some safety factors and we will normally be over rating the devices.
If you take consider this rectangular green rectangular box, if the current wave shape
were something like that if you design the components for this flat topped green
rectangular box, then definitely it will handle the inner shape the shaped pulse as it
comes out of the capacitor filter rectifier.

So, therefore, normally in design practice what we do we use the engineering judgment
here and say that for rating the devices we will design the devices to handle this flat top
complete, flat top rectangular pulse much easier to design for that and if we design for
that it will definitely handle this shape of current. So, that is what we would be trying to
do. This is the current wave shape that we will assume for design only for design
purposes not for any analysis.

Now, we shall define 1 more variable called Vo. Vo is actually the average value of the
output voltage Vc which you see at the capacitance node. So, if this is the peak value and
this is the mean value of the ripple this plus this divide by 2 the average value will be Vo.
So, this would be the average value of the current the average value of the voltage is
given here. Two more variables which is the peak value that the capacitor will take Vm1
and the minimum value it will discharge to Vm2 in the steady state. So, using these
variables definitions we shall now calculate what would be the value of the capacitance
and also what would be the value of the current that flow through the diodes and such.

Now, for us to write down the equation it is now better for me to use the writing board.
So, I will go to the writing board and start writing the equations, that you will be able to
follow me.

37
(Refer Slide Time: 07:23)

So, I have with me the same wave form figure with all the parameters name here with me
and we shall use this for writing the equations-design equations. Now first let us
calculate the value of the capacitance. Let us note down write down what is it that is
given to you for design purposes-the specifications. So, the specs that are given to you
are the following: specifications- One of the thing that are given to you what is the value
of Vo. Ripple spec-this will be given to you.

38
(Refer Slide Time: 08:51)

It will be given to you as peak to peak ripple variation delta Vr as like as we have marked
then, what else that would be given is, you will have the power Po-output power. We also
have the input spec. Now the input voltage has two parts; One is you would probably
have something like 230 volts RMS which implies 230 root 2 peak this would be your V
m. But it is not just that. Your input voltage will swing from place to place from minus
from 180 degree, 180 volts to 270 volts, so plus + 20 percent +30 percent this kind of
swings you will find in a real voltage.

So, you should also specify the input voltage tolerance. So, this is generally given like 10
percent or 15 percent of your nominal value. So, it will vary from - 10% of 230 volts
RMS to + 10% of 230 volts RMS, it means 230 volts + 23 volts in tolerance. So, this
tolerance has to be given. So, let us say we call it as percent at the varying and then; of
course, you need to have frequency the frequency supply frequency is known it is always
50 hertz at least in our country. So, you need not bother much about that. So, these are
the specs that are given to you these are the specs that are there with you using the specs
we have now arrived at the value of the capacitance c that is our first job.

39
(Refer Slide Time: 11:22)

Let us start at this point, let us see what is happening at this point or shall we come down
here corresponding point at this point the capacitor has an energy half CVm1 square and
from here to here the diodes are off, likewise here from here to here the diodes are off
capacitance is doing only the job of discharging into the load. So, from here to here it has
discharged into the load nowhere else and it has reached the energy- lower energy level
of half CVm2 square. So, what has happened to all these energy lost from here to here? It
has gone to the load. So, that is our starting point that we would use. So, let me write
mark. Here it is ½ CV2m1 and here it is ½ CV2m2. What is the difference? So, ½ CV 2m1 - ½
CV2m2 goes to the load and it is actually not for the full ᴨ period it is for a period of time
ᴨ-α.

So, for a period of time pi minus alpha capacitors only discharge to the load. So, with a
duty ratio of (ᴨ-α)/ᴨ, Po amount of power is being put. So, during that time VoIo that
much amount of power is being put for and for a period of time T/2. So, if you look if
you look at this equation pi minus alpha by pi into T/2 is the weighted period into the Po,
the power output. So, this is actually the energy, watts into time--watt seconds. So, that is
the energy the amount of energy that you see here ½ V ½ CV 2m1 square minus ½ CV2m2
square that is put into the load. So, let us simplify this ½ (CV 2m1 - CV2m2 ) which is (ᴨ-
α)/ᴨ, Po by 2f. f is a frequency now this can be split into C (Vm1 + Vm2)/2 (Vm1- Vm2)

40
. So, this is actually a2 from (a+b) (a-b). Now this is nothing, but, let me move this screen
up.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:40)

This is nothing, but Vo the average value. This is nothing, but delta Vr. So, therefore, we
have C = [(ᴨ- α)/ᴨ] Po/ 2 f Vo∆Vr coming in the denominator, but Po itself is VoIo. So,
Vo will cancel and therefore, you can write the value of C as [(ᴨ- α)/ᴨ] Io/ 2f∆Vr So, this
is the value of the capacitor that you will have to put in order to get this particular ripple
and for this particular load current.

However, you should note that there are few other variations that can come into the
picture you should calculate for the max value of Io. So, that if you calculate for the max
value of Io the value of C would be sufficient to handle that. You should also calculate
for the ripple that is minimum. So, for the minimum ripple we get the higher value of C.
So, once you have taken care of the worst case condition for minimum ripple as per
value of Io the value of C will hold good.

Another very important criteria that you will have to take into account while you are
putting the value of C in a real circuit is when, you buy an aluminum electrolyte
capacitor it has a very large tolerance minus forty percent to even hundred percent those

41
kind of tolerances. So, normally what you calculate and then what you buy and then
actually measure can have a very large and significant variation. So, normally what is
done in practice is once you calculated c you will get some 15μF or 10 μF you will take
three times that value, 30μF you can put that value. So, that even if a, even the capacitor
that you have bought is minus forty percent now it will be able to handle a these kind of
variations. So, this is how you calculate the values.

Let us now calculate the RMS current that is going through the capacitance because that
is one parameter, which we that what parameter which we need to calculate because that
will directly affect the heating of the capacitor.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:53)

So, to do that let me go back again to this conduction period that is when the current is
flowing. This α time is the period which the diodes are conducting. Do we know this
value of α we know this value of peak Vm1 this is from here. So, Vm1cos(α) will be
Vm2. So, we know Vm1 we know the ripple we know Vm 2 and therefore, we should be
able to know the α. So, how we get that? Vm2 equals Vm1 cos(α). α equals cos-1
(Vm2/Vm1 ). Vm1 is known which is Vrms √2. Vm2 is known from the spec which is Vm1
-∆Vr all these are coming from the input spec. Then once you know the value of α you
can calculate the current that is flowing through the capacitance.

42
Now as I said we are going to make this rectangular approximation and you have to
make use of the condition that the average value of the current through the capacitance is
always zero in the steady state. So, this is the area that is that is the charge up of the
capacitor then, it is conducting the diodes are conducting the diodes are not conducting
capacitor is discharging and the area is this.

So, we know that this is Io and therefore, this will be Io[(π-α)/π] T/2. this area of course,
is (Im –Io) α/π (T/ 2) . So, this T/ 2 is added. So, that this is the charge with the charge.
So, if you remove out the T/2 just to find out the rms value of the current. So, Icrms is
the root mean square, for the positive area (Im –Io) 2 with a duty cycle of α/π + Io2 (π –
α)/ π. So, whole thing under the root. So, this would be the r m s value of the current
that goes through the capacitance that this r m s current square into the ESR value of the
capacitor will give you the heating effect with the capacitor. So, this may be useful
especially when you want to do thermal management and thermal design. So, once you
know this these you will be able to specify the capacitance.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:03)

So, the capacitance can be specified as follows: we know the value the C value is given
by the equation that we just now derived Io /(2f∆Vr). So, this Io you should take Io max-
maximum possible Io that flows and the minimum value of ∆Vrmin under these

43
condition what is the value of C that you would get this variation. Why I am mentioning
this variation is that the input voltage varies from new value to maximum value. So, find
out the delta Vrmin whatever the worst case condition is and apply this in.

Now, the capacitor voltage rating, the max voltage of the capacitor will ever see will be
V rms √2 this is Vm now. Vm itself could be swinging to the upper end because, the
tolerance I said 1 plus percent tolerance value, whatever 10 % 20% by 100. So, this
would be the maximum value that the capacitor will see of course, you also have Ic rms
rating as we just found. So, [(Im-Io)2 (α/π)] + Io2 (π-α)/π. So, this would be the RMS
value. So, with this and then we can say that make type, electrolyte type would be
aluminum electrolyte we do not normally use. So, this would complete the electrical
design of the capacitor.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:40)

Now, for the diode. The diode if you see when the diodes are off they would see a
maximum voltage the peak inverse voltage peak inverse voltage would be Vrms √2. So,
if it is 230 it will be 230 √2, 325 volts. To that you give the extra, the tolerance swing for
that particular place this would be the max. So, when you choose a diode you have to
choose a diode which is definitely having a peak inverse voltage rating much greater
than what you would calculate using this formula.

44
There are two other value that you need to calculate for the diode one is the average Id
average and the Id maximum. So, Id maximum is same as the current, The max current
that is flowing through the rectifier, the Id maximum will be same as this. This is the Id
maximum Im average value through the diode will be you see that through every diode it
flows through alternate cycles. So, through D1 and D4 to D4 is D1, D4 again if you flow
in the next yellow half cycle D2 and D3. It flows here and, D2 and D3 will again flow in
the next blue half cycle. So, therefore, the average for this is I m duty cycle will be α/2π
because this repeats every 2π. So, for the diode we can easily find the average in the
following manner

Im α/2π. this would be the average current that flows through the diode and when you
choose the diode it should have a rating greater than this and Im itself is the peak current
rating which is flowing for a very small period than around alpha for this kind of a pulse
approximation.

So, like this now you have the diode rating and you also have the capacitor electrically
designed and these values can be guiding values for you to choose these devices. So,
what you can do is that we can put these equations into a script file. So, that when you
want to do an iterative design you keep changing this specifications and then you will
check it keep checking things out and probably you may not get a particular component
and then, maybe you want to change few things. So, it is good to put them into a script
file, something like octave or matlab. So, we will be using an octave script file and run
the script file repeatedly to see what are the design values. So, that. So, that we do not
have to finally, calculate these values time and again which will lead to boredom.

So, I will now show you how to put them into a script file and thus automate design
process. I shall show you know how to make a sample script for designing the values of
the components. So, this is our folder dialogue we will go into DC, Dc folder I have
already created a sample here. So, this is the m file. I will explain to you I shall keep it
on to one side at the same time I would also like to octave. I will put on this octave I
shall keep this on to one side maximize the space. So, I have the work space.

45
(Refer Slide Time: 30:01)

So, it is like this. Let me go into the same folder here, I have already written it. So, that
we do not waste too much time. You have to classify your script into 3 parts , this syntax
is very similar to what you would do in mat lab it is already having an extension dot m.
You have the specification of the circuit written first. Then you proceed with the
calculations all these are calculations and then followed by display this is what you
would like to display at the end of the day after you finish the calculation.

46
(Refer Slide Time: 32:52)

So, keep it into these 3 parts. So, for the specification what is it this is where you will
change for doing iterations all these calculations are based on these variables. We have
specified. I have used appropriate the variables here because I cannot do subsequent
sums of the scripts. So, Vrms is the input voltage the tolerance I made twenty percent
tolerance Vr is the peak ripple voltage of the output main supply frequency at the power
Po and the calculations, you first try to calculate what is the minimum value and the
maximum.

Minimum value of the peaks and the maximum value of the peaks, that you can get over
the worst case condition go through these equations just like we discussed, but I am now
using the problems values also. Similarly you will get 2 values for alpha- alpha min
alpha max choose a the max value of alpha for calculating the value of C then here you
have to calculate the voltage that C will see the output current max output current the
capacitor RMS value and then the diode selection peak inverse voltage value, Id average
and the RMS value. Then finally, the display I use the fprintf statement. So, that it is put
onto the display standard output. You could put into a file also and this is just like your C
syntax specifications. Output power, capacitor selection values and diodes. So, these are
the parameters that you would like to.

47
So, this I will also upload into Google drive. So, that you can have a look at it and then
try to make your design script files along these lines. So, we go into the octave
workspace. What you would do is just run the script file. So, we know that the name is
rect underscore filter dot m which has to write rect underscore filter do not give the dot
m extension just run it. So, you will see that this gets executed, probably maybe good to
clear the screen before you. So, save that. So, let me do that execution once again. So,
yeah the specifications, this is the output power all those things and capacitors selection
values 110 114.95 micro farads. So, once you put the diode selection at this level I am
multiplying here by 1e6, that I can express it in micro farads rather than having a very
long 14 point number gap.

So, this way you can keep doing the iterations any number of time change the power
value make it 1000 watts and then re run this script. So, you will see things are changing
and you can keep experimenting with it and then go back to the simulation plug in the
values as you wanted the values that you can. So, this would give you a lot of insight into
the rectifier circuit rectifier filter circuit itself. So, this is how you would do about
analyzing and designing the two important components in the rectifier filter circuit, that
is the diode and the capacitor.

48
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 06
Startup surge limiting

In this video we shall discuss about a very important point that is startup inrush current
limiting. Recall that I have mentioned this earlier, in one of the sessions, that at the time
of turn on, the capacitor charge is zero. There is no energy in the capacitor and when
suddenly the input source voltage switches on, voltage is applied across the capacitor and
for sudden changes in the voltage the capacitor will appear as a short circuit and a very
huge current will flow. If by chance at that point in time of turn on, the input source
voltage is at zero then the inrush current is anyway automatically limited.

However, the turn on or switch on of the rectifier capacitor filter circuit will not be
synchronized with the input source. In such a case, the worst case would be when the
input source is at its peak Vm. So, when the input source is at its peak Vm, if you turn on
the circuit capacitor voltage is zero, a huge voltage of Vm value is seen across the short
circuited path of the source through the diode and the capacitor. This will result in a very
huge surge current which may blow off the diodes.

Therefore it is very important that we provide some protection mechanism which will
limit this startup surge current. So, that is the objective of this particular video capsule
and we shall see how we try to take care of this surge current.

49
(Refer Slide Time: 02:29)

Consider this rectifier circuit here and this is where we connect the source- the 230 volt
AC. The moment you connect this, impedance in this path is very minimal limited only
by the parasitics- the track inductance and the ESR of the capacitors and such non
idealities. So, the inrush-surge current at the time and the capacitance voltage is zero can
be pretty large which can blow up these diodes.

So, let us see what we can do to limit this inrush surge current at the time of startup. One
simple solution is to put impedance in series here. So, what we could attempt is to the
source, we will connect a resistance Rs-a series resistance and connect it in this fashion.
So, this way this Rs can limit the startup inrush current and the value of the Rs can be
chosen such that it is within the rating of the diodes. At the time of startup the voltage
here is zero. Maximum possible voltage at this node will be 325 which is 230√2. So, 325
will come across Rs, so depending upon the rating of these diodes you can appropriately
choose the value of Rs.

However this is not a very good solution in the sense that Rs will also dissipate power.
The full load current is going to pass through Rs all the time and whatever will be the
value of Rs, Irms2Rs amount of power will keep getting lost in this resistor, so the
efficiency of the circuit will come down. So, a simple solution to overcome this problem
would be initially Rs can be in the circuit and once the capacitors build up charge, Rs can
be removed from the circuit. That would be a nice solution to have. So, for that, what

50
people do is replace this - Rs, by a thermistor. A thermistor is a very special device, so
this is a thermistor. The thermistor is called by various names in the market. It is a single
component, two terminal component available. It is also called NTC for Negative
Temperature Coefficient device. That is as the temperature rises, for a normal resistor,
the resistance value will increase. In the case of thermistor as the temperature increases
the value of the resistance will decrease.

So, how does it help in this kind of a circuit? Let us say at the time of startup the cold
value of the thermistor resistance is 10Ω. Initially the 10Ω will limit the startup surge
current and the capacitor will get charged and reach a steady state. As the capacitor
reaches steady state the full load current is passing through the thermistor and it is
dissipating heat and it will become hot. And once that starts becoming hot, the resistance
value of thermistor will decrease and it may probably become the order of something
0.5Ω. The hot value of the thermistor’s resistance may be 0.5Ω.

Now this is a significant drop. Now this is the very ideal component to have in this kind
of a circuit where during startup, the cold value, which is very high, limits the current
and during the normal steady operation of the circuit the thermistor which would have
become hot imposes an impedance of around 0.5Ω. So, this is a pretty good component
available, it is also called surge limiter. Many manufacturers call them by different
names this called surge limiter, thermistor, NTC negative temperature coefficient device;
something like these, some such kind of a name.

Now, we could just live with that, but the problem is that this has a low time constant.
The change from cold value to hot value can take seconds or hundreds of milli seconds
depending upon the size of the thermistor. You can find thermistors ranging from 1 to 2
amp at the lower end up to 50 amps or 60 amps at the higher end.

Now, imagine a situation where the bridge is working, reaches the stable state, the
thermistor is hot, and now the power goes suddenly. The moment the power goes
suddenly the thermistor will not immediately regain its cold value, it will take some time.
And before that let us say the power comes back again. In such case the thermistor will
not protect because thermistor has not yet regained its old value and you will have huge
startup surge current which may at that time load the diodes. So, this is one disadvantage

51
of the thermistor which you may have to live with or look for another solution. Another
solution is probably we could use a relay.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:14)

In this case we shall introduce like before, the resistance as shown; the input source is
connected in this fashion. Now what we do is connect a relay switch across this. Now
this relay has to be energised, so energization of the relay will be by means of a coil. So,
moment when there is some current flow in the coil the relay will be energised and it will
turn on it flows and bypass the resistance. The operation is pretty simple here. So, you
have the source, the source is connected through the resistance to the bridge rectifier
capacitor filter.

As long as the relay is off which is so, because we would not have energised this coil the
current from the source passes through the resistance and back. Moment the capacitor
voltage is built up let us say after 2 cycles we would like to close this switch. At that time
energise this relay so this switch will be closed and now the resistance is bypassed
current will flow through that relay and normal operation begins.

Now, the issue is how do we energise this? We could probably take from this
capacitance, we tap the DC from this capacitance and then appropriately we need to
switch this relay. So, how do we do that? Let me just give one typical sample circuit.
Now let us say I put a resistance divider and capacitance like this so let me consider this
as the common point for the relay circuit, then this is something like your attenuator. So,

52
let us say I put a resistor here. If you look at this circuit, this circuit actually is not
complete but the concept is like this we draw the power from output capacitor itself. As
the capacitor voltage builds up this acts like a load and then charges up this capacitor
with DC and it will pump current into the coil so that the coil gets energised. But then the
energising current that is needed for turning on this switch is decided by this resistor and
these resistors.

You could also make this relay to work like in a switch mode type of configuration. I will
show that also which would be a still better circuit. To operate it like a switch, I will
erase this part, I will also erase a part here and now put a npn transistor and I need to
drive this transistor on, and now a zener and then, we shall take from there and this we
will join that, now we need a diode here for freewheel. Our case is bit complicated, but
not so complicated. I will explain this.

Now, consider this portion of the circuit which is shown here in red that is the base drive
for the transistor. Now start from the beginning; the supply is turned on, capacitor
voltage is 0, this switch is off, the current flows through this resistor and charges up the
capacitor. Now as the capacitor is charging up this potential is rising. As this potential is
rising it will reach a point when this potential will be higher than this zener drop plus
Vbe + 0.7. Once this goes beyond Vz +0.7 this will cut in and the base drive will flow
through this transistor. Once a base drive flows through this transistor there will be a
current flow through the coil of the relay in this direction. So the relay will turn on,
which means this will turn on and the current will now flow through the relay by passing
the resistor.

Now let us say the power switches off, the capacitor discharges, it discharges very
quickly through the load because this is a higher current this is a very small current
maybe 1 or 2 percent of the total load current to energise the relay, and this potential will
keep dropping. Once this potential goes low this potential goes below Vz + 0.7, this
transistor will go to the off state. Once this transistor goes to the off state, even if there is
any inductive current this will freewheel in this fashion. You can just put a diode it is
sufficient because the relay coils have very larger resistances at the order of 10 to 12 Ω.

53
So that will dissipate and when the power comes immediately the resistor is in action and
after sometime the relay will come back into action once again . So, this is how the relay
can help in limiting the surge current.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:09)

Another method of surge limiting is by using MOSFET’s. This is the regular rectifier
capacitor filter circuit I have broken open this point, so this portion of the wire has been
removed, so actually these two are joined together here. Now I would like to introduce
an impedance here. So, the impedance here is in the form of a MOSFET. Let me draw
the MOSFET circuit here like this and we have a resistance division here and a
capacitance like this. For now let us say it is getting connected to this point, we have the
source connected here. Let us say the source is turned on, capacitor voltage is 0. The
source will go through and charge up this capacitance, the gate drive for the MOSFET
increases.

So, the MOSFET gate voltage crosses a threshold, the MOSFET starts entering into the
linear region this resistance starts decreasing. So, when it is in the linear region we will
see that the capacitor also gets charged, thereby limiting the surge current. And then as
this further gets charged to 12 volts or 15 volts if this potential division is such that this
will ultimately in the steady state come to 15 volts. This will be fully on in which case it
will be the regular capacitor filter circuit.

54
When the source switches off, the capacitor is a large capacitor and this is a very small
capacitor. So, there can be a significant amount of charge that will get dumped in here
and this will not turn off, that is because there is a body diode present here. Every
MOSFET has a body diode, which means that when these switches off, this capacitor can
have some charge flow like this and back here which means this will get charged and this
will not turn off. So, we would like to decouple the output capacitor and the gate drive
capacitor so that each can independently have its own time constant as per design.

Therefore, we will not make the connection here. We will remove that connection and we
will make a direct connection to the input like this. This way the capacitor and this are
decoupled. Now see the operation is exactly same as before only thing is that this and
this are decoupled. Now, let us see the operation. When you turn on the source will flow
through like this charge up the capacitance and back again. Actually these two green
diodes and the bottom diodes form a full bridge, these two will be signal diodes they will
not be carrying power only the gate drive current.

So, as this is getting charged this is trying to turn this on this goes through the linear
region tries to limit the current through this, and then after it reaches stable state this
would be at 15 volts and this would be fully on. Now, when this goes off and the source
goes off, the capacitor will not be able to discharge, because these diodes are present into
this. Of course, this will be charged through the load that is ok and that is allowed and
that is desirable, but this capacitor should not come back and charge up this and that is
prevented because of these two and these two decoupled full bridges. So, this way this
MOSFET can behave like a linear resistor dynamically changing and limit the surge.

One more level of continuous protection that can be given in this type of circuit, for
example I erase this portion. Look carefully I will now use a different colour, no I will
use the blue colour itself. Now let us say I have a resistance like this and I have a
transistor and the transistor is connected like this and looks complicated but not so. Now,
you see what happens. The normal operation is that let me remove this kink. (Refer
Time: 25:35). The normal operation is as discussed earlier now this extra thing has been
put. Normal operation would be that it goes through like this the current flow is through
the MOSFET like this and then back through R.(Refer Time: 25:54).

55
Now, when the current through this goes beyond a particular value, there is going to be a
drop across this resistance. Now this resistance coming directly across the base emitter
junction of this npn transistor. Once this drop this resistor can be so chosen that once this
drop crosses 0.6 this tries to cut in. So, once this tries to cut in this impedance drops
which means this capacitor will discharge through this and this voltage will come down.
Once this voltage comes down MOSFET comes out of saturation goes into the linear
region and tries to limit the current flow here.

So, this is a kind of a continuous self protection circuit very interesting. This will never
blow and this is what is called as the self protection circuit using the BJT. So, this is one
of a very robust surge current limiting circuit that can be used along with the rectifier full
bridge.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:15)

So, with this I will close this topic of rectifier and C filter. Let me get back to the
overview slide. You see that we began with this description of the system overview we
had discussed on bird’s eye view of the entire DC-DC convertor system. Till now we
have discussed about the rectifier and filter we now know how to get a DC at this point
from a 230 volt or AC input source. So, from now on all our discussions will be focussed
on the DC-DC convertor alone and we assume that at this point we have a reliable DC
obtained either from battery or from the rectifier filter combination.

56
I have also put few practical exercise tasks for you on the Google drive which you can
download. Recall that we made an example of the rectifier filter in gEDA schematic, I
have put that schematic also, I have put two other schematics too let me show them to
you; in this folder.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:29)

One other schematic is like this, you see here I have included two non-idealities; one is
the track inductance from the source to the centre of the bridge on the AC side another is
the track inductance from the rectifier to the C filter part. So, we include this and now we
simulate and see what the effects on the various wave forms are. If you notice this
inductance value if we keep on increasing, it will become the rectifier LC filter circuit,
this one interesting thing that you should try.

Another exercise which I have included is this. I have put two resistors here and trying to
distort the characteristics of this and characteristic of this so that all diodes will not have
the same ideal characteristic. This is a practical scenario just observe the currents and the
voltages for this too and play with these values apart from playing with these values. And
this will give you a feel for what to expect in a real circuit on the oscilloscope.

57
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 07
DC-DC converter concepts

This week we shall focus on DC-DC converters. We shall begin with non-isolated
converters, you may already have heard about the buck converter, the boost converter,
buck-boost converters that are the primary objective in these particular weeks' lectures.
We will see how they operate, how they work, simulate and then how to design them too.
You have a DC voltage and you need to supply to a load which demands DC, however
you will see many situations where the DC voltage which you have, battery or coming
from the rectifier filter is of a value which is not a directly usable one by the load. The
load may demand high volts, it may demand plus minus 15 volts for analog circuits, it
may demand 3.3 volts or 1.8 volts for most of the digital circuits.

So, you need to see that a power interface or power supply something like a power
supply is built which will do this job of properly converting a DC of one level to DC of
another level. So, how is this done? One is by linear regulators, we used linear regulator
as the most popular and till the advent of the switch mode the power converters some
one and half decades ago. The linear regulators are very accurate, very precise, very
good regulation, however they are not efficient. The switch mode regulators are
definitely more efficient, there are no lousy components. In an ideal sense no lousy
components within the switch mode DC-DC converters, however the quality of the DC
output that you get out of the switched mode DC-DC converters of not as good as a
linear regulator.

However, the DC-DC converters switched mode have become very very popular and
they have improved in quality and performance over the years and today they are most
popular and they are used in most of the power supplies in DC-DC converters. Even in
our PC’s in the monitors and many electronic equipment the front end portion would be a
DC-DC converter.

58
So, we shall try to see what insight that we can gain by studying these non-isolated and
isolated converters and go towards understanding the real DC-DC power converters
which go in to most of the products today.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:22)

Let us discuss about the basics of the DC-DC converter. It consists of an input source,
could be a battery or the output of the rectifier filter which we discuss in the last week.
Now it contains a load which expects a DC voltage. Now these two needs to be
interfaced. The simplest and easiest way of interface would be to put a resistor in
between. This would be the simplest DC-DC converter.

Now, let us make the wiring connection, so that we have circuit diagram. Now that we
made the connection we have to source the series (Refer Time: 04:04) resistor and load
resistor. Let us give some names. We will call this one as Vin the input voltage, we call
this is the output voltage, we will call this as the load resistor, and we will call this as the
series resistance which is in between. Now this is what will act as the drop such that the
output voltage is according to our wishes. Now let us say for example, we have 48 volts
at the input and we need 5 volts at the output here remaining 43 volts has to drop across
this resistor. This would be a series drop resistor and this is the typical concepts that are
used in almost all in linear regulators.

59
Now this resistor can be a varying resistor so that you can achieve regulation. So, as the
input voltage varies, vary this resistor such that the output is a regulated level at 5 volts
or 12 volts or whatever voltage that you now set. Unfortunately the problem with this
type of simple DC-DC converter is that Rs is a resistive, there is a current flowing
through this circuit, there is a current i flowing through the circuit. Then there is
dissipation across Rs and that is I square times Rs. Now these are finite resistance and
therefore the power dissipation is finite and this can be a huge (Refer Time: 05:45) power
dissipation. Therefore, this type of regulators are highly dissipative and very very
inefficient.

Now, our interest is to see that the drop in the series element is 0. How do you make that
happen? You can make I2Rs equal to 0 in two ways; one is by making Rs = 0 another
way you can make I = 0. Now I is equal to 0 implies Rs can be an infinite value. So,
what does this mean? It means that when the switch is a short circuit in that case the
voltage across the switch is 0 there is no power dissipation. When I is equal to 0 the
switch is an open circuit. So, when you make the switch open circuit the current through
that are 0 and then also the power dissipation in the (Refer Time: 07:01) switch is 0. So,
the only two conditions when the switch is not dissipating power is when Rs is 0 and
when Rs is infinity and the switch is short circuit, fully on when the switch is open.
These are the two conditions that are permissible from the point of view of power
dissipation in the series circuit in power dissipation the series element.

60
(Refer Slide Time: 07:32)

To achieve this let us replace the resistor by a single pole switch as shown here. So, when
the switch is on, Vin comes to the output and the switch is off Vo is 0 and this way there
is no dissipation in the switch either when it is on during conduction and when it is off ,
will be the open circuit situation. However, the voltage now Vo is no longer continuous
as your DC, it is pulsating. When the switch is on then you have a DC voltage or Vin
appearing here, when the switch is open the voltage across Vo is 0. So, it goes high-low,
high-low pulsating voltage and this becomes a chopper. So, it is called a chopper voltage
and this circuit becomes a chopper. This is not what we want. We would like to have the
output voltage Vo as a pure DC, so which means that we would like to have a kind of a
filter circuit here.

Now, this could be a filter and this could be composed of L and C’s. It could probably
have an inductor something like that and capacitance something like that or these L and
C’s together would form second order filter and this chopper switch plus the filter
together will provide a DC voltage at Vo. And together they form a switched mode DC-
DC converter.

61
(Refer Slide Time: 09:45)

There are many configurations in which this switch and the filter can be put together. If
we have one switch, one inductance, one capacitance to make up the DC-DC converter
elements then we call it as a Primary Topology. In the primary topology itself there are
three possibilities; one is a step down converter or a buck converter, another is a step up
converter or a boost converter, yet another you have step up-down or buck boost
converter.

Basically, step down as the name indicates converts the input voltage into a lower output
voltage. Step up converter converts the input voltage DC value into a higher output DC
value or boosts it. Step up-down converter can do either under certain duty cycles it will
be step down and the certain other duty cycles it will be step up. We will of course look
at all three types of converters in this week. All these three type of converters do not
have any galvanic isolation. That is they do not use any transformer they are non-isolated
converter and are important as there are many applications with which these converters
can be used. If you look at its operation, you look at how to go about simulating it and
also to design it.

62
(Refer Slide Time: 11:40)

This is a chopper circuit; the switch is a single throw switch. When the switch is on the
pole is connected to the throw the throw is connected to the positive of the input which is
Vin. The pole voltage is same as Vin which is transferred to the output Vo. When the
switch is off the pole is floating and the pole voltage is undefined, so also is Vo which is
undefined. This is not a recommended way of drawing the switch. We have to replace the
switch with a single pole double throw switch where there are two throws and both the
throws are connected to well defined potentials.

In such a case the pole whether it is connected to one throw or the other will have a
defined potential and therefore the output Vo. The switch S is now replaced with the
single pole double throw switch. It has two throws; throw one T1 is connected to the
positive of the input supply, throw two is connected to ground. When the pole is
connected to T1 then the pole voltage is same as Vin which is transferred to Vo. When P
is connected to T2, T2 is connected to ground and therefore the potential of Vo is 0,
therefore Vo as well defined potentials at both positions of the switch S.

The chopper is now slightly modified. The pole is connected to the inductor L and a
capacitor is connected across like this, and this LC forms a filter as a second order filter
which filters out the chopped wave form and gives a smooth DC to the output. The

63
operation is pretty straight forward when the pole is connected to throw T1 pole voltage
is Vin, the inductor starts charging up magnetically the capacitor also charges up, when
the switch switches to the other position T2 this pole is at 0 potential. The inductor
current reveals through the capacitor and the output load and discharges the magnetic
energy into the capacitor and the load. Then again the cycle begins by the pole getting
connected to V in. This is a DC-DC converter called the Buck Converter.

Here, the output voltage Vo will have a value less than that of Vin. Let us define some
nomenclature here, when the pole P is connected to T1 we will call it as S on; switch is
on. When the pole P is connected to throw T2 then we say the switch is off. We shall now
try to plot the voltage across VL. VL is one critical component that you will have to study
and the other component that you need to study here is the capacitance C, the voltage VL
across the inductor. Let us draw a couple of axes; Let us have our x axis which is the
time, let us have the y axis which is the real axis the voltage axis. We shall put in some
time lines and let us say this is the on time of the switch where pole is connected to T1,
this is the off time of the switch, again on time of the switch, again off time of the switch.
So, let us define it and name it in this fashion. S is on during this period S is off during
this period again S is on and then S is off.

So, let us plot the voltage that we see across V L. Now the VL will be a bidirectional
voltage. It may be good to shift this up so that we can see the bidirectional voltage on the
screen here. When the switch is on the pole is connected to T1 and the voltage at the pole
here is Vin. The voltage on this side of the inductor is Vo and therefore at that instant the
voltage across the inductor is Vin minus Vo. So that will be the voltage that you would
see at this point. And when the switch turns off the pole P is connected to the throw T2
and the pole voltage is 0. And the voltage across the inductor is now 0 minus Vo, which
means that the voltage goes negative. And again when the switch turns on; the cycle
repeats in this fashion the inductor voltage going positive and negative like this.

What is very important here to note is that under steady state conditions the area under
the inductor voltage curve on the positive side and area under the curve on the negative
side should exactly match, let us give it some color. So, you see the blue part on the
positive side on the blue part one of the negative sides should match, which means the

64
average voltage across the inductor should always be 0 in the steady state conditions.
This will prevent the inductor to go into saturation there will not be a magnetic flux build
up and make the inductor to saturate. So, it is very important that there is volt second
balance in an inductor.

Another case the capacitance, the average current should be 0. If there is an average
current there will be charge build up in the capacitance. In the case of the capacitance
Amp second balance should be there, in the case of the inductance volt second balance
should be there. These two are very very important concept which I will explain shortly.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:21)

Two very important components that we will use in most DC-DC converters are the
inductor and the capacitor. Inductor is one of the dynamic elements that this part of the
filter in most DC-DC converter, and the voltage across the inductor that as I was
mentioning earlier is a point that you need to observe and that is a critical voltage.
Likewise, in the case of the capacitor which is also a very important dynamic component
that will be using in DC-DC converters. You have to monitor the current through the
capacitance.

Now let us look at the inductor first. The inductance L and the voltage across the

65
inductance VL and the current I which is flowing through the inductor are related by the
Faraday’s law. So, by the Faradays law if you look at that you will see that V L is equal to

di
L . And the inductor is generally wound upon on a magnetic core which has N turns
dt
and there is a flux by which is flowing through the magnetics and a little bit the coil.

di
Now, the relationship is as given here VL the voltage across the inductance is L +N
dt

d d
. Let us look at this part of the equation N . What is the flux within the core?
dt dt
Now the flux within the core is basically rearrangement of this equation. Now let us say

VL is constant across the inductor then �

VL dt would be N φ then, (Refer Time: 22:25) φ

1
N�
the flux in the core is VL dt .

The important part here VL dt, if VL was 0 then φ would be a finite value by this
equation. If VL was not 0 but has an average value which means it is like a DC value then
it starts getting integrated with time and keeps on increasing and the flux also keeps on
increasing than at one particular point depending upon the material it will saturate. Once
it saturates there is no longer and inductance effective It will just be a piece of conductor.
(Refer Time: 23:10). Therefore, it is very very important that VL does not have average
value, which means this volt second has to be balanced as I had discussed earlier.

So, in the inductor very very important that you need to know is that there should be volt
second balance in the steady state. This volt second balance is only in the steady state, in
the dynamics (Refer Time: 23:46) there will not be volt second balance because the
energy within the inductor has to change. In order to make it change there has to be
imbalance in the volt second. But in the steady state there is no volt second balance has
to happen so that there is no build up of flux and saturation. (Refer Time: 24:04).

dv
Likewise, in the capacitance by governing equation this Ic which is equal to C ; where
dt
dv is the voltage across a capacitance, Ic is the current in the capacitance. And

66
rearranging this you will get the voltage across the capacitance which is one by C
integral of Ic dt. Imagine there is an average current which means there will be some
equivalent dC value the integral of the dC value dt means that this value will keep on
increasing, and the voltage will keep on increasing which means the voltage across the
capacitor will go towards infinity and finally saturate. (Refer Time: 24:49) now growing
the capacitance. And therefore it is important that Ic should not have an average value, Ic
dt should be balanced by the amp second balance should be there.

So, in the capacitor in the case of the capacitance which is the dual of the inductor there
should be amp second balance during steady state; very important to note during steady
state. And during the dynamics (Refer Time: 25:17) there will be some imbalance so that
the voltage across it will be built out or discharged. And once the steady state is reached
there has to be a amp-second balance cycle by cycle. Now this is a very key concept, in
fact the input output relationship of all DC-DC converters switched mode DC-DC
converter is based on these two important key concepts.

The volt second balance under steady state condition is used to determine the input
output voltage relationship of converters. The amp second balance is used to determine
the input output current relationship. Of course, one could also use the volt second
balance to determine the input output relationship and assuming an ideal converter to
determine the input output current relationship tool.

So, remember these two, in fact they will be using the volt second balance in almost all
converters to find the input output relationship. If every result the buck converter circuit
that we give you earlier let us put some generic values. Now this amplitude is Vin minus
Vin Vo as we discussed earlier during the ON time (Refer Time: 26:46) the pole is
connected to T1 the voltage across the inductance is Vin -Vo. During the OFF time and
the pole is connected to T2 it will be 0 minus Vo, so it will be -Vo here the amplitude.
Now, this is the time period which we will call Ton and this is the time period we will
call Toff, that is for duration of time T1. The inductor voltage you see Vin-Vo, for
duration of time Toff the voltage across the inductor is -Vo.

Now let us apply the volt second balance to these parameters. Now consider this part of

67
the equation (Vin- Vo)Ton, this is basically the area of this rectangle (Vin-Vo) Ton. So,
this height into this width is the area of this rectangle or this is the volt second of this
positive part of the inductance waveform. Now this is minus Vo into Toff which is the
width, so let us add to that plus minus Vo into Toff this part of the area. So, this volt
second plus this volt second should be equal to 0. Then we say that there is volt second
balance. So, this equation if you rearrange you will to see that it is of this form Vin Ton
minus Vo we can take it to the other side minus Vo Toff to other side we have Vo[Ton +
Toff]. Ton + Toff is nothing but the total switch in period. So, the total switch in period is
Ton + Toff; this is Ts.

So, still further rearranging we see that Vo = Vin Ton / Ts, this is Ts. So, this would be
the input output relationship for this buck converter. This is just as an example I thought
I will mention this to you, the importance of the volt second balance of the inductor.
Whatever may be the converter if you take the volt second balance relationship of the
inductor you will get the input output relationship. This is the key concept that I want to
convey in this particular video of the lecture.

68
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 08
Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost Converters

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

Coming to this Buck converter here, we see that the energies flowing from the Vin side
to the Vo side. Vin side is the higher voltage side and Vo side is the lower voltage side,
now if we look at it in reverse from Vo side to Vin side then the operation would look
like a boost action, such a converter will be a boost converter.

Now, let us redraw the circuit in that perspective and see how a boost converter comes
into being. It consists of input supply there is no change there, we need to have an output
load there is no change there, and the major change is here the inductor and the switch
combination. In the case of the buck converter the inductor is in the output side and the
inductor which is connected to the pole and the throws are on the input side. In the case
of the boost converter as we are seeing in this direction from the buck converters output
side to the buck converters input side we have the inductor now on to the input side and
the throws on the output side. Of course, we have a capacitance at the output as usual
because we need to filter the output voltage. Now these are the main constituent
components of the boost converter.

69
(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

Now, let us interconnect them and then observe how it is compared with the converter.
The circuit connections are made here and you see this is the circuit of the boost
converter. The inductance is on the input side connected to Vin other side is connected to
the pole, the two throws of the switch-single pole double throw switch are connected as
shown here; throw 1 is connected to the ground, throw 2 is connected to the output
capacitor and the load; this is a boost converter. The operation is very straight forward.

When the pole is connected to T1 the inductor charges up. The current flows in this path
as pointed by the arrow, charges up the inductor. Magnetically the pole is at 0 potential.
Then when the pole is switched to T2 the inductor current cannot go to 0, so it has to go
through the pole T2 and then the output capacitance and the load and flow back. So, the
inductor will discharge the magnetic energy to the output. In this way it will boost the

di
input potential with respect to the output potential by virtue of the L , generating force
dt
which it will force pump the current through the T2 path into the output. So, this is how
the boost converter operates.

Later we will use the volt second balance across inductor to find out the input output
relationship. Observe that the inductor is always connected to the pole, both here in the
boost converter and also here in the buck converter the inductor is connected to the pole.

70
 di
This is because the inductor current cannot change suddenly. Now the L will cause a
dt
very large voltage across the inductor if the current changes suddenly and that very large
voltage will get imposed on the switch element or the capacitor element and something
will blow.

Therefore, one has to keep the inductor current continuous. If you keep it in either of the
throws either here or in this converter the throw current will break, it will the switches
switch from one throw to the other and therefore the inductor current would break if it
was placed either in the T1 throw R bar and the T2 throw R. Therefore, the only place
would be to place it along in series with the pole, because the pole will always see a
current either of T1 or of T2. So, in this primary converters it is always required that the
inductor is placed in series with the pole.

So, we have seen one action in the buck converter where the inductor and the pole are
placed towards the output side and here the inductor is placed towards the input side,
where the pole is on the input side. Now we have one more such possible position that is
we could have the pole in between that is the place it in this fashion where the pole is in
between we have input on this side and the output on this side. Let us see how we can
construct a circuit like this. This will result in a buck-boost converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

71
Now, we still did keep the buck converter as a reference, the buck-boost converter which
we are trying to draw will also have the input DC voltage, the output load and there will
be the output capacitance and of course the inductor connected to the single pole double
throw switch connected to the pole of the single pole double throw switch. Now these
would again form the primary constituents of the boost converter, we have the single
pole double throw switch the inductor and the capacitance and they need to be
connected, this side to the input this side to the output.

Let us now make the connection. After having done the connection the circuit looks like
this. This is the buck-boost converter we shall name it so, the various parts are also
named here, this is Vin, this is the single pole double throw switch the pole connected to
T1 as shown here T1 is connected to Vin, T2 is connected to the output side and this is
the inductor L the capacitor C is like this, as(Refer Time: 06:57) shown.

Now, the operation of the buck-boost converter is also pretty straightforward. Now let us
say that the pole is connected to T1, so Vin is connected to L through the pole and
charges up the inductance magnetically. And then when the pole is connected to T2 the
current in the inductor is going in this direction going down will not change path and it
has to follow in this direction to continue to have the current flow in the same direction
in the L. So, the inductor will charge up to this capacitance in this way through the
capacitor and the load and then flow from T2 to P.

So, which means that the capacitor will be positive on this side as shown here, this will
be the positive so therefore it will be better to connect the capacitor inverted like this
with this side positive. In the case of the buck-boost converter the output will be
inverted, if the input is positive the output will be negative, the input is negative the
output will be positive. So, this is how the buck-boost converter operates the input output
relationship of the buck-boost converter is also obtained in the same manner using the
volt second balance across the inductor. Shortly we will also look into that how to obtain
the input output relationship of the buck-boost converter.

The next important thing that we need to now identify is, what is this single pole double
throw switch? A single pole double throw switch is a symbolic switch here that we have
shown, but this has to be replaced with the array of new components. So, we have to

72
replace with power electronic devices, so to do that we use two power semiconductor
devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:15)

Now, this is a BJT. This BJT is one controlled switch likewise one could us an IGBT or a
MOSFET controlled switches instead of a BJT. There is no problem in that any
controlled switch for that matter will do. And another device is a diode. Now these two
devices can be used to make up this single pole double throw switch. So, we can place
the BJT in this fashion and series that with throw T1 and the diode can come along
through T2.

Now, let us remove this switch and redraw the connections. This is the buck converter
circuit a practical buck converter circuit, this is Vin the positive is connected to the
collector of the BJT the emitter of the BJT goes to the pole the diode connected the
cathode connected to the pole. The reason why the diode is connected in this way is,
when this switch is on you will be using this base drive to turn on the BJT and this is on
the current flows through like this the diode is reversed biased as it is or current flows
through the inductor charges of the inductor and flows in this fashion. When this BJT is
switched off in that case the current in the inductor cannot be broken so it keeps flowing
in this path freewheeling through this diode. So, in this way both the throw 1 and throw 2
are emulated using this power semiconductor device couplet.

73
Remember that this BJT can be replaced by a MOSFET or an IGBT or any controlled
power semiconductor switch. So, boost converter circuit is shown here, in the case of the
boost converter two we need to replace the single pole double throw switch with power
semiconductor switches. So, here at the throw T1 we will put the controlled power
semiconductor device BJT or a MOSFET or an IGBT and along throw 2 we will put the
diode.

Let us now remove this single pole double throw switch and reconnect the circuit. BJT is
connected like this, the pole end is the collector and then you have the base drive here
and the emitter connected to the ground and at the pole end is the anode of the diode
cathode is connected to the output. The operation is pretty simple. When the base drive is
given to this BJT this transistor is formed and you have the current flowing in this path
and this charges up the inductor. When the base drive is removed this switch is off and
the current in the inductor flows through this path in terms of forward biases this diode
and flows in this path (Refer Time: 12:53). So, this will give you the boost action. So,
this is the boost converter circuit with practical realizable semiconductor devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:08)

Now, for the buck-boost converter; this is the buck-boost circuit which we saw here
again we will replace the single pole double throw switch with 1 BJT and 1 diode. So, 1
BJT which is the controlled switch will connect here, the uncontrolled switch of the
diode will be placed here. Now let us remove this switch and reconnect the circuit using

74
these power semiconductor devices. After having made the reconnection you see that the
circuit is like this, the BJT is connected to the pole point in this fashion emitter is
connected to the pole point the diode is connected in this direction to the pole point.

So, when the BJT is on we give the base drive, BJT is on the current flows through Vin
BJT, inductor, charging up the inductor in this path. When the BJT is switched off the
current in the inductor cannot change direction so instead it flows in this path through the
capacitor, load, diode and back. So, this is how the buck-boost converter works and
charges up the capacitor with a reverse polarity.

So, in this way the buck, the boost and the buck-boost are now replaced with practical
realizable power semiconductor switches which can now be simulated and even
implemented in hardware. This is the buck converter circuit we shall now go to the
writing pad and see the input output relationship with (Refer Time: 14:57) the parameter
D or the duty ratio.

Let us now define the parameter d. Now d is called the duty ratio. Now what is the duty
ratio? This is the ratio of the on time by the total switching period. So, if I say that we
have the y axis and our x axis and let us say the switching period is divided into two
parts where thing is switching period Ts and this period is the on-time Ton, then duty
ratio d equals Ton/Ts this is by definition. So, this is a very important ratio which we will
be using throughout in switch mode or converters.

Now, during the period Ton that information let us say we have which goes high during
the period Ton. And during the period Toff it is low and again during the Ton it is high.
Now this wave shape will be the base drive pulse, this will be the base drive pulse Vb
and this Vb is what will be given here in the form of a pulse shape and there will
appropriate circuitry which will make the transistor on and off. So, when Vb is high
transistor will be on, Vb is low transistor will be off. This is how the buck converter will
operate.

Now, let us use this d which is equal to Ton/Ts for obtaining the input output
relationship. Just remember that this part of time Ton is now dTs from this equation
which you see here this is equal to Ton/Ts. And this part of the time we will hence forth
be calling it as (1-d)Ts. So, total overall dTs + 1Ts - dTs will be Ts and d is always less
than 1; 0 to 1. So, using this parameter d we shall now figure out what are the input

75
output relationships of all the three converters. Now first let us look at the buck
converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:51)

Now, let me call this transistor as Q. When Q is on, V in is appearing at this point this
will be V in and this will be Vo. Vb that the pole voltage will be Vin + Vbo and therefore
as we saw earlier we have Vin - Vo. This is occurring during the period when Q is on as
we saw earlier that was a period Ton time of dTs. And when Q is off the voltage across
the inductor is -Vo this is connected to the ground because of the freewheeling path of
the diode and the period is dTs assuming the diode drop is 0.

Now, these two should be balanced for the inductor to operate properly and therefore you
have (Vin – Vo)dTs - Vo (1-d)Ts is equal to 0, be careful with the signs. Now
(Vin)d=Vo(d + (1-d)). So, Vo = (Vin)d this is a very useful relationship in terms of the
parameter duty ratio.

76
(Refer Slide Time: 21:22)

Next we will take up the input output relationship of a boost converter in the similar way.
We have here the circuit of the boost converter and like before we will call the BJT the
symbol Q and the base drive is given here as pulses. When Q is on the period is called
dTs and when the Q is off the period is called 1 minus dTs; like here. During the period
when the Q is on this is connected directly to the ground, so potential at P is 0 potential
on this side of the inductor is V in, so the voltage across the inductor is V in. So, it is V in
into dTs plus and during the time when Q is off the diode is conducting the current is
magnetically discharged from the inductor into the capacitance on the output. This is at
Vo potential and the diode is conducting and therefore Vp is at Vo potential, this is at Vin
potential. So, you will have during that time voltage across the inductor is (Vin – Vo) (1-
d)Ts = 0.

You should understand that during the time when Q is on the potential across the
inductor is Vin and for volt second to balance to happen the potential across or voltage
across the inductor should change the sign, and as this potential becomes Vo when the
diode is conducting for it to change sign Vo should be higher than Vin. So, automatically
for volt second balance or energy conservation to happen Vo has to be higher than Vin
which is the boost effect.

So, now coming back to the equation here, we see that Vin = Vo (1-d) with Ts going out
and therefore if I write Vo it is Vin / (1 - d). Now see here that at d is equal to 0 that is the

77
Q is never turned on the inductor eventually becomes short, Vin comes directly to the
output, Vo will be equal to Vin V is [Link] d is closer to hundred percent duty cycle this
denominator becomes a very large value when d tends to closer to 1 and Vo will become
high a very high value.

But it is important to know that when d is 1, then the transistor is not switching and it is
continuously on the diode is off and the capacitors decouple from the circuit and it will
eventually discharge to 0. So, you should never go to d is equal to 1 but d closer to 1,
approaching 1 that is when the circuit will operate because the switches will have to
switch for circuit to operate. However, the input output relationship for the boost
converter is like this and at d tending to 1, Vo will shoot up to a large value. Now this is
the input output relationship for the boost converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:28)

Now, let us look at the input output relationship for a buck-boost converter. The buck-
boost converter again we call this as Q and we apply the base drive here, so when the Q
is on this is called the dTs period and when the Q is off it is called 1 - dTs period. So,
during the time period when Q is on the voltage across the inductor is directly the battery
voltage the input voltage, so Vin occurs directly across the input across the inductance.
At that time it is Vin into dTs plus during the time when it is off Q is removed and the
diode is connected because the inductor is freewheeling in this fashion.

78
So, let me ask you the same direction and evaluate for the voltage across the inductor.
When the diode is connected here it is Vo that comes into this picture directly across the
inductor and it will be Vo into 1 minus dTs. Now this should be equal to 0. When you
solve this you see that Vo is equal to minus Vin d / (1 minus d). Observe the minus sign
here because I have assumed the direction of measurement of the voltage in the same old
wave and this is positive with respect to this, but actually the capacitor charging positive
in this way and automatically because the volt second balance equation you will get this
minus value which means that this is plus.

So therefore, this is the input output relationship for the buck-boost converter at d is
equal to 0, Vo is equal to 0, at d is equal to 0.5, so the numerator is also 0.5 denominator
is 0.5, Vo is equal to minus Vin and at d tending to 1 or should let us say greater than 0.5
at Vo duty cycle greater than 0.5 the denominator is smaller than the numerator Vo is
greater than Vin magnitude this is boost operation. At d less than 0.5 the denominator is
more than the numerator, therefore Vo is less than the magnitude of Vin and this is the
buck operation.

So, you see that it will operate as a buck converter for d less than 0.5 and operate as a
boost converter for d greater than 0.5. Hence, the name buck-boost converter and this is
the relationship for the buck-boost converter. Now we know the input output
relationship, we know the circuit of the three primary converters. We are now ready to
simulate this circuit and see how it operates and look at the waveforms.

Next what we have to do is open gschem, gEDA gschem put the circuit in it and then use
ngSpice (Refer Time: 30:38) to simulate and see the various waveforms, and that is what
we will do.

79
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 09
Simulation Example of Buck Converter

Let us begin the simulation of the buck converter we shall move to the applications start
up the gEDA schematic, (Refer Time: 00:29) the schematic capture unit. Let me go here
type first save this I will put it into DC DC and let me call it as a (Refer Time: 00:44) we
call this one as buck. So, we have the dot sch file here.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:45)

So, now we will start loading the components and like before I will go into the
components we need capacitance(Refer Time: 01:07), we need voltage source not sine
wave these are the default we will change that to DC voltage source, we will need the
diode, we will need an inductor, we will need resistor for the load then we will need a
power switch, we need power switch controlled switch.

So, this is a generic controlled switch could be an IGBT or MOSFET (Refer Time:
01:54) or a BJT. Now to control the drive, to give the drive for the switch we need to
take a block for here go the a block library (Refer Time: 02:12) and take PWM single, as
it is only one switch that we need to control and then let us pick one more source block
for giving the input to the control element and that we can take from even these groups

80
then, we need the labels, we need the power rails. So, the generic power symbol this is
for the labels we will keep it on one side we need to label the various parts we need the
ground symbol of course, very very important you cannot do a spice simulation without
ground symbol, and then we need to include the directive, include directive. Recall that
we would like to include our custom library which will now start growing it has two
components diode and the macro diode model.

So, in place (Refer Time: 03:37). So, these are the components that we have to deal. So,
let me first give a label name for that and then we shall go to save it as to refer to edt
zero one dot sub. The same name that we gave for rectifier and to that file will include or
add few more custom models. So, let us place now this is a DC source, which would not
be a sine. So, let us keep the DC source value of 12 volts (Refer Time: 04:19).

And this one will be Vin. So, we have this, input source and this is also a DC source. I
will plot now with this as zero point five volts and call this one as Vc or the control
voltage that you would give for the PWM. So, let us call that one as Vc, which we need
to be doing that input of the PWM here. Let us organize the, now for the buck converter I
will try to rotate it and then place it here and then we need to have a diode rotate that and
then lets place the diode here, then we need to have a inductor place it in line. So, that
(Refer Time: 05:33) it is easy to make the connection wires. Let us rotate load resistance
for path place it here, and the PWM somewhere here and this. So, these are positions that
we can make a copy of ground symbol and paste it. So, that you have one more ground
symbol here. Now, let us next step is to make the connections.

So, this gets connected here. Emitter to the inductor, diode to the pole, to the capacitance
to here. (Refer Time: 07:04). Let me drag it make a connection make this connection
here and this has to be connected to this. This would be connected to this and we have
almost all connections observe that here it is just over lapping and not making the
connection the spice has not got a node point here, but if it puts the node point then it is
connection be careful that should not happen. So, we shall put a ground node point there
and we will put the ground node here. So, I will leave the switching frequency default at
10 kHz which would be in 100 micro seconds as Ts switching to here. Now, let us put
some nodes here. So, now, this is my Vin node.

81
So, I will name it as a, I will this is our pole node. So, name this as p as we had discussed
the output node, name this as o. Let us have the gate drive node also to see how the gate
drive looks like and that we will call as g the gate drive node and of course, in all control
voltage Vc. So, if we look at the gate drive node here, here you will get the pulse width
modulated signals, pulse signals which will be controlling the on off of this and how the
power gets pumped into the inductor and the output capacitor of the load.

Next, let us put in some proper labels and we say this is switch there is only one switch I
have not named it as Sw 1. x means that this is the sub circuit x PWM is the sub circuit.
So, that is named and d only one diode make that 1. So, no need to give a(Refer Time:
10:31) number. 1 C and this is our Ro. So, let us I will give some values. Later on, I will
show you how to calculate values for now I will put in the values here. 10 mH, thousand
μF, 100Ω at the output and the 10 kHz switching frequency and you have 0.5 volts as a
control voltage here.

Now, this will complete the schematic part of it. We need to put in the model for this and
put in the model for this into to the sub-circuit. These two are the components is a sub-
circuit the generic model for this will coming back and how the PWM is made PWM is a
analog behavior of model and that also will come in here ngSpice is very powerful it also
permit's analog behavioral model where you can give logic and analog signal processing
and interface that digital and analog mixed signal processing (Refer Time: 11:59) is also
possible. Very very powerful spice tool (Refer Time: 12:04) to have. So, let us now go
and save here good time to save.

82
(Refer Slide Time: 12:37)

So, this is the buck. sch which is there in the DC DC folder here and I have copied the
edt01. sub from the rectifier example that we did in the last week and placed it here. This
contains exactly the same content as that was. Now here we will add two more one is for
the switch and other for the PWM triangle. Now for the switch I will put in these lines.
These are the sub-circuit, this is the power switch, the power switch which is there in the
schematic that we explained. (Refer Time: 13:03).

So, this is the power switch. When you double click on that you will see that coming up
here the value field. It has a positive node and the negative node that is what this is
positive ns, n is the negative and Vcp is the control pin. Now it uses a switch and 2
diodes to model this particular power switch. How it looks like is as follows. Let me
open up my writing pad it goes like this.

83
(Refer Slide Time: 13:51)

So, I have that switch, this is the switch and let us have diode like this and a
freewheeling body diode in this manner, these we forming it as nsp. This is called nsn
and there is control pin nVcp. So, this is blocking diode it allows only the forward path
as far this switch is concerned and any freewheeling action goes through the body diode
which is D body. So, this is essentially what goes into a makeup this sub-circuit. So, let me
close this and come back to this. Now here if you see there is a diode model, the diode
model already we have defined for rectifier, we do not need to define again. There is a
switch model which we need to define. This is using the using the(Refer Time: 15:13)
.model command of spice. So, switch is also recognized by spice but let us indicate here.
So it goes in at this point.

84
(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

So, now we have the switch model and sub-circuit model for power. And we have the
power switch well defined. Let us save this. Next we have to define the PWM. For the
case of PWM block we shall do it this way let me put in the text for the model. So, you
see here this is sub-circuit PWM triangle np in and np out and there is a parameter
which is switching frequency which you can change and will vary for different circuits.
It has these parts. I have used a as a prefix for these lines here to indicate that they are
analog behavior of modeling, not necessary that if you choose a, but it is a good practice.

Now it has three major parts which I will show by going to the notepad. So, now, what is
done is; there will be comparator and to the comparator arms let us say you have plus
and minus. You will give a triangle generator here, and this is where the comparison
input for the control voltage is time and this would get compared with the triangle. So, if
I am having a triangle which is from minus one to plus one so zero in between and let us
say my control voltage Vc cuts in like this.

So, you would (Refer Time: 17:30) in effect have Pulse Width Modulation which looks
like this and so on. So, it will compare with this control voltage and if the triangle is
greater than the control voltage you will get a high pulse, the triangle is lower than the
control voltage will get a low pulse. This in one way or if the control voltage is higher
than the triangle you would get the inverted waveshape (Refer Time: 18:18) like this, and
whenever the control voltage is higher than the triangle it would come out like this. So,

85
whether it is this or this output would depend upon your plus or minus that you set for
the comparator, but you can generate at well the suitable time for PWM pulses for this
kind of a configuration.

This is (Refer Time: 18:53) effectively what that we are doing here. So, we have triangle
generator just like what you have shown here. We have a comparator, a compare and
then a limiter. What happens is at the output of this will swing to +15 and -15 to the
positive and negative range. So, you will get swing from -15 to +15. We need to limit it
to such that it goes 0 to 1, 0 to 1. So, normally we put a limiter here and this limiter will
see that the output will from 0 to 1.

So, this is exactly what we have been doing. So, we have a triangle generator and
compare and it is model and limiter the output of which you see that the lower limit is 0
upper limit is said that 1. This analog behavior modeling is interesting you should look
into the ngSpice Manual, it is very very elaborate and discusses in detail how to do
analog behavior model. (Refer Time: 20:14)If you go into the n g spice user manual and
in the chapter mixed mode and behavioral modeling with x spice, x spice is integrated
into ngSpice you will see the analog behavior on models given for various function
blocks. And we have used the limiter, we have used summer, these two blocks and then
triangle generator.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:15)

86
So, if you go in to the analog behavioral model read the complete description on each of
these model are given and how to use them into your sub-circuit.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:53)

and see that here when it is prefixed with a (Refer Time: 21:04).

(Refer Slide Time: 21:00)

So, try to go through this part of the manual try to get much better insight into analog
behavioral modelling. Coming back to our edt [Link], let us save and close this. So, this
is included here. Next step that we have to do is have a [Link], that we can simulate

87
that. We shall now open note pad and then save it as [Link] in DCDC. So, you have got
that and let us enter the cir statements.

So, let us write buck converter circuit leave one space dot ram that is 1 micro second,
100 ms (Refer Time: 22:19) use initial conditions and dot include buck dot net then save
this file. So, now, we have all the things in place, buck dot cir, buck dot sch that we have
to generate the net list and then simulate. So, let us do that. You go into terminal cd to
DCDC we have there (Refer Time: 22:56). So, use the command g net list hash g spice
dot spice dash spb now to output buck dot net from [Link] (Refer Time: 23:09)

So, if you do that buck dot net is generated with a have a look at that. You see that this
models which we have told let us utilize and then the net list comes in here, this is what
we have (Refer Time: 23:28). So, now, time to simulate. So, in the ngSpice [Link] that
is loaded run the simulation. Simulation runs and everything is available and you can
plot. So, plot let us say Vo. So, this is the plot of the output it goes and settles at around
between 8 and 9 volts and then we have given a duty cycle of point 75; how did you give
a duty cycle point 7 5.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:37)

Recall that in the schematic, you have given point 5 volts here and we know, that let me
go to notepad. We know that we have the triangle which moves from minus 1 point 0 to
plus 1 point 0. We have a given at threshold control voltage threshold at (Refer Time:

88
24:59) 0.5 volts. So, this would be 75 percent of the time and therefore, you will have
something like this. So, this will have d = 0.75.

So, this is how 75 percent duty would have (Refer Time: 25:20) come. So, 0 point 7, we
have given an input voltage of 12 volts or Vo will be equal to dVin which is 12 (0.75).
So, this would be 9 volts because of the drops in the switch these are not ideals switches
and drops in the diode you will get slightly less than 9 volts. So, that is why in the plot
(Refer Time: 25:53) you saw we will get around between 8 and 9 volts. We could also
have look at the current plot IL. You can see here what to plot you have the (Refer Time:
26:12)branch. The moment anything hash branch is there means their current signals
available for you to see and these are the node voltages.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:22)

With the current signals these are all the transients and steady state occurs somewhere
here. You can just take two cycles. So you see the inductor current rising during the ON
time magnetically it is getting charged and the inductor current is falling during the off
time this is when (Refer Time: 26:56) it is getting discharged and gets pumped off the
output. So, the simulation works and you can see the various waveforms to understand
the buck convertor circuit. We shall now go back to our notepad and the study a bit more
on the waveforms of the primary converter circuits. (Refer Time: 27:21). You should
play around with these because we have just put arbitrary values. You can improve the

89
dynamics by reducing the capacitance value and also play around with the L value to
adjust the ripple current value and then save it and you can try what happens.

So, go back to this one. You use the up arrow to get back to that command line generate
the at least again then go into ngSpice run, plot. So, let us say you want to see the
current.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:14)

So, you see the current dynamics are improved; it has reached the steady state earlier
when in the earlier case when capacitance was 1000μF. So, in this way you can try to
learn with more about circuit by changing the parameters and now allowed in about the
currents and the voltages of the various critical nodes (Refer Time: 28:38) and branches.
Then we close it, quit n g spice and that completes the simulation.

In the case of boost and buck boost converter what you have to do is change the position
of the switches diode and the inductor according to their respective topologies and redo
the net list and then run the simulation. I leave it to(Refer Time: 28:08) you for trying out
the boost in the buck boost converter along same lines as we did for the buck converter.

90
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture - 10
Understanding Buck Converter

Now, let us look at the BOOST Converter waveforms.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

This is the BOOST converter, I hope you recognize this topology the inductor is on the
input side and when this (Refer Time: 00:31) is formed using electro current flowing in
this direction charging the inductor when this is on you will see the inductor current
pumping through current into the output capacitor in the output flow. So, the base drive
or the gate drive for this power semiconductor switch which is given here to turn it on
and off is shown in here in the g, like the code as in the BOOST converter.

So, when the signal is high the transistor is on, when it is low the transistor is off. So,
that is what we use convention. During the time when the transistor is on it is on the
period dTs, and during the time when the transistor is off it is called period (1- d)Ts. Now
take the pole voltage where also two critical things are; pole voltage we have to see and
the current through the inductor. This flow will give the information to rate your devices
and components. As before the pole voltage here is easy to detect. So, when the device is
on the pole voltage here will be 0. Whenever the gate drive is given, the pole voltage will

91
be 0. And whenever this is off the diode is conducting the inductor which I have sent the
charge to the output. So, when the diode is conducting output is connected to the board
so it will be Vo. So, it will be 0 goes to Vo then goes to 0 and goes to Vo so on and so
forth.

So, let us put that waveform here. This is the wave form that you would expect to see in
an ideal case at P at the pole voltage. And we know that this is Vo value because when
the transistor is off diode is conducting and Vo point and the pole(Refer Time: 02:42)
point are same, so which means that in the case of BOOST converter the Vo is actually
the maximum value of the pole voltage. Looking at this pole voltage you can rate the
transistor and the diode. During the time dTs transistor is conducting, diode is off. So,
what should be the diode withstanding capability? This point is connected to 0, this is 0
and this is Vo

So, the entire Vo value is coming as reverse voltage across the diode and the
withstanding (Refer Time: 03:26) voltage for diode should be Vo that is one rating which
you can have of diode. And likewise for the BJT when the BJT is off diode is conducting
Vo value comes in here and the BJT should withstand and the Vo during its off condition
as in the waveform. So, voltage ratings for the devices can be got from the pole voltage.
Now for the inductor current; so inductor current here also go in with a triangular ripple
kind of a wave shape as we discussed in the buck converter, but only the values the
amplitude the significance will be different.

So, let us say that we have an inductor current wave form something like this it is rising
with one slope and falling with one slope and so on. Now the rising slope is during the
time when the transistor is on which is Vp is connected (Refer Time: 04:40) to 0. So, the
raising slope is Vin the voltage across the inductor by L, so this will be Vin/ L slope. And
this falling slope is when this is off and the diode is conducting and this point is at Vo.
Vp is Vo, so the falling slope is Vin – Vo. This is (Vin – Vo)/ L that will be the falling
slope. Why do we say it is falling? Because the output voltage is greater than input
voltage, so Vin- Vo is negative. And therefore, you have a negative slope, so it keeps
continuing.

The average value of the inductor current is not Io as it was in the case of buck converter.
In the case of buck converter the inductor was on output side and therefore the average

92
value directly indicated Io. Here the average value is indicating the source current or the
input current Iin. Here also we can define a ∆ I L, the peak to peak ripple amplitude of the
current.

Next let us see the components of the inductor current. During the time when the
transistor BJT is on the inductor current flows through like this you have the inductor
current charging up the inductor and therefore it has to linearly increase. So, let us put
that current wave shape, so this is the component of the inductor current which is
flowing through the inductor and the switch BJT Q. So, this is Iq. And during the time
when the switch is off you will see that the current Iq is 0 and during the time when it is
on we just follows the inductor current. And during the time when the switch is off the
current through the diode should be the blank portion, the other portion let me fill that in,
so it would be like this.

So, the yellow regions are the part of the current that flows through the diode, so that is
also the current that is flowing through the capacitor or not combination. Let me remove
out the blue region so that we have some clarity in the current flowing through the diode
and which will again split up in to Ic and Io current. Now this yellow wave shape is the
one which is flowing through here and this is having two components; one is the average
component and the AC component. The average component will flow through Ro that is
Io. And the AC component which is having zero averages should flow through the
capacitors.

Now, let us say the average value of this current is placed somewhere here and that
would be Io. The average power component placed here that would be Io. So, you will
see the capacitor this triangular portion of charging the capacitor and this bottom white
portion here I am indicating is capacitor discharging into the load. And there should be
this area should be same as this area. This triangular upper area and this area should be
same to have charge balance we will look at that shortly.

So, this is how the current wave shapes coming to picture and about the rating. If you
take the current rating for the BJT you will see that the average of the inductor current
will be Iin. And Iin and Io are related if you use the capacitor charge (Refer Time: 08:54)
balance you will see that d Iin = Io or Iin = Io / d, and therefore you know the average
value for the BJT here.

93
So, BJT has to be rated for this weak current here which is Iin + ∆ I L / 2. Likewise, the
diode and the output average current Io it is a spec given to you and it is actually the
average value of the yellow portion of the waveform.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:47)

Now, let us look at bit close at the current wave form, so that we can calculate the values
of C and L. In case of the BOOST converter we saw the inductor current waveform is
something like this. Then draw the inductor current waveform here and we have seen
that there is a kind of a triangle waveform. (Refer Time: 10:05). Now what you are
interested is this average value which we call Iin, and Io where you be somewhere here
and that is actually coming as the average of this part of currents we saw that just now is
not it. Now, how are Io and Iin interrelated? If VoIo is the output power and VinIin are
input power, we say that there is in an ideal sense, there is no loss within the converter
because they are either using switch components or we have other components which are
L and C’s both are non-dissipative.

So, the input power should be equal to the output power, so these two should be equal.
Now you know the relationship between Vo and Vin the case of the BOOST converter.
This is valid for any converter VoIo = Vin Iin. Now in the case of the BOOST converter
we say that Vo = Vin / (1-d)Io = Vin Iin, so we can remove this and we will say that Iin=
Io/(1-d). We get the current relationship. We can do it this way or you can use the charge
(Refer Time: 12:01) balance in the capacitor to get the same relationship. So, Iin can be

94
found out because Io is a spec Vo is obtainable by the voltage relationship and Vin value
is known.

So, knowing the value of Iin you can say that Iin +∆ I L/ 2 will be the peak value here,
Imax value and that will be Imax value you have to rate both the BJT and the diode. The
current rating for the devices. The average value of those will be the average current
rating of the device and for the diode, diode peak inverse rating will be should be greater
than Vo and even for the BJT be V CEO should be greater than Vo as we saw from the pole
voltage wave form, the VP (Refer Time: 13:15) form.

So, this way you find the relationship of the input current and the output current in the
case of the BOOST converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:33)

Now, if you look again at the BOOST converter inductor waveform you will have the
defined C. I will tell you how to move about. You can probably use it for practice and
then this is the inductor current wave form and this is I L (Refer Time: 14:00). And the
portion that supposed to flow through the diode is this. This is portion that is supposed to
flow through the diode. So, I said this is the diode current. Now this diode current splits
into the capacitance and also into the load Ro. So, what flows here will be Ic and what
flows here is Io and this Io is DC and what flows here should be 0 average. And we
know that Io as it is specified this will be Io value, that is it and what it will be. And what

95
most of the capacitors should be actually this ripple portion, this is a huge ripple (Refer
Time: 15:11) portion.

So, these two areas should match, this is for the capacitor. Now Io value goes in to the
Ro and by Kirchoffs law, (Refer Time: 15:22) current flow here the remaining portion is
the diode current value minus Io goes into Ic. So, minus Io will be for the capacitor this
Io line is the 0 line, so which would you mean this area as shown this area should match
this area for (Refer Time: 15:43) charge balance.

Now, if I find the delta Q for this I know that this I is Io and this width is dTs when the
inductor current is rising you know the area that is the charge Io into dTs and this is equal
to C∆V. So, you have a way of calculating C, rearranging this, you have Iod /(∆Vfs) we
will see Io is specified. From the input, d is calculated from the input output relationship
fs is specified. Given ∆V is the design spec this should be a design spec you will allow
some amount of ripple on the capacitor, so based on that the value of C we will again
calculate.

So, normally 10 percent of Vo is used for ∆V and calculate the value of C. So, this is how
you will calculate the value of C, likewise you can calculate the value of inductor L too.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:23)

So, again looking at the BOOST converter we see that this is the inductor current
waveform, the average value Iin and we know that Iin is equal to Io/(1- d) for the

96
BOOST converter case knowing the value of Io and we know the value of Iin. And what
are these slopes? This slope for inductor to charge on the pole voltage is 0 during the
time and the switch is on and therefore this charger current in Vin / L rate. So, the

di
charging L is meant by when this goes down this will be (Vin – Vo) / L. As Vo is
dt
greater Vin this will be negative slope in the falling slope. So, you could use either of the
slopes to evaluate the value of Vin / L the raising slope here is having one variable we

di
could use that, so you will say Vin / L is nothing but and as the rates are linear they
dt
are straight lines they will approximately by ∆I L / ∆T. Now ∆T in this case for this
period is dTs. So, you will say ∆IL by dTs.

Now, this two parts we can combine together and we have L which is dVin /∆I Lfs. Ts is
put as 1 / fs. This would be the value of the inductors. And you can calculate the L max
using maximum value of d, d max. How to find d max use the relationship? So Vo is
supposed to be kept constant, Vo = Vin / (1-d). Vo is supposed to be regulated. So, if Vin
goes max you would like to make the duty cycle min to get the same Vo value or if Vin
goes min you would like to increase the duty cycle to get the value of Vo.

So, Vin min; Vin max and Vin min are known from the input spec tolerances. And you
knowing these two, Vo is known it is also a spec you can find using d min. Using these
two equations you can find out Vomax. So, you can use d max here to find out the max
value of L. (Refer Time: 21:18) When you are doing the calculation for the value of L.
Now, that would give you the design equation for the inductance. Keep in mind now that
we have only found the value of L, but we have not yet made the L where you need to
have a magnetic code and you will have to calculate the number of windings and the air
gap to be introduced to actually the manufacture the inductor with the physical inductor
needs to be manufactured to obtain a value as you see on the screen here. So, how to go
about manufacturing the inductance using the magnetic and the magnetic code and how
to wind it how that I will discuss in the next weeks lectures.

97
(Refer Slide Time: 22:11)

Now consider the buck BOOST converter the third of the primary converter. You
recognize the topology I suppose here, you see that the inductor is in between neither it is
on input side nor on the output side you see that when the trans BJT Q is on the inductor
gets charged up by a current flowing from the input supply in this fraction and when the
BJT is off the inductor current cannot be stopped and therefore it will start flowing in this
fraction, such that the inductor current is in the same direction into the inductor. And as a
result the capacitor will be charged with the polarity where the plus is here and therefore
you get a negative voltage of the output.

So, this is the operation of the buck BOOST converter which we studied before. Now let
us see the wave form and the critical point that is at the pole voltage and also the
inductor current. Vg is the gate drive that you are giving to the BJT or any power semi
conductor switch when Vg is high the BJT is on, when Vg is low BJT is off. The
definition of time period is as shown here dTs is the duty cycle Ton time of the BJT
minus dTs is the off of BJT. So, for this kind of a gate drive when you look at the Vp of
the pole voltage when the BJT is on Vin is appearing at the pole, and when the BJT is off
drive is conducting minus Vo is appearing at the pole. So, let us draw the waveform for
that and the position it here, so this would be the wave form that you would expect to see
at Vp in the port.

98
Now, when the BJT is on we expect to see this amplitude to be Vin amplitude coming
directly here and when this is off diode is conducting negative of Vo will come in here,
because Vo is positive at this point. So, you can expect to see minus Vo at this point. The
Vo measuring at Vo itself you will see Vo negative and it will have a negative value of
DC as shown. This pole voltage give the information for rating the voltage rating of
devices when the BJT is on this diode is off the voltage across that is Vin. Vin at this
point and this is -Vo, so the diode has to withstand the entire voltage which appears
across this rule; so this whole height of this waveform from here to here is Vin + Vo.

So, you have a Vo and you have a Vin this gives us voltage loop equation if you apply
that is the amount of voltage potential that the diode has to withstand or look at the pole
voltage the height from this point to this point the diode as to withstand, which is Vin +
Vo value. Vin + Vo is this peak inverse voltage which will be greater than that and when
the diode is conducting this device is off when this device is off this is at -Vo and this is
at Vin, so Vin – (-Vo) again (Vin + Vo) there the devices to handle. You see that here the
device ratings will be much higher than in the buck converter or in the BOOST
converter.

So, the buck converter has a the least voltage rating, the BOOST converter will have
higher rating and in case of the buck BOOST converter you have Vin + Vo as the rating
for the devices. And coming to the current; the current wave shape for the inductor will
be similar except that the notation will change this average value will be Iin + Io you see
that average value of the current which is flowing the time it is on this is Iin, flowing the
time this is off the time would be flowing here Io. So, average of Iin an average of Io
both are combining and flowing through L.

The average value here will be Iin + Io and that is what we get it here. And likewise we
have a positive slope, negative slope. When the BJT is on Vin / L is the positive slope
and when the BJT is off - Vo is appearing across L, and the down slope the negative -
Vo / L.

Now, let us now look at the components of the inductor. First let us look at the
component that flows through the BJT. So, this part of the inductor current, the blue part
flows through the BJT. The average value of this blue part is Iin and that the peak value
is the average value of the inductor current is Iin + Io + ∆ I L, so Iin + Io + ∆IL will be the

99
value. And for the current that flows through the diode you will see let us position it like
this the yellow part is the current that flows through the diode, and average of the diode
current is Io value. Like in earlier case probably I showed that the average of the diode
current value is the Io just like in the case of the BOOST converter and let me remove
the this wave form, so that it becomes clear to close see that this is the diode current
wave shape as you would see on a CRO(Refer Time: 28:51).

The rating for the diode you can take from this particular wave shape. So, the inductor
current peak value Iin + Io + (∆IL/2) will be the peak current value. Average value will be
Io value. So, this would be the ratings for the diode. In exactly the same manner you can
calculate the value of C. As we did for the BOOST converter you see take this wave
shape, the area under this will be the delta Q, area under this will be the delta Q, IodTs
during this time would give you the delta Q. And exactly like the BOOST connector
converter value would get the value of C. And the for the rating of the transistor here we
saw this blue way form just now would also be like the diode current ratings. The peak
rating will be Iin + Io + (∆I L/2) and the average will be Iin not Io, but Iin. That will be
the rating for this. Iin you can find out knowing the V value and Io and Io is a spec given,
so Iin can be calculated.

So, I will leave it as an exercise for you to find out the value of L and the value of C on
exactly the same manner that we did for the buck and the buck BOOST converter. If you
are not able to get it then leave it up in the forum then I will discuss that once again. So, I
will also put the simulation circuits for practice so that you can practice the simulations
and see the wave forms. Do the simulations for all the three converters and look at the
pole voltage waveform and the inductor current waveform not only for the buck
converter which we did in the class even for the BOOST and the buck BOOST converter.

100
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 11
Understanding Boost and Buck-Boost

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

So, this is the BUCK converter. We are familiar with the circuit by now, we need to rate
the components, the switch, the diode, the inductance and the capacitance. These are the
four elements that we need to design this. To rate the components properly we need to
have an understanding of the various waveforms that are pretty critical.

Now, the pole voltage VP is a very important waveform that you should understand
because it will help in rating both voltage rating of both these diode and the transistor.
The current waveform of the inductor is very critical because this is an important part in
this component, in this particular topology see that is current through the inductor gives
information about the current flow in the input and therefore, the current flow in the
transistor, the current flow in the diode because the freewheeling current also flows
through the inductor, the current flowing through the inductor also divides into the
capacitor current and the current through the load.

As we had discussed earlier, the current through the capacitor will have zero average
value in steady state and the current through the output load will be at pure DC. So,

101
keeping these things in mind, let us construct the waveforms and based on the
waveforms we can just read off the rating values of the various components. Let us now
start by placing the x and y-axis. Now, I have to here x-axis which is the time axis and on
the y-axis, we have three important things Vg; Vg is nothing, but the gate signal which
we will be applying at this point. I did not want to put it as Vb because it may be
confused with battery voltage. Therefore, I am calling this one as Vg as we had indicated
in the simulation and this is the signal to drive this on or off.

So, what is that signal? And before that the other important variable voltage that we need
to see is the pole voltage; pole voltage the voltage at this point P with respect to the
ground and then the current that is the inductor current. Now, the pole voltage will give
information on this diode rating in terms of voltage and the rating of the transistor and
also the voltage across the inductor to check for the volt second balance. The current of
the inductor will give lot of information on the input current, the current through the
diode the current through the capacitance current through load.

So, let us look at them one by one. For the voltage, let me install this here. So, this is the
waveform, the voltage waveform that we would see at the base or the gate of this power
semiconductor switch. The time, when the pulse is high then the switch is on the time
when the pulse is low, this switch is off and during that time the diode is freewheeling.
So, this time would be the dTs time and this time would be the (1 – d)Ts time, this is the
on-time and this is the off-time. So, we shall mark them accordingly. So, let me place the
marks here. So, this is the dTs time and this is the (1 – d)Ts time.

Now, such a waveform we will apply at the gate now. So, what happens, during the time
when this is on Vin comes to the pole. So, the pole voltage will be Vin value and during
the time when this is off the diode is freewheeling this path and the pole voltage is
connected to the ground. So, it will be 0, let us mark that. So, I am going to place this
waveform here. So, see here that the blue colored waveform is the pole voltage
waveform that appears here during the time, when the Q is on and the pole voltage is
high and it is Vin value and the value there let me indicate by this symbol Vin.

Now, this has an average value. So, let me indicate the average value by a line like this.
So, this is the DC value that you would see at the output because this is the average of
this, what is the average of this Vin-this area and this portion will get average down this

102
will fill up here and then you will get a smooth and that is our Vo, Vo which is dVin is the
average of the waveform

Now, if I take the average at Vo whose amplitude I am indicating by the arrow will be
Vin minus Vo and this amplitude from the average value to 0 would be Vo. So, this
portion in fact, would be the waveform that you would be seeing across the inductor. So,
you see that the portion above the average and one below the average. So, that yellow
portion is the one which will be appearing across the inductor and there should be volt
second balance doing the top portion of the yellow and the bottom portion of the yellow
portion of the waveform above and below the average value.

So, the yellow portion of the waveform is what is called the VL or the voltage across the
inductor. So, this wave the voltage the pole voltage here has so much information in it. It
gives you what is the average output. It gives you the voltage across the inductor and the
volt second balance that is happening and with this we can rate these two components
Now, let us see during this period the dTs period, the transistor is on. If the transistor is
on the pole voltage here is Vin then what should be the peak inverse voltage of the diode.
The peak inverse voltage of the diode should be Vin or at least greater than Vin because
this diode has to withstand a value of the potential equivalent to Vin.

Now, let us say this is off and this is freewheeling. So, when this is freewheeling this is
pulled to the ground. So, the emitter is pulled to the ground and this is at Vin. So, the
voltage withstanding capability of this BJT or any other power semiconductor switch
which is placed here should be Vin which is this value. So, you see that this by looking at
the waveform and the pole voltage waveform, we have found two important ratings of
these two devices, the voltage withstanding rating of the switch and the voltage
withstanding rating or the peak inverse voltage of the diode.

Now, let us look at the inductor current, I have drawn a green line here, the green line
here is not the inductor current, but it is the current that is flowing through the load
assuming very negligible ripple across the output, I have approximated it by a straight
line and this is the current that is DC current flowing through the load, we will call that
one as Io. So, this is Io, and now how will be the current through the inductor when the
transistor Q is on the voltage here is Vin and the voltage here is Vo. So, in the steady
state Vin - Vo is applied across the inductor.

103
(Refer Slide Time: 10:28)

So, let me take the writing pad to give a view of what is happening. So, consider this
inductor and it is receiving the voltage across this V L, which is equal to Vin -Vo at some

di di
index. So, we know that VL = L and where i is the current flowing through the
dt dt
inductor is given by VL / L ratio or it is (Vin – Vo) / L ratio.

di
So, this is the or the slope of the current waveform. So, at this slope the current
dt
waveform should increase. So, if I draw this slope, during the time when the voltage
across the inductor is (Vin – Vo) it should increase like this because Vin is a constant Vo
is a constant, L is a known constant. So, the rate has to be a linear one and this is (Vin-
Vo)/ L and during the time when the switch is off. We saw earlier that this side of the
inductor becomes 0 and here it is Vo and what is applied is -Vo.

di
So, what is the rate di under such conditions would be, a change in color some, VL/
dt
L, becomes – Vo/ L. Now, - Vo /L indicates negative slope. So, it should start falling at
this rate. So, this would be – Vo/ L and negative slope falling and then the subsequent
cycle again should go in this fashion and start falling. So, this would be the shape of the
current through the inductor

104
Now, what will be the average value? The average value flows the average value flows
through the output and that is nothing, but Io and the ripple value the one with that
component with 0 average will flow through the capacitor. So, through the capacitor the
one marked like this is what is going to flow. So, this is what we can expect and let us go
back and have a look at that slide. So, the average value of the inductor current is Io and
that is what will go through. The ripple component of the inductance will go through the
capacitance and there would not be the ripple component here. So, let us place the ripple
component here and see.

After placing the ripple component here, you see that the wave shape is just like as we
had discussed during the time, when Q is on and that was charging up and this charging
up rate is (Vin – Vo) / L and then the inductor is discharging during the time when it is
off when it is discharging it is freewheeling like this and it is falling down at the rate of
minus Vo / L and it keeps on repeating under steady state condition like a triangle and the
one that is filled up here the colored filled up portion is the 0 average portion and that is
what will flow through the capacitance the filled up portion is the capacitance current the
average value of that is current flowing through Ro and this entire wave shape is the
inductor current.

So, you see that you get again here, lot of information in rating the components, if you
look at the current flowing through the BJT; the BJT the current flows only during this
portion something like this. So, let me. So, only during this portion the current through
the BJT flows. So, you can rate your BJT for this it has a peak current of Io plus this
ripple peak. So, if I say that the ripple amplitude is like this ∆I L, then the rating of the
current for BJT will be Io + ∆IL/2, which would be this peak that will be the peak current.

The average current rating will be Io into this duty cycle d and for the diode it will
appear like this during this time, whenever the switch is off the diode is freewheeling and
during this time. There will be current flowing through the diode and it is the same
inductor current which has split into it therefore, the diode also has to have the same
peak current value Io + ∆IL/2and the average value would be value of Io(1-d).

So, this way you get the value of the current that would flow through the input and the
value of the current that flows through the diode 2, now these are the critical waveforms
that you have to be clear about and when you do the simulation, you should actually try

105
to observe these effects in the simulation and see that this is what you are getting at this
waveform is the waveform of the capacitor current, which flows through the capacitor
this would actually be the 0 line in case the inductor current this line would be the Io
line.

Now, let us consider the current flowing through the capacitor. Assuming that this green
line is 0, there is no average Io component has flown to the load side, now what is
important in the capacitor is that for charged balance and second balance this area should
be equal to this area. So, the amount of charge put into the capacitor should be equal to
the amount of charge taken out. So, this will be delta Q

(Refer Slide Time: 18:33)

Now, looking at the capacitor waveforms we know that this is the time that inductor
current has magnetically charged up. So, this is dt and this is the time when the inductor
current is falling with a slope of minus Vo / L and therefore, this has to be the (1– d) Ts;
however, if you consider the triangle this upper triangle and the bottom inverted triangle
are similar triangles because you see that the total height is ∆I L therefore, the height of
this triangle is ∆IL / 2, the height of this part of the triangle is also ∆I L / 2 and therefore,
the bases are also equal because they are similar triangles the height is the same and you
can easily say that the base is Ts / 2.

So, going from - ∆IL / 2 to +∆IL / 2and this is a straight line the midpoint which is at 0 in
the case of the capacitor will be half the distance likewise coming down the midpoint

106
will be half the distance in time and therefore, this will be Ts/ 2, the other base will also
be Ts/ 2.

So, now let us look at this triangle, the area of the triangle will give you the charge. So,
the charge will be half base into height of the triangle, which is half the base is Ts / 2 into
height of the triangle ∆IL / 2 which is Ts∆IL / 8 or further ∆IL / 8 times, fs which is the
switching frequency, Ts is the switching period fs is the switching frequency.

Now, delta Q are the change in the charge, in the capacitor is given by C∆V/V operation
of the capacitor. Now, this we know is ∆I L / 8fs and therefore, we can find out C, C is
equal to ∆IL / 8fs ∆V. now this is an important relationship which you can use for finding
the value of the capacitance that you need to put for the buck converter.

Now, out of these things fs is a design step which is known ∆V what is supposed to be
the ripple across the capacitance is also obtained as an output ripple spec that the
capacitor is also a design spec the capacitor should not have ripple beyond this particular
value the value of ∆IL is also a derived spec while designing the inductor because you see
the ∆IL value is assumed as around 10 percent of Io max. So, this is I have a design, and
starting designed value which people use or in some of the specification minimum value
of Io is specified. So, based on the minimum value of Io, ∆IL value can be obtained.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:56)

107
So, let us look at the inductor finding the value of the inductor, finding the value of ∆I L
becomes clear.

So, for now you can see that the capacitor value can be calculated knowing the value of
∆IL ∆V and fs; fs is known ∆V coming from design spec ∆I L also coming from design
spec. So, let us now look at finding the value of the inductor L. So, we know that in the
case of the current, it is rising at the rate of (Vin –Vo) / L at that rate and then it is falling
at the rate of – Vo / L this is. So, for the case of the buck converter, where the average
value of the inductor current is Io?

So, this we have seen just now, just for this the various waveform, when we are studying
the various waveforms the inductor current goes by the Faraday’s law V L, the voltage

di
across the inductor is equal to L and VL / L is there. So, this is what we have here now
dt
you could use either of the slope there is one variable in the only single variable in the
output is the falling slope.

So, therefore, we could use that. So, let us say that this rate, I will just take the rate

di
absolute value of the rate this slope finally, is the delta and because they are all linear
dt
straight lines people say ∆IL / ∆T now in this particular buck converter waveform case
∆IL is this much. So, there is a change in ∆I L from here to here in terms of time within
this time.

So, this time was one minus dTs for the buck converter case you could do the same in the
upward slope also and you will get the same result. So, ∆I L that was, is ∆IL itself. So, this
is nothing, but ∆IL / (1- d)Ts. So, in this time period we have this rate Vo / L. So, we are
writing here you will see that Vo / L will be ∆I L by one minus dTs or L equals
rearranging this equation you will see Vo(1-d) / ∆IL fs. So, I will replace it by fs because
fs is another design spec which is normally given d is the duty cycle. So, to get the
maximum value of L we could use the minimum value of d that is d min.

108
(Refer Slide Time: 27:39)

So, if you consider L max you would get Vo - d min / ∆IL fs. Now, how to get the value of
dmin, now we know how to get the value of Vo. Vo is equal to dVin . Now, in this Vin is
given and Vo is given normally Vo is the spec Vin is also an input spec. So, d is actually
calculatable. So, we calculate d = Vo / Vin and normally you will see that Vo is supposed
to be regulated, it is supposed to be a constant value, it should be regulated in spite of
variation in Vin.

So, you will see that d could be Vo / Vin max or Vo / Vin min and any value in between. So,
this could be the limiting values where Vo / Vin max = dmin value and Vo / Vin min = dmax
value. So, this is how we calculate. Vin max and Vinmin are found from the input tolerance
spec. So, you can find dmin and dmax and then use this dmin value here to find out the value
of L, sorry it was for minimum duty cycle. It will also for any other duty cycles the value
of L will be large enough to take care of any other duty cycles.

Now, one other issue is here I mentioned that Vo is a spec f is also a spec f is, f s is also a
spec and Vo is also known d is known. So, everything can be used for calculating except
IL and as a starting value you use 10 percent of Io max load current use this and find
some value of L.

109
(Refer Slide Time: 30:51)

There is also another way, sometimes the following spec is also given sometimes, you
will see that; let me write down this equation L = Vo (1 – d) ∆I L fs. So, you see that in the
case of the inductor this is you see the inductor current going up and down in this fashion
and here you have Io this is Io.

Now, what would happen when Ro value is increased, if Ro value the output load
resistance value is increased you will see Io decreasing. So, Io will keep decreasing, but
you see that their delta IL and the rate the slopes here will not change they will because
they are determined by (Vin – Vo) / L and Vo / L here and therefore, if they are
independent of the load resistor value or the load current value.

So, the shape of this triangular ripple will still remain and the height of the ripple will
also remain. So, in the limit you will see that it may just touch lines are not straight. So,
it may just touch the 0 line like this. So, this would be considered as Io min minimum
value of Io that value of Io, where the inductor current ripple just touches the 0 line
would be the Io min because the average of that will be Io min.

So, in this case, in this limiting case if this was supposed to be the delta I L. So, you will
see that ∆IL /2 would be equal to Io minimum or ∆I L is = 2Io minimum and this is a very
important condition that you can use for choosing the value of ∆I L; ∆IL should be the two
times Io minimum where Io minimum is specified. So, this is specified, if this is

110
specified by the user then you can use this to find out the value of delta I L. If this is not
specified then you use delta IL is 10 percent of Io, this is how you try to find.

Now, here one more point is that this at Io minimum, this is just touching the 0 line. So,
this is at the boundary of continuous conduction, what it means is if you go any further
we could have the triangle coming like this and I am putting this in dotted, if there is a
bidirectional switch you will see the inductor current going negative, but the series, the
switch if it blocks then you will see that the inductor current goes like that. So, this is a
sudden change in the slope during this point.

So, the inductor current reaches 0, there is a change in the slope and then again change in
the slope. So, that is why we say it is discontinuous or the conduction period itself is
discontinuous. You have a period where the inductor current is present period where the
inductor current is 0 not present again, it is present. So, this is discontinuous conduction
zone or DCM for this one, this type of an inductor current waveform is called DCM and
all waveforms above the 0 line, this type of waveform showed in blue or continuous
conduction or CCM. So, you should ensure that the inductor current is operating in CCM
and not in DCM because all the analysis that we have been talking about is for a
continuous conduction mode.

111
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 12
Forward Converter Topology

In this video capsule, we shall discuss the isolated converters till now we have been
discussing on the non isolated converters, like the buck boost and buck boost converters
these were called the primary converters using these primary converters, other converters
are derived called the derived converters and among the derived converters the isolated
converters are also part, we shall introduce. In this session, this week's session an
important component called the transformer a high frequency transformer that will play a
very important role in the isolated converters the transformers do 2 main functions one is
to provide isolation that is physical separation galvanic isolation between the output part
of the circuit and the input part of the circuit another important feature is the terms ratio
you have scope to design the terms ratio appropriately.

So, that you can have a wide operating range we shall definitely look at the design of the
transformer both electrically and magnetically and see how to choose the core and also to
design the windings and we shall look at how to solve some of the magnetic issue that
will come like course saturation and things like that.

Even the inductor we will take the design values that we learnt in the last week and the
build the inductor, physical inductor. We need to choose the core for the inductor and we
need to determine the windings and see how to introduce the air gap. These physical
issues and magnetic issues will be addressed in this course. So, this course this week we
will focus more on these isolated converters with a bit more emphasis on the isolation
components magnetic components like the transformer and the inductor. So, we will
discuss the forward converter which is one of the buck derived converters, other buck
derived converters are the push pull the half bridge and full bridge converters. The other
family of converter that we will discuss is the buck boost family. One of the most
popular buck boost derived converter is the fly back converter which is very, very
popular and you will see it in most of the commercial power supplies.

112
So, we will definitely have to look at it and see, how we go about designing it’s magnetic
components and isolation components then, we will definitely have a look at simulation.
We will take a few example circuits put it through these capture using cesium and then,
use ngSpice engine to simulate it and look at the results and see if we can get more
insights into the circuits.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:32)

This is the buck converter circuit which you are by now, very familiar with we will be
starting from this non isolated buck converter and developing the forward converter,
which is an isolated converter and derived from this buck converter. All buck derived
converters will have the output co-portion which, is like this the diode inductor capacitor
load combination this portion will be the prominent feature of the output side of all buck
derived converters. There will be change in the input portions.

Let us start first with rearranging some of the components and see where we can put the
transformer. Now this is the buck converter, we have put the switch on the positive arm
of the supply. We can as well put this switch on the negative or the return path of the
current without affecting the operation of this whole buck converter circuit. Let us do
that for example, let me move this down and let me move this up let me reverse this in
such a way that it is compatible for the return path the current flows in this direction and

113
it returns back in this direction. So, the transistor is now compatible and made correct to
the operation of the flow of the current.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:06)

Now, this is still the same old buck converter the operation is exactly the same and you
will see that when this transistor is on the V potential comes across the diode turns off
the diode and the V potential charges the inductor and the voltage across the inductor is
Vin here minus Vo here. So, it is Vin - Vo in dTs period and during the time, when this is
off there is no return current here current flow here in the inductor is freewheeling
through the output capacitor and the load and this is conducting and this is 0. So, it is
zero minus Vo. - Vo / L is the rate at which the current falls.

So, the regular operation of the buck converter remains the same the input output
relationship also remains the same mainly, what we have done is we have shifted from
the positive rail. We have shifted the switch from the positive rail to the negative rail in
doing this, we have made the gate drive or the base drive referred with respect to the
ground point here or the negative point of the supply which is much easier to achieve
next. What we will do, we will further re-position this BJT or a transistor in the
following way.

114
(Refer Slide Time: 07:21)

Let me click on this BJT switch and let me rotate it in such a way that it is facing in this
fashion. Further, let me also position it such that it is in this kind of a topology. Now I
will put in some labels, let us say this is a label indicator just like we do in spice and I
will put say that this is Vin that is; where the positive of the supply is attached and this is
the ground. Now I need not have this I will remove these portions.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:55)

115
So, this is still the buck converter the same old buck converter and the operation still
continues to remain same. This BJT switch, when it is on there is a voltage Vin which
appears across the diode reverse biases the diode current flows through the inductor
charging up the inductor and flows back in this fraction and when this switch is off the
inductor free wheels through the output circuit. Operation remains the same, input output
relationship also remains the same. Now we need to introduce a transformer. This is an
appropriate place where, we can introduce the transformer and we will push the diode
inside and start placing the transformer there.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:50)

Now, what we shall do we shall move this diode inside a bit like this we will make some
space to introduce the transformer here. So, let me position it in this fraction here, you
will have the transformer coming in that place there the transformer. Now is in the
situation where, it can operate properly when the switch is on and the switch is on there
is a voltage appears appearing for the primary that primary voltage gets transformed to
the secondary and the diode is reversed by this diode is out of the picture the inductor
gets charged and so on.

And when the switch is off the inductor is freewheeling like this and the secondary of the
transformer is a short circuited and there is no chance for the core flux to reset and, if the

116
core flux does not reset in the next cycle you will see that the moment this is on the
current will be in such a way that it will try to saturate the core we will see more on this
later. But to complete the circuit we need to insert a diode here such that, when the
inductor is freewheeling there is no short circuiting of the secondary of the transformer
this diode will prevent short circuit current in the secondary, like this way it decouples
the buck portion of the circuit. So, let me now clear up the clutter and we will put the
circuit neatly in the following manner.

So, now I have cleared up the clutter and then connected to the circuit properly and you
see that this is the isolated buck converter and this is called the forward converter. So, no
longer should we call this as buck converter it should be called the forward converter,
forward because the power is that the power is sent forward into the output section
during the time, when the switch is on as against the fly back converter when the power
is sent into the output, when the switch is off. So, it is a just a nomenclature and the
convention this is called a forward converter in the literature world over. So, we will
stick to that name.

After having placed the transformer here, let us now assign the dot polarities to the
primary and the secondary. So, let us that is the dot end for the primary and likewise this
is the dot end for the secondary assigning dot polarities is very very important you have
to do that for every transformer. For every coupled component, you would have. What it
basically indicates is that the relative polarities of various windings.

Now in this case when, the transistor is on this non dot end is connected to the ground
the dot end is connected to the Vin. So, the dot end is positive with respect to the non dot
end likewise the secondary side the dot end would be positive with respect to the non dot
end and when, the transformer when the transistor is off there will be a reversible
polarity where the non dot end is positive with respect to dot end, also on the secondary
side. So, it is very, very important that you test the top polarity assignments for every
transformer that you would use it in a certain way.

Now, we have to give a core reset flux reset path for the transformer when the BJT is off
the inductor here is freewheeling this diode is off the transformer secondary is open

117
circuited the transformer primary is also open circuited you have to now give a path for
the core flux to reset. So, let us provide a resistance-diode combination here such that the
core flux can get reset to in this path. So, let me use resistor first in this fashion and then
a diode which will get connected like this here and then of course, complete the
connection the by making a wire connection in this fashion. Now this circuit is a fully
functional for a converter circuit. So, when the transistor is on when the switch is on here
this is at ground potential this is at Vin potential this diode is reversed by as it is out of
picture this whole arm is out of the picture. So, this voltage is transferred here and
charges of the inductor in the normal beam. So, it will be a buck converter.

When the switch is off at that point there is a reversal of polarity here the inductor is
freewheeling and the primary side here will freewheel in this fraction and thereby reset
the core flux. So, this part is very, very important without this part this core this
transformer isolated forward converter will not work. So, this freewheeling path is very,
very crucial path this is right now a lossy freewheeling path later on I will also discuss
touch upon loss less freewheeling path for now, we have to now look at the input output
relationship and then the equations before looking at the input output relationship. Let
me place here the transformation ratio one is to n now this indicated that for every one
winding or n windings here or just to indicate that N 2 / N1 is n. If n is greater than 1 then
it is step up transformer, if it is less than 1 it is step down transformer.

118
(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

Now, this forward converter I have added this one is to n turns ratio. What this basically
means is for every 1 turn here, there are n turns in the secondary, n can be greater than 1
for stepping up, n can be less than 1 for stepping down. Now, let us see that during the
dTs period. So, during the dTs period this transistor is on. So, what is the voltage here?

The voltage here is Vin and the voltage that appears across on this side is nVin because;
of the turns ratio 1: n. Now nVin comes here at the core of the buck converter and here
you are having Vo. So, you see that during dTs time you have nVin - Vo as your inductor
voltage into dTs. During the (1 – d)Ts time this transistor is off. So, during the (1 – d)Ts
time we have the transistor going off. So, that is that is this during the (1 – d)Ts time this
is off, now this would become plus there is a reversible polarity, there is a freewheeling
through this diode. Let us say I call this diode D1 and this is at zero volt D1 is ideal. So,
you have minus Vo appearing across the inductor into 1 minus dTs. Now that should be
equal to zero this will lead you to the input output relationship very similar to the buck
converter except that you have a n term appearing here.

So, if you rewrite and solve for Vo you get Vo = ndVin. So, this would be the input
output relationship for the forward converter that what we have drawn shown here, and
when this inductor here is freewheeling in this fashion this diode is off secondary is open

119
the primary is also freewheeling in this fashion. In the primary this is positive with
respect to the dot end. So, there will be a freewheeling action happening here. Now the
moment it is freewheeling let us say diode is ideal there is a Lm in the primary, the
magnetizing inductance and this resistance R. So, in L / R ratio, there will be a current
which will be decaying.

So, it will be decaying with a L by R time constant exponentially. So, exponentially the
flux will decay. So, here if we say this is some resistance R then Lm is your magnetizing
inductance the current I here will have a wave shape which starts falling like that with
the time constant of τ equals Lm / R. So, you will have a falling time constant like this.
So, by the time it reaches 0 here, the core flux would have almost come to 0 flux. So, this
is a very important portion the diode R combination is a very important portion of
forward converter to bring about core resetting.

Of course there is one major problem with this R it is dissipative. So, it will bring down
the efficiency right now, we will go with this R type of core reset. Lossy core reset, later
on I will explain a method where you can have a loss less core reset too.

Next, let us look at the wave forms of the forward converter which will give us more
insight and then which will lead us to the design of the various components.

120
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 13
Waveforms and Design

In this video capsule, we shall look at the wave forms, some critical waveforms of the
forward converter. The output portion of the forward converter is like the buck converter
and therefore, the inductor current, the capacitor current and output load current parts of
the waveforms will be exactly same as that of the buck equivalent, buck converter
waveforms that we discussed. What we should now look at is the waveforms of the
primary side switch, the secondary side currents and the freewheeling current for core
resetting. These are critical waveforms which we will look at and that will give us an
idea of how to go about rating the devices and selecting the components.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:05)

We see here that the forward converter is moved to one corner. So, that I have made
some space here to put in the waveforms like before whenever discussing the buck
converter i have here the waveform of Vg or Vg is actually the gate waveform not the
waveform that you would give here. So, this is the signal that you would give here when
the signal is high this BJT or the semiconductor switch will turn on. So, this is the period

121
when the switch is on, this is the period when switch is off, this is the dTs period-on time
1 minus dTs period is the off-time.

Now, let us look at some critical wave forms we know how the buck converter operates
and then we know how the pole voltage will be exactly like what we discussed for the
buck converter one difference would be the turn ratio n coming into the picture. I would
briefly show you that and then we can move on to other waveforms now let us say i will
position V or Vp here the waveform would look something like this just like before, the
only difference would be in the value here which is nVin when the switch is on during
that time here you have Vin and what gets transfer to the secondary’s nVin and nVin will
come across at this point.

So, that is what we have shown here and during the time when the switch is off the
inductor current is freewheeling in this fashion and Vp is 0. So, that is what you would
get here and the resulting average of that would be the Vo. So, let us say I will position
the average somewhere here just an indicating measure and Vo is something like this. So,
this is the Vo waveform. So, as far as the buck converter operation is concerned it is the
buck portion that the L and C is exactly same as before.

The inductor current operation is also very similar we will revisit that later on, but there
are some few other important waveforms that you need to look at. The primary current
that is flowing through the switch and the portion of the current that is freewheeling,
when the switch is off this is actually the core reset current the what the current that will
reset the flux within the core and makes it ready for operation in the next switching
cycle.

122
(Refer Slide Time: 04:07)

Now, let me draw the magnetizing part for Im that is flowing through the primary of the
transformer. So, when the switch is on, there is a voltage Vin applied across the primary,
which is a constant voltage. So, therefore, the magnetizing part will rise up linearly the

di
reason is that voltage of the primary is equal to Lm . So, as V primary is nothing, but
dt

dim dim
Vin = Lm . = Vin / Lm, the rate is constant and therefore, the magnetizing
dt dt
current rises up linearly like this.

So, everywhere you will see during the time and it is on, it should go like this and once it
is gone the magnetizing current has gone up like that and should also note that by

d
faradays law, There is another fundamental relationship, which is Np the flux within
dt
the core which is a more primary relationship.

d dim
So, this within the core is also having a similar form like it can be Lm and
dt dt
therefore, φ also would increase within the core linearly. So, this is increasing Vin / Np
and this is increasing Vin / Lm. So, the slope is like that now after having reached the
maximum, now you have switched off the device, once you have switched off the device
you see that the current through the transformer is immediately switched off. This will go

123
 di di
down to suppose to go down to 0 which is a high negative very and narrow time
dt dt

di di
and then you are cutting off the current that is a and therefore, a negative means
dt dt
that the voltage induced here will change polarity.

So, this will become positive and that will become negative. The dotted end will become
negative, the non-dotted will become positive and this will drive a current through this
closed circuit path turning on this diode. So, once it drives the current this is acting now
like a generator L / R time constant it will fall exponentially. So, the current the
magnetizing current will start falling exponentially like this with the time constant if this
is R and Lm is the magnetizing, this will have a time constant τ is equal to Lm / R.

Now, the flux also follows looking at this faradays equation, the flux will follow the
magnetizing current. So, therefore, the flux shape also will be similar to the flux or the
current shape. So, this will also go in this way and this is called resetting the core. So,
bringing it back to 0 that phenomenon is called core resetting and it is very, very
essential for proper operation of transformers core resetting has to be done whichever be
the topology.

So, one is the core is reset at this point here I gave it is ready to begin it is journey in the
next cycle. So, this is how the magnetizing part free wheels through this freewheeling
circuit. So, what is the current through the switch Iq, now let me draw the current
through Iq it has, as I said two parts the magnetizing part and load reflected part. So, let
me draw also the load reflected part and show you how the primary switch current looks
like.

124
(Refer Slide Time: 09:42)

So, the magnetizing current in the primary we saw this like this it had a linear part
exponential decay linear part exponential decay so on and so forth. Keeps going like that.
So, this is Im the magnetizing part. Now we saw the current here this was the inductor
current that portion of the inductor current which is flowing through here and it had a
waveform which is like this. So, this is the reflected part of the secondary current.

Now, you see that in the secondary inductor current average was Io and therefore, this
value would have been Io, but recall that when you take it to the primary side it becomes
n Io. So, this value very important gets scaled by n, now the load reflected part plus the
part magnetizing part is the current that we flow through the switch.

So, I will draw the low reflected part like this this is the load reflected part and to that let
us add the switch part that is this one. So, it gets added like that. So, this would be your
switch current. So, this current is Iq which is flowing through the switch Q. So, this part
this hash with green part is freewheeling through here I will call, it as Id, and the
magnetizing part is the one which is actually included in the Iq part.

So, this is how the current waveforms flow in the primary and the secondary of the
forward converter. We will just have a look at the voltage waveforms to understand what
is happening to the voltage ratings of the converter. consider the switch Q and let us look
at the voltage waveform across the switch here Vq.

125
(Refer Slide Time: 13:10)

Now, Vq when it is, On, is just the on state drop. So, all this will be on state drops. When
the switch is off you see that there is a freewheeling current flowing through in this
fashion there is a drop here they will of course, be the diode drop and then Vin which
completes the circuit here like this. So, if you look at Kirchoffs Loop along this path, the
Kirchoffs Loop you will see the voltage that you see across this when this is off is this R
drop diode drop and the Vin value there.

So, what actually will be Vq during the off state would be Vin + IR drop whatever is the
current high that flows through here and let say this is IR + Vd or the diode on state drop.
So, that is what will come here and out of this you will see that this is a varying quantity
and we saw that the current here the magnetizing current is going down exponentially or
be constant IR drop will also have the shape and ultimately it should when it goes to 0 it
should settle to Vin.

So, you think the Vin value you will see that the voltage will start moving in this fashion
the voltage across the device the switch will be like this. So, now, if you look at the
rating for this Q the voltage rating should be such that the off state voltage which
standing capability should be such that it is greater than this quantity and what is the I? I
in general has to be the magnetizing current, but however, you will see in factors there is
a leakage component here there will be a leakage; primary leakage in the transformer

126
series with it. So, during the time of the transistor was on this leakage was carrying both
the magnetizing plus the load reflected component.

So, nIo component, nIo + Im value will be the value which I will start off at this point at
this and then once the leakage energy is decade then the magnetizing energy will decade
and formed take this V shape. So, during the instant of switch off you may see in the
scope very high spike like this now that is due to the leakage and that is when the
leakage energy causes that kink. So, I will actually be n Io plus I magnetizing peak.

So, this into R, plus Vin + Vd should be less than Vceo rating of the transistor or the
MOSFET. So, based on this you know this you know this by design this can be the value,
data sheet value of the chosen device knowing all this, this can be estimated, this is one
condition. It only says that the value of R so chosen should meet this constraint. There is
another constraint the value of the R should not be too low to avoid this spike because it
is too low there is a time constant involved for this decay and five times the time
constant should reset the core flux in the available time Toff.

So, five times Lm by R time constant should be less than the Toff time or which is (1 –
d)Ts time. So, this is this is known Lm is known from design of the transformer this
value can be estimated. So, these two values from these two inequalities will give you a
higher range and lower range and based on these two higher range and lower range you
should pick a value in between this range to satisfy your circuit requirements.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

127
Another aspect is that the power dissipation in R, the energy which is stored in the
magnetic in the magnetizing inductance is 1/2 Lm I 2max. Now, this energy has to be
dissipated with in R every cycle. So, into Ts this is the energy in joules. every cycle this
energy has to be dissipated will give you the power dissipation R which is half Lm I max
square into fs. Notice that the power dissipation in R is independent of that value of R.

So, whatever may be the value of R the power dissipation is fixed the value of R does
two components one is limit the value of this spike voltage here at Vq spike voltage at
the switch off time and also determines the time constant tau of the decay of the flux. So,
these two are going to decide the value of R and the power dissipation is determined only
by frequency and the inductance in the magnetizing current components. So, this way
you can rate the resistance value R.

So, the Q the switch both the current and the voltage ratings are known the voltage rating
is basically Vin plus IR drop here and the current rating is whatever value of the current
that flows here peak value which is Io transferred, here nIo plus delta I L. So, n times Io
plus delta IL will flow load reflected plus I magnetizing. These are the two components
that flows through here at the current has to be accordingly rated. The diode current here
and the diode current here will be rated exactly in the same way as we discussed for the
buck converter circuit L and C will be designed in exactly the same way as we did for the
buck converter circuit because the out portion of the circuit is nothing, but the buck
converter.

So, we know how to rate the resistor to rate this transistor switch, the diode, here will
have a current rating of the magnetizing current average and voltage rating it should
withstand Vin when the transistor here is switched on. So, this way you can rate the
various components. It is not a good time for you to simulate this circuit and learn more
about the various waveforms at various points and get more insides into this circuit.

128
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 14
Simulation of Forward Converter

Let us now perform a Simulation of the Forward Converter circuit that we have studied
till now. I will open the DC-DC folder and this folder I have already written the
schematic for the forward converter in the schematic file, I have also created a forward
dot cir file and the edt01 dot sub file which contains our custom models. I have also
updated it to include the new custom models for the transformer that we will be using.
So, if we open this forward converter schematic.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:05)

So, you will see on the screen the forward converter with lossy core flux reset calling it
lossy because this is the core reset circuit which we studied and this is the lossy resistor
which is going to dissipate the magnetizing energy of the core. This is essentially the
forward converter circuit that we have been discussing till now. This is the power
semiconductor switch which is going to turn on and off and it is getting gate signal from
a PWM block. And the PWM block is given with a control reference of minus 0.1.

129
Remember last time when we are discussing the PWM block we said that this triangle
within the PWM block is transiting from -1 to +1. So, at 0 if the control signal is 0 you
will get 50 percent duty cycle. If the control signal is minus 1 then you will get 0 percent
duty cycle. If the control signal is plus 1 then it is 100 percent duty cycle that. So, at
minus 0.1 it will be around 40 percent duty cycle. So, this is the gate drive signal which
is given to the BJT switch.

Now, if you come to the transformer portion, the transformer is not the regular
transformer provided by spice that is the linear transformer model. We have included a
sub circuit model here so that even saturation effects can be taken care off. One could
also use the core based model of spice here, but this is a generic model. Any good model
of the transformer can be used without loss of generality. Now this portion of the circuit
as you already know is the core reset freewheeling circuit, we have resistor and the
diode. And this is of course the input and we are applying 15 volts DC here.

On the secondary side we have the diode D1 and D2 and L, C and you can recognize the
buck converter topology in the output side. Now after that for the display of the results I
have been telling you to label the nodes like this, so you have the node A and this is node
Q. If you want to see the voltage across the device here, there is a node S here for at the
dot end of the transformer secondary. There is a node P indicating the pole voltage of the
buck converter and the node O. You should remember that the output side is not at the
ground potential, because it is isolated from the primary side.

So, whenever you want to measure a signal here it should be with respect to some point
on the output side. Let us say we have reference node R here. So, we will call this the
reference node and anything on the secondary side we will measure it with respect to this
reference node. When you want to see the secondary voltage you will say VS with respect
to R you have VP with respect to R that is VP , R, VO , R then the voltages are with
respect to this reference node. So, I have put in some typical values here in fact these are
the same values which we use for the buck converter and you can use the similar thing
for the forward converter example here two, using the PWM with the switching
frequency of 10kHz. And this is the spice include which we have been doing for all the
simulations and I have included the [Link] file. So, this profile let us simulate.

130
(Refer Slide Time: 05:42)

Now, going back to the folder the [Link]; the [Link] contains a . transient
analysis statement 0.1 micro second step and then up to 10 milliseconds use initial
conditions command. Then dot include the forward dot net, forward dot net has to be
generated which we will do now shortly. Now coming to the edt let me close, this now
the edt . sub I have already included the model for the electromagnetic transformer.

So, there is a model for the electromagnetic transformer the primary dot point, primary
non dot point, secondary dot point, the secondary non dot point, there is a default
primary number of turns secondary number of turns and C. Here C is not to be thought of
as capacitance, but as permeance. So, within the magnetic domain the permeance in the
core behaves very much like the capacitance or capacitor. So, in spice the equivalent
component would be C and therefore we have to C. I will explain more about this
capacitance permeance relationship later on when we are discussing the magnetic.

So, we have used this kind of the model here we have also put some kind of saturation
effect here. If the value of the flux is greater than a particular value then we will take the
same value of C as is given here, but if it is greater than the value a particular set value
then it will start exponentially a decaying down to 0. This will emulate the BH curve of
the core. So, this is a saturating type of a magnetic circuit and therefore this generic

131
transformer which behaves much more closely to reality.

Now, this transformer uses two further models called gyrators, and the gyrator is
modeled here. Anywhere this is the model of a control magnetic transformer and you will
find many models of transformers in the internet you can use anything that is suitable to
you. And you can also probably use the spice provided transformer and even the linear
transformer broadly state the concepts. Only if you want to look at saturation then you
will have to include something to make the core saturate.

So, we have the [Link] file also in place. Now we have to go forward and do the
simulation using the ngSpice engine which is what we will be doing.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:55)

Let me go to the terminal and inside the terminal I will go to the directory; ok so we are
in the directory and we will generate the net list and also call ngSpice after we have
generated the net list. Let us now generate the net list and go forward. So, generating the
net list is with this now familiar command g net list - g spice - sdb - o [Link] has to
be generated from [Link] of the schematic file. So, from the schematic file you give
this command and now you will see that there is a net file generated.

132
Now, we can use this net file, this net file is being called the [Link] and ngSpice can
perform the simulation. Now on the ngSpice engine ngSpice [Link].

(Refer Slide Time: 10:04)

Now, this will load the circuit schematic with the net list and now run to perform the
simulation. So, this will take some time. I will later on tell you methods in which you can
reduce the simulation time. The first time simulation will take quite some time basically
because you would have given an extended range till it reaches steady state. After it
reaches steady state you can then note down the steady state value and give it as initial
conditions and do the simulation with those initial conditions. Then you will see that it in
just a few cycles you will quickly get the wave shapes and wave forms that you actually
would like to see at various parts of the circuit.

So, now here you have some 75, 80 percent of the simulation done, you just have some
more moments to wait and you have the complete simulation done up. So, you could
plot. When you plot, let us say I want to plot the output do not just put Vin brackets o.
Now with respect to R node, because observe that we want to see the output with respect
to this R node, so it will be Vo comma R. Coming back here you will see well this is the
output wave shape.

133
Now, let us before we further investigate few more aspects of the wave forms of the
other parts of the circuit. One tip here would be, let me put that back here you have a
black background and on the black background you have the white grid and the wave
form showing up in color here. In some cases you would prefer to have a white
background and have a black grid lines and at the wave forms and color. This is
especially useful when you want to document it on cutter we take a screen shot of the
brought out result and then put it into a document.

So, to change the background what you could do, you could use this following
commands you can also always go back to the ngSpice manual and check about these
commands. Color 0; so color 0 I will now set it into white. This basically sets the
background color 0 represents background color. Set these are fixed it reserved words,
color 1 is the foreground which we use again to black. Now, the same plot command
would appear in the much deserved black white background with black foreground.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

Now with this let us see few more wave forms of interest to us. We would like to see the
inductor current wave form here. So let us have a look at the inductor current waveform
plot IL, and see I have expected the inductor current triangular wave shape this is what
we are expecting. And you observe that later on around here after the 9.5 millisecond

134
almost it is trying to reach stable point. You could probably give the initial condition at
around this value so that quickly you will see your circuit coming to a stable state from
the initial condition. That is a very nice approach to do to short term the simulation time,
if you are not interested in the trenchant.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:41)

Now, another point that we would like to see is Vq here, we have been discussing so
much about Vq the voltage across the transistor. So, Vq let us expand it to just new few
cycles and you would see.

135
(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

Now you see this is exactly what we have been discussing this is the Ton time, so
therefore on state. Then the moment the BJT switches off so you see a high spike and
then the current decades exponentially and goes towards Vin value or VCC value. So, this
is typical of the lossy flux this right hand. This exponential decay is the Lm / R time
constant and this is due to the decay in the magnetizing current. So, this is one important
wave form which I wanted to show you.

Another point important point of wave form that we would like to see is the currents that
are flowing through this, but unfortunately here there are no. See if it is an inductor being
a state or energy storing variable component the current is state variable and it will also
give the branch current of that. If it is a resistor or any other branch you will not see
automatically with the branch currents available here. You observe that the branch
currents are available in the list of plot outs only for L branch if there is a source Vin and
Vc branch.

So, you see that there will be currents available only for the source branch another source
branch and nL branch. So, how to see a measure currents at various other points? So, I
will give you one more tip here we could put 0 sources wherever we want to measure the
currents and then on simulation you will get those branch currents and then you could

136
see those branch currents.

Let us see if we can do such a thing and the meantime first what I will do is quit this plot
and clear the screen and now we will do the modification here.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:50)

So what I am going to do? The source are like this I am going to introduce here, here,
here and here no; what we could do we need not have two here, we will have one here
and one here so these two will give you all the information of the current which flows
here and one here which will give you the secondary current. So, three voltage sources
with 0 voltage value we will interpose inside this circuit schematic.

So, now you see I have made the changes which I said I will do which is to put a source
here, a source here, and a source here. Now observe also that I have put 0 voltage value
at all these source. These are just now behaving like current sensors. Now I have put the
positive in such a way that the current flows into the positive. Here we are expecting the
current to flow in this fashion it flows into the positive. We are expecting the current to
flow in this direction here also it flows into the positive and likewise from the dot end
into the positive. So, if you put the source in such a way that the positive is in such a
direction that the current flows into it then you will get a proper direction of the current.

137
Otherwise there is no other change that we have done. We have now put current sensors
and with these current sensors we will be able to get more insight into the circuit. So, let
me save this and do the simulation once again.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:10)

So, let us generate the net list, net list is generated, and now we will go into ngSpice and
run the simulation once again, so it should take some time.

138
(Refer Slide Time: 19:30)

And after that we could we could change the background color to white and the
foreground color to black. So, this would make a much more presentable display and a
display which you can later on use it for documentation purposes.

Now, while the simulation is going I would like to also show that in the transformer
when I double click on the transformer it is a sub circuit I have put here the primary
number of turns 10, secondary number of turns 20 and the permeance is 100 μ. So, this is
the parameters that are passed on to the transformer. Therefore, you see that Np 10 and
then Ns 20 means there is a turn ratio of 1 : 2.

Now, coming back to here the simulation is over and let me set color background equals
white, set color foreground equals black. Now let me plot, now what to plot? Now I
would like to see the switch current here. Now the switch current remember is nothing
but the reflected part here of the secondary reflected part and there will be also be a
magnetizing part, so these two components together form the switch current. And during
the time the switch is off the reflected part is not fair there is only the magnetizing part
which will decay. Now, this effect we will be able to see clearly.

So, I will view this current, this current and this current, so I of Vid; I of Viq and I of Vis.

139
You could see here you have the Vid branch current, Vis branch current, Viq branch
current. So, voltage of the demagnetizing winding, divert winding dit i of the current
flowing through the switch Viq and the current flowing through the secondary Vis.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:17)

Let us plot that, let me expand this, and you will see that let me also cover the see just
few here.

140
(Refer Slide Time: 22:26)

Now you see here; Viq blue, Viq this is the switch current. So, the switch current is like
this it is the blue portion clipped. Now, this is actually n times Io. We call that this point
here where the cursor is would be n times Io. Now this is actually Io current, so if I plot
inductor current it will flow all along through like this. Therefore, it may be good idea to
plot that out also I will do that later. This is actually the secondary current. And you see
the red one is the demagnetizing current. See it is so small in magnitude, so actually
magnetizing part will take a linear wave shape here and goes in an exponential manner
and from here again linear and so on.

So, let us say if I say n times Io this is supposed to match here exactly except for the
magnetizing. You will see that this will more or less come in this like this here, like a
small triangular gap be left here that would be the magnetizing portion. So, let us see
that. What I will do is, now I will give the, this is actually the secondary current into n
and n is two in this case, and now plot that and let me expand that, now you will observe.

141
(Refer Slide Time: 24:35)

Now you see this the primary and the secondary are exactly same except for the
difference which is the magnetizing part. So, the primary switch is composed of the
reflected part and the magnetizing part. And the magnetizing part actually is an amount
equivalent to this which will come and match exactly here and then this will start
exponentially decaying.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:28)

142
So, that is one aspect I would also like to compare with the inductors wave form. So, let
us say I will remove this and also put IL the inductor wave form. Interesting to see that let
me zoom in.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:33)

Now you will see the green is the inductor wave form. You see that this inductor wave
form the part when the switch is on is the same which we are measuring as the secondary
current and that is actually what is reflected though the primary. Now, let us say I have
the average of the inductor wave form is Io and that would come as the flat top
equivalent of the primary switch current which is n times Io. So, the primary switch
currents flat top equivalent, equivalent flat top current will be n Io in this case.

Now I would like to show you one more thing before closing the simulation and that is if
you want to do repeatedly some changes and check the wave form that various points
you would not like to wait long and then wait for all the simulation to run through and
then wait to see what is happening here. First of one thing what you could do is, you
could take the value of the state variables. You will see there are two state variables; the
inputs and the state variables defined system. And inputs are DC in this case and state
variables are IL and Vc.

143
So, let us take the value of IL and Vc at the end of the simulation plug it in as initial
conditions here and then you will see the simulation can be much faster. That is one
exercise I will just show you; I will just quit from here no not quit I will just plot, plot
first IL state variable. So, let us take value at the end of the simulation here click on that
and then you see the values one point at the final value it is around 1.19444, so that I will
use it as the initial condition for the inductance.

So, when I click on the value for the inductance milli Henry, (Refer Time: 28:08) I will
also put initial condition equals 1.19444. This will set the initial conditions, it will be
valid only for only for this value of inductance and the state values. And next let me see
the value for the output voltage across the capacitance plot Vo , R.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:52)

Now, let me take the n value here click on that. It is around 11.887. There could be some
minor differences does not matter it will reach stable state quickly, so that is 11.887. So,
go to the value of the capacitance and give initial condition equals 11.8871. So, this is
called capacitance and let us save this and let us close and redo the simulation.

Now, before redoing the simulation I do not want to do the simulation for 10
milliseconds (Refer Time: 29:51) now that I have almost reached stable state I will do it

144
for let us say 0.5 milliseconds then it is supposed to be pretty quick now rather than
waiting it is actually one twentieth, so let me save it and move to control n. Now let me
redo the net list. Now after doing the net list ngSpice [Link], yes. Now run this
simulation you see it is so quick and let us plot, I will plot the currents; Vid plot the
current, switch current plot the current of secondary.

Now this is again black background I do not like it, I will set color to white set color of
foreground to black and look at the wave forms again and you see that you are already in
the stable state. And you could also see the out of wave forms Vo , R and probably you
could see Vq switch, voltage across the switch.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:59)

Interestingly, we will see this is the output voltage Vo, this is the voltage across the
switch.

145
(Refer Slide Time: 32:57)

Now, this first one is a bit off because our initial condition it will take some time for it to
stabilize, it has taken just one switching cycle to stabilize and you see you get a stable
output wave form. Now you can do lot of changes in your output load and search except
any change in the state values which you have to run the simulation right from 0 to 10
millisecond once again and then re edit the initial conditions. But this tip, this trick
would be very useful when you want to do repeated simulation of the circuit for changes
other than the state values and you can quickly see the output results in this fashion.

So, I will leave it to you to explore the circuit and try to get as much insight as you can
into this forward converter operation and the wave forms.

146
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 15
Forward Converter with Lossless Core Reset

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

In this forward converter topology we saw that the core reset is done in this way, when
the transistor switches of the magnetizing current will flow in this path and dissipate in
this resistor. Instead of dissipating in this resistor which is lossy we would like to put
back that energy in to the source so that it can be used later, so there by increasing the
efficiency. For that we would not to like to have the resistance here we will definitely
have the diode, we need the diode but we will change the topology a little bit.

So, let me rearrange the topology slightly, and we would try to do the core resetting in
magnetic way. Let me put one more additional winding like this here and showing this
additional winding, they are all coupled. One important change is the dot polarity. The
dot polarity is in this direction and I am going to indicate the turns ratio relationship as 1.
What it basically means is, you saw that primary to secondary it is 1 : n, primary to this
winding is 1 : 1. Now this winding is called the demagnetizing winding. As the name

147
suggest it does just the job demagnetizing the core or resetting the core. Therefore, in the
literature you see that is winding is called the de-magnetizing winding and it is having
the same turns ratio as the primary and in fact it is wound bifilar (Refer Time: 02:50)
together. That is both the primary and the demagnetizing winding stones are taken
together and wound together so that the leakage inductance between these two is
minimized.

Now, we have the diode and let us place the diode here and make the connections. So,
after having made the connection you see that this is the demagnetizing portion of the
winding, the rest of the circuit is exactly same as the regular forward converter. We have
changed only the portion corresponding to core reset part. The diode is there the
resistance has been replaced by another winding and then it is connected to the supply.
Very important note that the dot polarity it is an opposite dot polarity with respect to the
primary’s dot polarity, which means that when this is positive, the end here is positive
and when this is negative the end here is negative.

Now let us see how this functions. This particular type of topology is now called the
lossless flux reset forward converter. So, we can say it is a forward converter with
lossless flux reset. Now this particular converter, the forward direction operation is
exactly same as what we had discussed before. When the switch is on you will see dot is
at Vin with respect to the non dot end, secondary is write becomes nVin, Vp = nVin
inductances will charge and during the period when(Refer Time: 04:58) BJT is off the
non dot end becomes positive, the secondary portion is out of the picture, inductances
freewheeling and because the non dot end is positive here also in the demagnetizing
winding the non dot end will be positive and it will pump the magnetic energy in this
path.

So, you see that the magnetic energy will be put in to the source. So, the source has to
have sinking capability and it will go in this direction. So the voltage of this will rise
correspondingly to turn on this diode and allow for the freewheeling path. In this way the
core will reset and will be back to the original status and then the next cycle will start
again. During the time when the core is resetting there is when there is a current flow
demagnetizing current flow during this you see that the diode is on and this end is

148
connected ground this and this connected to Vin, so the voltage across this winding is
Vin. Which means the constant voltages apply the across Vin and the core reset happens
with the constant rate and that is Vin / L of this particular winding or Vin / Nd where Nd
is the number of turns in this demagnetizing winding we can say Vin / Nd will be the rate
at which the flux decreases to 0.

You see that when the transistor turns on, Vin / Np is the rate at which the flux increases
and when the transistor goes off, Vin / Nd is the rate at which it comes down. And as we
are saying that Nd and Np are same number of turns, one is to one then the rate at which
it increases and the rate at which it falls are same. Therefore the maximum duty cycle
that you can offer for this type of converter is 50 percent duty cycle, because at 50
percent the flux would have reached particular level and you should allow remaining 50
percent of time or it to come back to 0.

Less than 50 percent because the off time is greater than the on time and it will definitely
come back to 0. So, this is going to be a limitation for this converter, it has a maximum
duty cycle of 50 percent. Now all the waveforms are exactly similar as the previous
except the demagnetizing waveform. It was exponential in the earlier case exponential
decaying to 0. In this case it will linearly decrease to 0, because the voltage across this
winding is constant. Let us have a look at this waveform by simulating the circuit and
probably you can also do the simulation and find out the waveforms of other parts of the
circuit and ensure that they work similar to the lossy flux reset type of forward converter
also.

149
(Refer Slide Time: 08:26)

I shall briefly show you the lossless reset forward converter that we just discussed and
see how we can do the simulation of that one. So, I have created another folder call
forward two which I have copied from the lossy forward converter circuit and I have
modified the schematic to include the demagnetizing winding that we just the focus. Let
me expand this point. So, you see all the parts of the forward converter are exactly same
here too it is same the gate drive portion, there was diode resistor for core reset. Now that
portion we have removed and we have included one more winding.

This is the new component which I have picked from the library here. So, what I have
actually picked is the transformer for forward converter which is having three windings.
And observe the dot polarities. The primary and the secondary have the same sense of
dot polarity, and the demagnetizing winding is opposite sense of dot polarity and exactly
that is why we are using. And to the demagnetizing (Refer Time: 09:55) winding we
have connected a diode. And like before I have connected the 0 voltage sources as
current sensors Viq and Vis as we saw the last simulation, and I have put Vid along with
this diode and as the current direction is going in this direction as the arrow is moving I
have put the plus sign here such that the current enters the plus sign.

Now, we can look at the currents here and see to the demagnetizing winding is just like

150
what we have discussed. The rest of the circuit will remain the same. We go back to the
terminal and let me do the net list. And now that the net list is created, ngSpice
[Link]. So, that is loaded in to the spice run the simulation, observe that I have given
initial condition just like from last time so that the simulation is very quick and you will
be able to see the result as quickly. So next I will give the background color equal white
set bcolor, now the foreground to black and plot the current (Refer Time: 11:30)
demagnetizing winding current of your switch and the current through the secondary.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

So, you are now able to see the blue one is the current of the switch and this flat
equivalent flat top value will be two times Io, this will be Io, this is nIo, 2 in this case and
you see here the demagnetizing winding let me explode that a bit zoom in and you see it
is linear.

151
(Refer Slide Time: 12:09)

So, you see that it would be having a linear slope. The forward slope is also linear; the
falling slope is also linear, because the voltage across the winding is fixed constant. And
it would have decayed and because this is a less than 50 percent duty cycle this would
have taken the same time to come down to 0.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

152
Now, let me also show one more change in the waveform that will occur is the wave
shapes across Viq across the switch. There will not be the exponential portion which we
observed in the lossy flux reset forward converter. When this switch is of this diode is
conducting, there is a Vin coming across here which will get reflected on to this. This is
positive Vin this would be positive Vin so there is a Vin here and the Vin there, so that
will be two times Vin coming across this. So, let us see that waveform to plot Vq.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:23)

So, you see that this is the Vin value. Now up to this point we see that there is steady
decay in the linear decay in the magnetizing flux and that value is two times Vin this
value is Vin, this is 15 volts Vin. And this is on 30 plus the diode drops and then at this
point diode drops conducting and this exponentially drops to 0 and this is the voltage
potential that it will finally settle to.

It should in effect ideally drop to 0 directly, but because the switches are not ideal
switches you see that it will drop to 0 in finite time. This way you can simulate and learn
more about the circuit by playing around with that part.

153
(Refer Slide Time: 14:37)

So, as you we can see this is the lossless core reset type of forward converter. There is
one problem in this and that is the issue of leakage inductance. So, there will be some
leakage inductance here. Leakage inductance means that portion of the flux that is not
coupled across between the two coils and we mentioned and we discussed that this will
be 1 is to 1 is to n and both the primary and the demagnetizing winding will be tightly
coupled.

Now, during the time when the switch is on, when Q is on there will be current flow
through the switch like this and I will call this as primary Ip and Ip contains the reflected
component from the secondary and also the magnetizing part. Now the moment the
switch goes off the reflected part anyway cuts off, the magnetizing part cuts off to 0.
Now across this leakage inductance(Refer Time: 16:08) which is not coupled to the

di
demagnetizing winding. We will see a sudden cut in the current and therefore huge .
dt
But the coupled part of the magnetizing current will flow through this demagnetizing
winding in to the supply and then back, so it will freewheel through this and then decay
that we have see. But the uncoupled part there will be one leakage inductance and that

di
will give rise to and L drop.
dt

154
Now, this drop would have a reversal of polarity, this would be plus and this would be
minus because the current has got from positive to 0, so it is a negative slope huge
negative slope because in a short time it cuts out to 0. And that drop plus Vin will come
across the Q. So, you would see where at the transistor goes off it should normally go
like this. But do not the time I switches off because of this leakage inductance you can
expect very huge spike repetitively occurring and it would appear (Refer Time: 17:46)
like this depending upon the level of the leakage inductance energy that is stored in that
leakage inductance.

So, this can blow the transistor Q and that is undesirable that should be taken care of that
should be addressed. So, to take care of that what we do is that and continue to be
lossless we use one more transistor.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:26)

I will show how we construct that topology shortly and address the issue of this leakage
inductance. Consider the topology like this. Both Q1 and Q2 are in series with the
primary like this. This is a forward converter the dot polarities, note dot polarities and
also see that the secondary side is the typical buck converter circuit.

Now, whenever you operate both Q1 and Q2 are turned on together. The moment Q1 and

155
Q2 are turned on together there is a current flow through the primary like this, the dot
end to the primary are connected to Vin and the non dot end is connected to ground Vin
appears across primary nVin appears across the secondary, normal forward converter
operation happens. Now let us say we have leakage inductance and we also have to
incorporate core reset. So, they will input to more devices in this, so let us say Q1 and
Q2 are been turned on there is a current flow in this direction, as shown by the green
arrow.

Now at this movement Q1 and Q2 both or turned off together. Now current flows along
has shown here then at this point Q2 is off we in take a branch out here and push it to the
supplying to this diode and another diode here. Recall that there is a battery which is
capable of sinking current connected here and that is important for the operation of these
types of circuits.

If we look at this circuit now, so Q1 and Q2 are on there is a current flow in this direction
as showed by these pointer. And now Q1 and Q2 are suddenly switched off. The current
continuous to flow in the same direction in the inductor and the leakage inductance, then
in follows this diode path into the supplying charges up the supply, into the ground back
up through this diode and enters the inductor the same direction.

So, you see that the inductor current continuous to flow in the same direction and even if
there is leakage present it will not hurt or it will not result in a spike, because you are not

di
breaking the current conduction path. And therefore there is no high L voltage
dt
developed across the leakage inductance. This way the voltage drop across both the
transistors will be contained and when the switches are off they this will this point is
connected to ground and the other points connected to be in these will see V in and this
points connected to Vin and therefore Q2 will also see overall drop of Vin; so both
should have a voltage which standing capability of Vin.

So, this is a diode transistor forward converter very interesting circuit, it is lossless and it
can also handle leakage inductance issues, so it is the converter that you can practical try
on.

156
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 16
Transformer Design

In this video capsule, we shall begin our discussion on the magnetic. We need to design
the forward converter transformer and then following that we need to design the
magnetics for the inductor. So, these two important topics we will discuss, we will see
how we go about choosing the core for transformer and then later on for the inductor,
and also to decide on the number of turns the thickness of the copper wire that you would
use and all those things for both the forward converter transformer and the inductor.

For this we will use an approach called the area product approach and the follow through
in a systematic step by step manner the magnetic is topic which is generally difficult to
understand because we are not able to see within the magnetics, but there are few simple
rules and if we follow them, we generally will not go wrong and transformers, as you see
here this is a low frequency transformer used in 50 hertz applications, but this is not what
we would use in switch mode power semi conductor applications where we would use a
high frequency core like the ferrite cores and therefore, designing the physical magnetics
and trying to relate it to the electrical parameters of the voltages in the current that we
have been looking at, till now is the main core issue in the design of this transformer and
the inductor and that is what we will be doing in this video capsule.

I have here a transformer with me, this is low frequency transformer and you see here
that it is composed of stack laminations these are thin laminations stacked together, and
then varnish is applied to keep the air pockets out and these laminations are made of
steel. In fact, they are made of silicon steel and they are called cold rolled silicon steel
and they have a maximum flux density capability of around one point tesla.

So, these are the common transformers which you would have seen, but these are for low
frequency applications or 50 hertz applications and if rotate it over, you would probably
see that this is where the winding is housed and this is a parchment paper and underneath

157
is the copper winding both the primary and the secondary are wound here and then they
come out of and then terminated here. So, this is the low frequency transformer just to
give you an idea, how a normal 50 hertz transformer looks like, but for switched mode
power supply applications we will not be using this material, we will be using a high
frequency material something like what is called as the ferrite core.

I have here one more example of ferrite cores, you see that this is a ferrite core; this is a
round topology ferrite core it is called hot core. In fact, this is made by the student in the
laboratory and you see here, there is a former and within the former there is the copper
coils wound. In fact, you can get a much more clearer picture of a broken ferrite, core
here you see that the ferrite core is broken and within that is the former this is the
circular bobbin and within the bobbin you have the windings primary and the secondary
windings.

So, something like this type of core material will be using and what is very common in
the switched mode power converter or DC-DC converter world is the E-E type of core.
So, this is an E-E type of core. So, this E-E type of core comes in a sphere, you will see
that two E-E’s are joined together like that and this forms the E-E core and you should
understand that the area which is inside the area of this rectangle which I am pointing out
is the window area; one rectangle not both is the window area Aw which I just mentioned
before and all the windings will have to fit in this window area and if I remove this two
parts and then if I show to you the facing part this portion what you see is the core cross
section area.

When you put the winding here and the flux flows in orthogonally to this core cross
section. This is the core cross section area and this then split's into two half core cross
sections. So, actually this is a bobbin and on the bobbin the windings are wound. So,
then after winding the bobbins are inserted into the core to form a completed transformer.
So, you will see that here this portion is the window area which I was saying and the
windings will appear.

So, if I make a cut section you will just see circles of the copper here in the window area
and apparently the thickness of the wires will be determined by the amount of power and

158
the current that it has to handle. So, understand when I mean window area, it is this area
and when I mean core cross section area it is the core cross section area of the core itself
what you would be using. So, with this visual background, let us go back to our notepad
and start writing the equations for design.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:27)

We shall first take up the design of the transformer to start with and then later on take up
the inductor design. So, in the transformer design on the electrical side I will say from
the electrical perceptive we have the following data with us, we have the voltage of the
primary, voltage of the secondary because of the turns ratio current flowing through the
primary, current flowing through the secondary and the power and the capability of the
transformer. So, on the electrical side these are the aspects that we have with us.

Now, on the physical or the mechanical side we have a core and if you look at the core
data sheets, there are two important parameters that would be given; one is called as the
core cross section area, let us see what that means, this is the core cross section area and
there is another important parameter given in the data sheets called Aw also called the
window area.

So, on the physical side we have the core cross section area and the window area on the

159
electrical side we have the voltages from the currents known to us, how do we connect
these two and come up with that choice of a selection of a core, now that is the exercise.
So, before we go further in the design I would like to show some cores, so that you get
an idea of what this core cross section area is one; what is this window area? It will help
you in identifying these two areas in any given core and also help you in selection of the
cores. So, let us begin by relating voltage and Ac the core cross section area.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:02)

The voltage and the Ac can be related. So, the core cross section area will give you an
idea on the voltage withstanding capability of the windings, and the current carrying
capability is determined by the thickness of the gauge of the copper that you use for the
winding and they have to be accommodated within the window area. So, the current and
the window area will get related. So, these two relations we shall establish and in doing
that we will actually be arriving at the design for the transformer and similarly for the
inductor.

di d
We know from Faradays law V = L =N . So, you see that the electrical parameter
dt dt
gets related to the parameter within the magnetic material which is the flux. So, taking

160
 dB
those two we see that voltage is related by NAc , where B is the flux density; flux
dt
density B is actually the flux by the core cross section area. So, these are fundamental
relationship I will be reviewing them as we go along this in case you are forgotten you
can probably start recalling them.

Now, this is an important relationship we will use now consider the forward transformer.
So, in the case of the forward transformer as I have said this is the primary, which is
connected to Vin and then you have the secondary and you also have the third winding,
when the demarcate is winding, we will come to that later because that contains almost
negligible power.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:04)

So, let us say this winding is having Np number of turns and this is having Ns number of
turns and across this winding when the transistor is formed, you will see a voltage of Vin.

dB
Now, we will apply that Vin = Np Ac and which is equal to Np Ac and because the
dt
flux transitions are linear in nature I will without loss of generality I could say it is
∆B/∆T. Now, if you look at the forward converter we saw the flux file wave form take

similar wave shape like the current. So, we saw that flux went from 0 to φm and flux

161
either went in a linear way or in an exponential decay way depending upon whether it
was a loss flux again to 0 and then after some time it again next cycle started going this
fashion.

So, there is a swing of 0 to φm and if you take in terms of B there is a swing of 0 to Bm.
Bm is nothing, but φm / Ac and we have already put Ac there this is Np Ac it can swing a
maximum of Bm and in what time the time period is dTs and in the case of the forward
converter, we know that the on time cannot go beyond 50 percent of the duty cycle, 50
percent of the total period. So, D is 0.5 max therefore, let us say worst case this can be Ts
by 2. So, Vin = 2Np Ac Bmfs. So, I will correct this to Ac now this is a very important
relationship this is one relationship which relates the voltage to many other physical
parameters. So, in a voltage is related to number of turn core cross section area the
magnetic materials Bm.

So, in the case of ferrites Bm will be around 0.2 tesla, you see the saturating flux density
for these ferrites is point three tesla. So, allow one point two tesla and the frequency the
switching frequency it would be 10kHz, 20kHz depending upon what you are setting as
the switching frequency. So, this is one part of our work done, we now have to relate the
current to the window area which we will do now.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:12)

162
Now, the windings will have to fit within the window area. So, I will give the example of
the E-E core can be drawn the cross section of the E-E core I am going to draw that and
this is in this fashion I think we saw this just now physically, but I am going to draw this.
So, that it becomes easier to explain external you have the two E-E parts here, now it is
complete you see that two e sections joining together to form the core and these two
rectangles that you are seeing or the window area rectangles this area here is called the
window area.

However, you should know you saw that there was a bobbin; there is a part of the
window area which goes off for bobbin. So, let us say there is a part of wave which goes
off for bobbin and then the windings are placed in this fashion. When you are winding
that comes on both sides and both sides you see the bobbin coming into the picture, the
windings I will circle the bobbin in this fashion, you will notice that when you are
placing to conductors there will be gaps here this are not filled.

So, this is also loss of some of the area, and if you are having multiple windings primary
secondary one secondary two, on every layer is separated by insulation layer then you
will have another secondary and if you are having multiple secondary’s you will have
one more layer of insulation and this also will eat up into the available window area. So,
what you should understand is the whole window area is not available to you, there is a
factor Kw.

Now, Kw is less than 1 and Kw Aw is the available window area. So, it is lesser than
much lesser than Kw. So, Kw is called the window factor and this window factor can
vary from transformer application to application, but it general it goes most on the
experience.

163
(Refer Slide Time: 19:41)

So, Kw you can take it as point four for transformers two winding or three winding
transformers and is equal to 0.6 for inductors; inductors have this normally single
winding and there are no insulation between windings and things like that and therefore,
you can utilize the window area much better. Also, remember that if there are multiple
windings the Kw window factor can go as low as 0.2 for multiple secondary’s multiple.
So, these are some things that you need to take into account.

So, Kw Aw should fit one should be greater than it should fit Np number of turns with
wire cross section area of the primary wire plus Ns number of turns with wire cross
section of the secondary wire plus Nd number of turns of the demagnetizing winding the
wire cross section of demagnetizing wire. So, when I say wire cross section area when I
am having a copper conductor. So, this is the wire cross section area Aw. So, it could be
Awp for primary wire cross section area Asw for the secondary wire cross section area
Awd for the wires come also we can enamel around that. So, that it insulates when you
are winding the touching windings should not become short circuit. So, it is enameled
and insulated that way the above also is another possible or. So, window area, this
relationship is important now let us say.

164
(Refer Slide Time: 22:08)

For example, we know that r m s value of current that should flow through each of the
windings. So, r m s value of current flowing through the primary, we know that from the
electrical perceptive r m s value of the current flowing the secondary is known r m s
value of the current flowing through the demagnetizing winding. So, if you know that
there is another new term that I am going to introduce called J, you may or may not have
used it. J is called the current density for different materials like copper aluminum there
is a particular current density that is allowed as a standard some international standard.
So, this is generally in terms of amps per mm square.

So, generally for a default by stocking value you can take 3A/mm 2, you can allow
3A/mm2 of cross section area of the conductor. So, this will work to be 3 x 10 6 amps per
meter square in SI units. So, this is the current density. So, current density is something
once copper you have decided you are going to use copper conductor to start with the
amp per mm square people in the industry depending upon the quality of the
manufacture therefore, you have to 6 amp per mm square

So, the current I rms value divide by J will give you the area of cross section of the wire.
So, you will go and look into the data sheet and check for the wire gauge size. It is called
standard wire gauge size in the wire data sheet or wire table or you can also go on into

165
the internet and use the standard wire gauge table, you know the value of the r m s, you
know what should be the current density which is in ampere mm square or ampere meter
square. You will calculate some wire cross section area requirement, you go into the wire
table standard wire gauge table and pick that wire gauge which has a cross section area
greater than this calculated and set that one as Awp or Aws or Awd depending upon the
depending upon the which winding you are going to use for.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

So, now what we shall do is I will put it as in this forms, I will take the peak value in the
case of the forward converter. We have the currents flowing in this fashion we have the
currents flowing in this fashion. So, I am going to equate it the more you take the
equivalent current as square current within this on time, there is this area is same as this
area and this can be taken as let us say Im.

So, Irms value can be taken as the peak value into root of the duty cycle or you can you
could say IrmsIrms = Im x form factor and form factor in the case of square wave form is
one. So, as per cross section are will be Im. Sorry I am sorry. I should have done it in the
other way Im = IrmsKf. So, Im / (Kf J) will be the wire cross section. So, if it is for
primary this will be Im for the primary if it is for secondary it be (Im for secondary) / Kf
J and so on and all this [(N pImp / Kf J) + (NsIms / Kf J)] < Kw Aw, now that is another

166
relationship which relates Aw with the current parameter Kf J is the current density and
the number of turns. Now, these two relationships one with Aw and the other with Ac
core cross section area are the core relationship that we will use.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:47)

So, if I take the product one is Ac into Aw, now Ac into Aw will give you a product called
area product Ap this is the m4. This product is this area product is a parameter that you
can use for choosing the core. So, if you look at the core data sheet there is a parameter
for area product sometime it is given or Ac and Aw will be given you will multiply and
find out the area product. So, you can list out the area product and you can choose that
area product which is higher than next higher than the calculated area product.

So, you can use you can derive with those two equations for each of the transformer
topologies and for the forward converter, it is given in this form Po is the output power
Ap = [Po(1+1/η)]/[√2KwJfsBm]; Efficiency is assumed at around eighty percent. So, this
is the area product for the forward converter and you see that Po is available from spec.
This is a spec input to the design efficiency you can assume it to be around 0.8; 80
percent Kw.

You have a stocking figure which I told to start it around 0.4 J you start with 3 amp per

167
mm square or 3 into 10 to the power of 6 amp per meter square, fs is the switching
frequency and this is the design spec again and Bm for ferrite you can design your
transformer core at point two tesla remember that for most of the ferrites the saturation
flux density is point three tesla and you can safely design at 0.2 tesla, but there are cores
high frequency cores like powder Diane, amorphous, cores with brand name Metlas they
have pretty high saturation flux density around 1.6.

So, you can safely design it around 1.5 tesla which will give you much smaller size core,
in this way you can find out the area product once you plug in this value for a particular
application. Find out the area product go into the data sheet take up that core which has
an area product greater than what is calculated that will give you the size of the core.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:27)

So, let us now list down step by step the design process for the transformer. Let us
summarize and list the design steps for the transformer. So, first we start with Po
calculation Po estimation, we know Vo, we know Io these are coming from spec and you
can evaluate the Po value. Next, once you know p naught value you can evaluate the area
product Ap, and for this you need to assume a switching frequency and switching
frequency is a designer choice depending upon what devices that you are going to use
how fast the MOSFETS are going to be you may want to switch at 20 kilohertz, 50

168
kilohertz or 1000 kilohertz and then you use Bm and if it is ferrite you can start with a
value of 0.2 tesla.

Then afterwards you choose the turns for Np. Now, this is coming from that Vin = 2 Np
Ac Bm fs this is known because you have already calculated, you have chosen the core
the moment you choose the core Ac is known and Bm is known fs is known Vin is
known only Np is not known. Calculate this then afterwards, calculate Ns using Ns/Np =
n and n is spec again design spec because we would like to use it in ndVin = Vo. So, Vo
is a spec Vin is a spec Bm will come into the picture then. So, n can be a design spec
designer spec then after they choose the wire gauges sizes of the copper.

So, knowing the r m s value evaluate, what should be the wire cross section for the
primary wire cross section, for the secondary wire cross section, for the demagnetizing
windings knowing the currents that are flowing through the windings and choose the
wire gauge from the standard wire gauge cable and for the wire that you have chosen.
Note down the cross section area and then use that to do a cross check [Np x (wire cross
section area of the primary) + Ns x (wire cross section area of the secondary) + Nd x
(wire cross section area of the demagnetizing winding)] all this put together should be
accommodated within the window area not only the window area within the available
window area all this should be less than Kw Aw.

So, make this cross check Aw value is known the moment you choose the core from the
area product moment. You do all these things the design of the transformer is complete,
you just have to buy the various materials, the core, the number of turns of the gauge
with that particular gauge bobbin wind them together and then stack them and put them
together. This way you can physically design the transformer starting from the electrical
spec.

169
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 17
Inductor Design

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

The inductor design is also along similar lines as we discussed for the transformer with
few minor variations. Now, let me start in this fashion, we know that flux is equal to
MMF by reluctance. now this is equal to permeance into MMF; permeance is nothing but
1 by reluctance. This is basic equation which you would have studied during your B E, it
is just a recall, just go back into your old notes and the text books and you will see that,
these relationships are valid. Now MMF is nothing but NI, so the flux φ is equal to, i will
say λ, permeance into NI. Now i will multiply both sides by N and this becomes square,

d di
now I differentiate, so N = λN2 . We know the Faraday law, I am going to use the
dt dt

d di
Faradays law; N =L .
dt dt

So, recall this and by comparison you have L = λN2, this is a very important relationship
in the development of the inductance design.

170
(Refer Slide Time: 02:39)

Now going a bit further on that, now when you go to the market to purchase cores, there
is something called AL factor which is written on the cores. Now this AL factor is
something given as 130; just giving some number which I will find on typical cores,
nano, henry per tones square something like that. So, what it basically means is, this is
nothing, but the permeance value, the permeance; you saw that L = λN2 or λ= L/ N2.

So this is actually henry per turns square, so in the market what is available to you is the
permeance in nano henry per turns square and then they call that one has the AL factor.
So, do not get confused when you look at the data sheets or some of the core material or
when you go to the market and then see AL factor that is nothing, but the permeance you
can purchase given permeance for the inductor. Now along the similar lines like we did
in the for the transformer, inductor however goes on the energy storage, the size of the
inductor is depend on the energy and the energy = 1/2 LI2max (Refer Time: 04:12).

171
(Refer Slide Time: 04:06)

So, let us say this is split into two parts: 1/2(LIm), this is one Im and (Im) (Im), now one

di dB
of this, you can bring the relationship about from L = NAc and because the
dt dt
current is linearly (Refer Time: 04:47) increasing, B also linearly increases, if current
increases from 0, then I will say LIm = NAcBm, this is a nice relationship with relates
Im and Ac or LIm and Ac, so it relates this; then another relationship to relate with
window area; use like before, the wire cross section area equal Irms or ImKf / J, this will
relate the wire cross section area and NAw should be less than KwAw. Now this would
relate the Aw with Im. Putting all this together you will see this as Ac and this as Aw and
they are multiplied together that gives you a product and that the area product, so let me
after simplification the area product for the inductor.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:06)

172
So, the area product Ap = AcAw and is given by for the inductor 2 E / Kw J Bm. So, you
can take Kw as 0.6 for the inductor, this you can go at 3 into 10 to the power of 6 and per
meter square and this at 0.2 to 0.25 decimal, that is how energy (E) you calculate from
the ½ L I2m from the circuit, from the electrical perspective and once you have done that,
we can do the design of the inductor in a very simple way. So, now let us summarize a
list on the steps involved in designing the inductor.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:12)

So, let us summarize the inductor design steps, so as a first step we find out the value of
L, this come from the electrical circuit analysis which we have already done and we
know how to calculate the value of L and next you calculate the energy using the ½ L I 2m

173
We know the current flowing through the inductor and we know the peak current flowing
through inductor, ½ L I2m you can calculate. Then estimate the area product, then choose
up, select the core and you know Ac and Aw from the data sheet. Then after that, the
permeance we need one thing that you need to understand, I will just put a core like this;
the energy in the core is stored in the air gap, air gap is actually like a capacitance;
capacitance and permeance are equivalent (Refer Time: 09:13) I would say. So, most of
the energy gets stored in the air gap and sometimes they will give an air gap here if you
do not get any other core and you have to use a regular transformer core of very high
permeance.

And therefore, a paper or minor sheet is introduced to provide air gap where the energy
can be stored. Otherwise you will have to go and request from the shops and buy specific
AL value or permeance core, which has a lower permeance what would be done is; at the
time centering itself there will be air pockets here and that will actually be used for
storing the energy and it would be a smoothly distributed throughout the core, this will
bring down the permeance value which means it can handle more energy, so you have to
choose core of a particular permeance. If you do not have a core of a particular
permeance, you can calculate it. (Ac μoμr ) / (Lm + μr Lg).

So this is the permeance formula, again this is (Refer Time: 11:04) from the basic
formulas, Lm + μr Lg is the equivalent length of the magnetic and you know that from
here the reluctance is given by L / Aμoμr; that is inverse of that one, where the Lm + μr
Lg is the equivalent permeance; Lg is the air gap length and you do not need to bother
too much about this because you may not be using this formula. You will be going and
buying, purchasing core with a specific AL factor or permeance, once you know that; you
know that this is nano Henry per turns (Refer Time: 11:53) square or L / turn. So, using
that relationship N = √(1/λ) per permeance, so this has come basically from the
relationship L = λ N2 , from here we can calculate the number of turns.

174
(Refer Slide Time: 12:27)

Now after we calculate number of turns, the wire gauge. Find out the wire cross section
area again using the RMS value by J, the current density 3 Amp per mm(Refer Time:
12:43) square, find out from standard wire table and appropriately select a proper wire
cross section area. Then after that you need to do a cross check and what is the cross
check, N is the number of turns into the wire cross section area should be less than
KwAw; if this agrees then your design will work and you can stop there, if it does not
agree go and choose the next size core, change the value of Ac and Aw according to data
sheet and repeat the process.

I shall also put in the octave m files as examples for you to look at how the transformer is
designed for the forward converter and the inductor that will give you some idea of how
it is done and what are the various equations actually used, so that you do not make a
mistake, go through those m files that will give you some insight and help you go design
their other cores and inductors.

175
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 18
Flyback Converter Topology

The converters that we are going to discuss are the Flyback Converter and this is one of
the most popular converters that you will find in the commercial products. It is a buck
boost derived converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

We start by looking at the Buck Boost Circuit. The Buck Boost Circuit as you see here
must be familiar to you. We have studied this and we have also simulated this. So, like
we did in the forward converter, we would like to push this switch or semi-conductor
switch to the return rail and just connect the top rail that is a positive rail, by a conductor.
So, let us first do that. We will move the switch to the negative rail like this. Now this is
still a buck boost converter and we will, like in the forward converter, we will like to
remove this battery and replace it by a label. So, let us remove that let me position a label
here and we will call that one as Vin label and we need to rotate this device.

So, let me now rotate this device position it in this fashion and then how you did,
pointing to the left, that you can put the gate circuit on this side. Now you are free to
remove this conductor and let us place a ground here which will complete the

176
repositioning of the buck converters circuit, we have not done anything except reposition
of the circuit. Now we have to include isolation and isolation will be included at this
point. Operation of the buck converter is still exactly the same when the switch is on the
inductor gets charged in this fashion, when the switch is off the inductor free wheels
through the output in this fashion. What we could do is we could still have the inductor
like this and make a coupling to the inverter. Let us have a kind of push the naming here
and let us couple that inductor such that we can interpose an isolation here and let the
freewheeling action of the inductor happen through the secondary.

So, let me clear up this plotter here. After having cleared up the plotter this is how it
looks and with the galvanically isolated in that term you have to recall that this is not a
transformer this is an inductor, I will explain to you in a moment. But before that we
have to give the dot polarities and let me place this dot here and I shall place one more
dot here.

Now if you look at the operation when the BJT is on the inductor is getting charged and
the dot is positive and the dot is positive the diode will be reverse bias because this is
positive with respective to like this. This is positive with respect to this the diode is fully
reverse biased. Now, when the switch is off the energy stored in the inductor as to free
wheel; there is a reverse of the polarity, the non-dot end becomes positive dot end
becomes negative. Non-dot end becomes positive dot end becomes negative and this will
keep rising till it forward biases the diode and freewheels in this fashion.

So, this would give the action of transferring the inductance energy into the output. So,
the energy that was charged within the inductor during the on state is delivered to the
output during the off state. So, this is not acting like a direct transformer where in the
case of transformer whenever there is a current flowing in the primary there will be a
current flowing in the secondary and power flow will be instant by instant. So, this has to
be designed as an inductor as it acts like one.

Now I am going to kind of flip this secondary portion of the circuit such that the plus
appears up, that as we are used to we would like to have the positive on top of the
negative at the bottom. So, what I will do I will flip this portion of the circuit like this.
So, you see that this is just a direct flip and position in this fashion. So, after having
flipped the circuit I would like to do one more major change which is the diode being

177
shifted to the upper rail here and the bottom rail is a plain conductor. You see that there is
no change in the operation.

Now, let us say for example, when the inductance is conducting, when the switch is on
the dot end is positive. The dot end is positive here and the diode is reverse biased
because this is positive dot end, here is positive with respect to this diode is reverse
biased and off. When the switch is off there is a reverse of the polarity non-dot end is
positive. Non-dot end is positive and this will try to force in a freewheeling current
through the diode in this fashion.

So, there is no harm in putting the diode in this direction on the positive rail. So, what we
shall do? Let me remove that and flip it and position it in this direction and make the
connection here on the bottom rail. So, after having the cleared up the clatter this is the
final circuit. this is the Flyback Converter Circuit. I have still indicated L here saying
that, this is an inductor and they should be designed as an inductor and after designing
the primary inductor you just put a turns ratio and depending upon the turns ratio and
what is the number of turns that you want to accommodate into the into area of the core.

Now, here you can now put one is to N to indicate that there is a turns ratio coming into
the picture. So, this is the, this is how the Flyback Converter is set up and will operate.
The operation of the Flyback Converter and the wave forms will be exactly like that of
the Buck Boost Converter except that we have put this extra turns here. All the wave
forms at various points will be similar to what has been discussed in the Buck Boost
Converter. If you put 1 : 1 than 1 to N the same wave forms can be used for every
component.

The only difference is N here. So, if suppose for example, we have this N a generic
variable, now if you are having Vo and when this is freewheeling during the time when
this is off this is freewheeling like this because the non-dotted end is positive. At the time
Vo is connected directly across the secondary and across the primary you will have Vo by
n appearing here. So, Vo by n with non-dot end positive plus Vin will be the voltage that
you will see across the transistor. So, the transistor should be capable of withstanding
Vin+ Vo /n. So, that would be the rating for this device.

178
(Refer Slide Time: 09:31)

Otherwise all other ratings will be according to the buck boost wave forms. This is the
Flyback Converter topology. Let us have some wave forms to ensure clarity. So, let us
say that I have two time periods one is the dTs period when the transistor is on and other
is (1-d)Ts period, when the transistor is off. So, I should say this is on time of the
transistor and this is the off time of the transistor Q. So, with respect to these time
frames, let me now first try to put the current Iq.

Now Iq will look something like this. Whenever the transistor is on the buck part of the
inductor current which flows through the transistor only will be seen here. And this flat
top value equivalent flat top value in the case of the Flyback Converter is like as we
discussed in the buck boost converter will be a value equal to Iin, average of this value
plus Io average, that is whatever is flowing through the secondary when the transistor is
off. Io average into n, n is the turns ratio, nIo.

So, average of this would be Iin average. So, average of this will be Iin. The flat top
value would be Iin + nIo. Now if you look at another important wave form and that is the
wave form Vq across the transistor and at this point. So, let us say we look at this point
and during the time when the transistor is suppose to be on, it is just the conduction state
this is also conduction whatever the conduction drop. Now the moment the transisitor,
the switch is off the diode will be freewheeling and that inductor energy is going to free
wheel and dump through diode, into the capacitor. Capacitor voltage is Vo when the

179
diode is conducting Vo appears across the secondary with the non-dot end as positive.
So, non-dot end are positive will be appearing across this L on the primary side. So, you
would probably see +Vo / n appearing across primary winding. So, therefore, Vq would
see a voltage which is I should say Vin +Vo / n.

So, this is what will appear across this and so on. The secondary current would conduct
through the diode would of course, be flowing only during this portion I will probably
indicate that here. I will extend the graph y axis lines and show that the secondary side or
the diode current will flow only during this time. So, this will be the current that flows
through D that is here D and average of this has to be Io just like as we discussed in the
buck boost converter case.

The capacitor will draw zero average current and this flat top value equivalent flat top
value would be Iin / n reflected on to the secondary side plus Io. So, this is how the diode
current will look like. This is how using the ratings from these wave forms you can
derive the ratings and select the components of the Flyback Converter, and also including
schematic of the Flyback Converter in gschem. So, that you can simulate that and carry it
out. You see this is the schematic you have switch here, and the Flyback Converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

From the non-dot end I am connecting it to the anode of the diode and put a resistance
series because you will get numerical instability issues, convergence problems if you do
not put this and it charges up this capacitance this is the load. You cannot simulate this

180
for very extended period of time because you can get convergence issues because
Flyback generally has to be operated in close loop because if the load is not sufficient the
capacitance will not have a discharge path if your duty cycle is large.

So, you will have to manage duty cycle to see that the charge is within a limit and the
transformer of the circuit is not saturated or what you could do is you could put
transformer with the linear model and simulate it for extended periods of time or you
could also use the other tip which I had mentioned earlier, you could use the linear model
the transformer go to the stable state take this state values and then plug in the state value
and then you put use for short duration simulations. Anyway this is the schematic that
you can use try it out and then try to get insights of the various wave forms. Monitor the
current which is flowing through the switch monitor also the current which is flowing
through the secondary of the Flyback transformer and try to see they all are as per our
theoretical deductions.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

Now, apart from this I am also including value to download and see some m files I have
here a Flyback design and the forward designs. So, try the forward design which we have
discussed extensively and then you can go and try this Flyback design I have put up
generic Flyback Converter design which is multi-output. You can go through the design
equation which is an m file and you can probably change the input specification from
multi-output to single output and see the results that you get. Probably in a next week we

181
will discuss on the multi-output part of the design and how multi-output transformers can
be? How multi-output power supplies can be tackled?

There are few other m files here one is the wires dot m file this is actually containing as I
was telling you,(Refer Time: 18:27) there is a standard wire gauge table. So, I have kind
of put them all together in one file. So, that you do not have to search for them. So, this
will get executed automatically these are the wire gauges swg 45 44. So, from the
datasheets (Refer Time: 18:43) I have picked them and then put here and then I have put
in some cores. Now ferrite, powdered iron and you can increase I have put only few of
them I put some bar cores, I have put some e-cores, u-cores things like that which was
available here in out department you can add to them you can take different data sheets
and add many more types of codes, this is a template which you can use.

Likewise I have put the metlas and powdered iron core. So, when you run forward
converter the time when the design equations come for choosing a code from the area
for a calculation this these are the data in this m files would be take it out because they
are functions and then used for the design purposes. I will show you one example for the
forward converter. I will open octal and switch over to this directory and what I will do is
execute this forward design. So, let us say forward underscore design press return. So, it
will ask which core material you want to choose and I will say ferrite and then let us see
(Refer Time: 20:14) and if it comes back again it means that the first iteration it would
not fit there is cross check equation you will remember we discussed that all the terms
should fit into the window area should all the terms into the wire cross section area
should be less than kwAw. So, if that cross check does not it will go and hit the next size
of the core and then again to the calculation.

So, again you have a freedom to choose the core again I will choose that and the part
core it will go for the next size and once it has formed the proper value it’ll ask for you
to (Refer Time: 20:49) put it into a file. So, let me (Refer Time: 20:52) put it into test and
I will save the text dot m gets created also flashes on to the screen the various results. So,
if you then click on this test or I will click with g edit. So, it will be a forward converter
specification. These are the specification, these are the designer variable forward
converters transformer specs like the primary VA secondary VA it has chosen pot core 26
bar 16 number of terms with the primary. What is a gauge of wire number of terms in the
demagnetising? What is the gauge of wire turns in the secondary gauge of the wire? So

182
on; powers switch powers switch ratings, diode ratings, freewheeling diode rating,
inductor design so on, so forth.

So, the entire converter power supply is designed. So, this is a nice tool to have this is
done in octave it will work in mat lab too. So, I will remove this text dot file. You can
execute it and try it out. I will close this likewise you can also try to do it for the Flyback
design which I have given a sample design spec here. Let me open this forward converter
design m file. What goes into it is basically the first part of the specification will be Vce
the DC link even the comments here nominal DC link minimum DC link maximum DC
link output or in arrays to indicate that there it can take multiple outputs.

So, ∆V the peak to peak (Refer Time: 22:41) output ripple, the output current and
designer variable like fs that the switching frequency, d duty cycle and J current density,
Kw for inductance, Kw for transformer Kw for inductance so on. Now the power
calculation turns ratio to the ratio calculation power converter transform a design you
first calculate the area product and then there is an iteration within it where it will check
whether it will or the windings will fit it.

So, all this calculation which we had discussed formally put into a code form and then
the inductor design again it will go into a while loop here. We use the energy calculation,
energy to calculate the area of product of the code. Here this is where energy (Refer
Time: 23:29) ½LI2m and the capacitor the output diode it holds thing in it. Finally, the
output you need to output you need to write to file. (Refer Time: 23:37). So, this is m file
written in octave it will work in MATLAB to try it out and enjoy that.

183
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture -19
Pushpull Converter

This week we shall extend our discussion on isolated converters. We have studied till
now the forward converter and fly back converter. In the isolated class, the forward
converter is derived from the buck converter and the fly back converter as you know has
been derived from the buck boost converter. The forward converter has few more derived
forms the push pull topology, the half bridge topology and the forward topology. These
three topologies we will look at the additional stages of the lectures and see what are
their advantages and where they will be used.

Generally, you will see that these three topologies will lead to more compact
transformers because they utilize the flux swing much better than the forward and the fly
back we saw that the flux swing was always from 0 to  m, but in the case of the push
pull half bridge and the full bridge topologies the flux swing will be from -  m to +  m
and therefore, the transformer core is better utilized and for a given power the size will
be smaller.

The full bridge topology which is the one, which could lead to the most compact form
and the most popular especially at the higher wattage levels will also be looked at. Then
after that we will study bit on the multiple output converters, actually it will be the same
forward and the fly back topologies with multiple secondary windings and when you
have multiple secondary winding, how will you get regulation from all the outputs. So,
before that we should also know how to do closed looping of a particular output. So, we
shall briefly study the closed looping aspect of the converters and then later extend our
discussion to multiple outputs and see how they will get regulated and then if time
permits we can look at some advanced control aspects.

184
(Refer Slide Time: 02:56)

So, this is in essence summary of what will be covered in this week’s course. You see
that this circuit is that of a forward converter, you recognize that this is the forward
converter and this is the demagnetising winding. Now, I am going to describe the
evolution of the push pull converter using the forward converter. So, first step let us look
at the primary side, we have the demagnetizing winding the main function of the
demagnetizing winding is when the switch is off, the energy in the core is put through
the demagnetizing winding into the supply.

Now, let us enhance the concept a bit further during the time when this primary winding
is off, instead of putting the energy into the supply, let us put the energy into the output.
So, that is the concept which will come in push pull. So, instead of calling this as a
demagnetizing winding, we will be calling it as another alternate primary which will go
into the output instead of putting into the input.

185
(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

So, how is this going to come about? So, we shall use the same winding, we will call it
as another primary, this 2 are having the same turns ratio. So, I will put this I will flip
this and put this winding on top above here like this, now let us move this whole
converter bit down. So, that we have some space up there then I move it every to the
right side. So, we make some space next I will clear up some clutter here and now
connect this, now this portion is diode portion is actually connected here and instead of
connecting a diode, I will connect one more switch in the place of the diode to this as
follows.

So, I will connect this transistor like this at this point, this end you already have the
transistor I do not want this diode because instead of this diode which is connected here,
I connected the transistor there this ground can come up here and remove this conductor
piece and remove this and let me switch over and flip this up like this and then I will
connect this transistor here and we have something like this, Now, this is push pull
circuit. So, what I will do, I will move this down and extend these two here to indicate
that is coupled this way is not needed and this would be the push pull as for the primary
side is concerned.

So, in this primary portion, you will see that we will name this BJT as Q1 it has a drive
Vg1 and then you have Q2 which has a drive Vg2 and Vg1and Vg2 are never applied.
Simultaneously, they are mutually exclusive. Now to understand the circuit better we

186
should know that when Q1 is on, this winding this primary winding is the one which is in
action. Let me give it a different colour. So, when this winding is in action this dot
polarity this is the secondary winding that is in action. Let us mark that also in blue
colour so that you it is easy for understood that when Q1 is on this blue winding is in
action.

Accordingly the blue secondary winding is also in action which delivers the energy to
inductor and then the output circuit in a way which you have familiar with when the
transistor Q1 is off, this is the blue winding this blue winding is out of the picture, but
there is energy stored in the core of the transformer. So, we would have expected that in
the absence of Q2 we had earlier put a diode and the diode will allow the freewheeling to
happen through the Vin.

Now, what we expect to we will let us say for now, that there is no change in the flux we
will energize the core in the opposite direction by turning on Q2, which will because the
dot polarity is now towards the switch here. The dot polarity is away from the switch it is
another polarity and when you energize this switch, it is trying to make the magnetizing
current flow into the non dot end and out of the dot end, when Q1 is on magnetising is
flowing into the dot end out of the non dot end. So, when Q 2 is on magnetising current
flow into the non dot end and out of the dot end.

So, this we will try to pull the core flux to 0 and go pass 0 into the negative region and
during that time when this is off, we would want this to supply energy to the output
rather than to the input. So, let me mark this one in another colour and let us say this is
this and to handle that we need one more winding at the secondary side which will have
similar kind of dot polarity to pump into the output. So, what we shall do is try to make
the following changes, I will make this some changes and I’ll explain to you.

Now, you see that I have made for this primary an appropriate secondary with an
appropriate dot polarity and they are connected in the secondary like this. So, this should
also charge up this. So, what we will do we will connect the diode in this fashion, I will
connect the diode like this. You should understand this; this is not a junction point the
diode is flowing in this fashion and let me probably give a different colour for this diode.
So, that to indicate that this is the path flow for this let me also change appropriately then
this would be the current like this.

187
Now, it becomes much more clearer, you see that you have 2 possible circuits to charge
the inductor let me explain that to you in a moment. So, you see here when Q 1 is on the
dot end is positive all the dot ends are positive. So, the blue dot end is the only coil the
portion of the coil which can pump energy into the inductance in this fashion there is no
other circuit which can do that, which can possibly pump energy during that time. Let us
consider the green portion of the circuit dot end is positive the there cannot be a flow of
current in this fashion. So, this is out of the picture this is reverse biased and because the
dot end here is positive this is positive making this reverse biased.

So, therefore, the only possibility or energy flow is through the blue and through this
blue circuit into the output capacitors. And now when the switch Q1 is off let us say for
for some time both Q1 and Q2 are off. During that time there will be a freewheeling of
the inductor current and it will freewheel through this or it could also freewheel in this
path as we have seen and now, some time let us say we are switching on Q2, the moment
we switch on Q2 the dot end is connected to the ground and the non dot end is connected
to the positive. So, the non dot end is positive which means the non dot ends are positive.
In this case the green, the non dot end which is this green has capability to pump energy
into the inductor in this fashion follow the arrow way in which I am moving this arrow.
So, that will indicate given indication of the current flow through the circuit during the
time when Q2 is on.

So, in this way you see that whether Q1 is on or Q2 is on there is energy pumped into the
inductor the magnetising circuit. So, the inductor energy increases and then during the
time when both Q2 and Q1 are off the inductor is freewheeling both through the green
path and the blue path. So, this is how the push pull converter will operate. Recognize
here this output portion output segment is essentially a buck converter there are 2 parts
basically due to the 2 primaries and the 2 secondaries with common buck converter
output. So, this is called push pull push and pull basically because of the circuit topology
when Q 1 is on the flux is pushed to one side and when Q 2 is on the flux is pushed to the
other side. Now, this is the push pull circuit operation.

188
(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)

So, you see that this is the push pull converter that we have discussed. We will get a bit
more insight if you look at the waveforms. Now, to the waveforms I have here template
of writing the waveforms, now this first line here indicates the drive that we have giving
to the 2 switches Q1 and Q2. Vg 1 comma 2 is what I have indicated means both Vg 1 and
Vg2 are given on the same time line. Right now, I will not discuss, explain this for the
moment just leave at what is this dTs and (1 – d)Ts, I will explain it later, for now the
important point for you to focus on is that Q1 is on during this period.

Then there is a period of time where neither Q1 nor Q2 is on in this period of time where
I am showing this row both Q1 and Q2 are off then during this time I said that Q1 Q2
should be ON mutual exclusively: Q2 is on and Q 1 is off and again you have a period of
time and both are off, and then Q1 again is on, both are off, Q2 is on. So, in this fashion
you have alternately Q1, Q2, Q1, Q2 being on and in between there is a period of time
when both are off.

This is the pattern in which we will give the gate drive for Vg 1 and Vg2 and accordingly
Q1 and Q2 will switch. Now, giving this pattern let us see how the waveforms will
appear at the Vp the pole and then of course the inductor currents. So, considering the
discussion that we had earlier when Q 1 is on we see that the blue portion of the circuit is
end. So, when Q 1 is on the dot side is positive this dot with respective of the ground is
Vin and this dot with respect to the centre point midpoint would be nVin. If we have

189
terms ratio of 1 : 1, this is 1 : 1 these two are same and these two are also same and the
secondary side it is n times turns ratio.

So, here we are having n times Vin which appears at Vp. So, at Vp you will have n times
Vin here and that will charge up the inductor and we will indicate that portion of the
waveform in blue here. So, let me indicate that, as the blue waveform. So, whenever Q1
is on you will have this kind of a thing here, Q2 is on and again Q1 is on here. So, let me
indicate this now, this is what will appear at which point it will appear at Vp the pole
voltage point and then when Q2 is on the green portion is active and you will see pole
voltage, we will get the same Vin during this time.

So, during the time when Q1 is on I am going to write here n times Vin will appear here
and during the time when green portion is active Q2 is on, you will get n times Vin here,
but remember that this will be plus with respect to the dot here. In the case of the blue
this would have been plus with respect to this maintaining the dot polarity convention.
So, if you look at this wave shape here, you are having at the Vp the blue portion which
is high then a low then again high and then low.

Now, if you take the switching frequency of Q1, Q1 is switched here then nothing up to
this point here you have the switching of Q1, I will take the pole voltage frequency for
the switching frequency of Q1 or Q2 the frequency that appears at the pole voltage is
double because of falling effect of the green and the blue portions of the circuits, because
of the effect, at the pole voltage there is a doubling of the frequency and therefore, we
now define this dTs and (1 – d)Ts with the respect to the pole voltage wave shape.

So, the pole voltage waveform; if you take from this point to this point will be
considered as Ts then the portion when it is high is considered as dTs and the portion
when it is low is considered as (1 – d)Ts. Now, that is what I have indicated here, the
portion for which either Q2 or Q1 is on is called dTs and the portion when neither of
them is on is called (1 – d)Ts.

So, this buck converter operation is based on this kind of a definition and we can use this
kind of a definition to find the Vo. Now, what would be Vo? Vo would be the average
value of this. So, let me now draw the average value. So, average value of Vp will be Vo
and I know that the high time is dTs and the low time is (1 – d)Ts and the average is
given by ndVin. Now, this is nVin. Now d as defined here, where the Ts is one period of

190
the pole voltage. Ts is defined with respect to pole voltage Vp that is important because
the switching frequency is half the pole voltage frequency.

The inductor will be designed at a frequency which is double the switching frequency of
Q1 and Q2 because the inductor due to the or-ing effect, sees double the frequency. This
is the very key point which you have to note in all the three topologies; which is push
pull converter, the half bridge converter and the full bridge converter where all these
three converters the output side or the secondary side is exactly like this exactly similar
only the primary side will change in the half bridge and the full bridge converters.

So, the inductor will see an or-ed effect of the 2 components and therefore, the frequency
of the voltage across the inductor will be double the switching frequency on the primary
side. So, that is one aspect which you have to consider and the d is always defined with
respect to the pole voltage. This is the important aspect in the case of those push pull
operation for bridge trampolines. Let us look at the current through the inductor I L. So,
during the time when Q1 is on we see the blue portion of the circuit is active and at the
pole you have nVin.

So, (nVin - Vo) / L will be rate at which the current will increase in the inductor. So, this
rate is nVin -Vo here, we know it is Vo by L. So, that is the rate at which it will increase
then it will come back in during the time, when the inductor is freewheeling and during
the time when both Q1 and Q2 are off then again Q2 is on the green portion of the circuit
is active and Vin is applied at the pole Vp, and it will again rise up with the rate of (nVin
–Vo) / L then it will fall down and when it is falling down it is at Vo / L rate and this
keeps happening.

So, this is how the inductor current will look like and the average of that is Io. So, all
these are just like the buck converter because output portion of the circuit is exactly like
the buck converter. Now, if you look at the rating for Q1 or Q2 see the V CEO rating for
either Q1 or Q2 should be greater than 2 times Vin. How does this come about? So, you
see here when Q1 is on this is Vin dot is positive Vin and the non dot end is connected to
the ground now assume Q1 now switches off the movement Q1 switches off there is a
reversal of polarity this will be having plus and here it is minus Vin and there is a Vin
here connected in the circuit. So, you are having Vin and another Vin due to the reversal
of the polarity appearing across Q1.

191
So, Q1 should withstand at least 2 times Vin, likewise when the Q2 goes off when Q1 is
on let us say, dot end is positive Vin this is Vin plus this Vin. So, in this portion of the
circuit you will see that Q2 has to withstand 2 times Vin. So, the rating for Q2 and Q1 is
as written down here, likewise the diode when, let us say this diode is conducting this
diode is off one end of the diode is at nVin and the other end of the diode, here if you see
during the time when this is conducting is having another nVin. So, this nVin + nVin this
conducting diode is coming across this. So, the diode overall should withstand 2 nVin.
So, that would be the rating of this.

Deciding the ratings of the inductance and C is exactly same as we had discussed in the
buck converter circuit. Now, there is one small aspect which I want to discuss that is the
freewheeling aspect and the flux within the core. Then the discussion on the push pull
will be more complete, let us look at that.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:40)

Now, consider the flux waveform within the core. Now, let us say the flux in the steady
state it had at the point of starting it is at one side of the core. Let us say it is at minus phi
m and during the time when Q 1 is on that is magnetising current which is flowing
through and it is magnetizing the core from - φm to + φm. So, let us say this is + φm and
then during the time when both Q 1 and Q 2 are off. So, when both Q 1 and Q 2 are off
the inductor current goes in this fashion at this point it equally divides in this way and in
this way.

192
So, the inductor current IL will divide into IL by 2 on this side IL by 2 in this side join and
then again become IL and so if you look at the magnetics there is an I L by 2 entering the
non dot end coming out to the dot end and moves in this way there is I L by 2 entering the
dot end. Here, coming out of the non dot end and then joining up and here joining up at
this Vp point pole point and then going as I L into the inductor. So, you see that in the
secondary of the coil there is IL by 2 entering the non dot end there is IL by 2 entering the
dot end.

So, nIL / 2 which is generated inside in the core and in on one side, it is in one direction
and due to this current flow in the other coils in the other direction. They will cancel each
other out and effectively there will not be any voltage here or the flux or flux will not

d
change , it will be 0 because of the cancellation effect of the equal currents flowing
dt
through this in an opposite magnetic sense.

d d
So, therefore, once there is no change in flux, there is no voltage is 0, = 0, flux
dt dt
continuous to be wherever it was and then again there is a dissymmetry Q2 is turned on
and now in an opposite sense magnetizing current is flowing and then this will go down
up to - φm from + φm and at the other end when both Q1 and Q2 are off and again
inductor current is freewheeling in such a manner that the current flows in the opposite
sense in both windings, there is no change in the flux and the whole operation keeps
continuing. So, this is how you would look if there is a possibility or a chance to look at
flux. This is how would it look like within the core of the push pull converter.

This would give you some insight when you are making the push pull transformer along
similar lines which you did for the forward converter. Now, I would like to see the
currents that are flowing through this diode and this diode. So, these 2 currents are
actually the once that are flowing through the inductor. They are basically the inductor
current during the time when this particular diode is on or the inductor current during the
time when this particular diode is on.

So, during the key Q1 period inductor current and this blue diode will be the same.
During the time Q2 period inductor current and the green diode will be having the same
current. During the period when Q1 and Q2 are off inductor current will equally divide

193
between the 2 diode currents. So, using the principle we can write the diode currents. So,
let me now go about drawing the diode currents.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:14)

So, first let me take the diode current D1 I will call this one as D1. So, I D1, during the
time when Q1 is on the diode D1 will be conducting. So, it will take the same wave
shape as the inductor current then the inductor current will actually, I am now going to
put it dotted will go in this shape and then during the time when Q2 is conducting
actually the ID1 current will not be flowing. So, I can safely say that it will be 0 during
this time.

And again during the time when Q1 and Q2 are off there will be some sharing of the
current which we will come to and then again when Q1 is on, it will take the shape and
cut it. Now, I am showing the dotted because that is not the way that is not the profile of
the current flowing through the diode. Now, when both Q1, Q2 are off, its half of this
falling current which will flow through the D1 other half will flow through I D2. So, let us
say half of that is, this and the remaining half I will say equal which will flow through
ID2, this is D2.

Likewise at this point also at, so the diode current will look something like this. It goes
and during the time when Q2 is on you see that the current goes like this and half of it
only will flow through this. Other half will flow through the other half, will flow through
D1 diode. So, half and half will be shared during the time when both are off. So, you will

194
see on the scope a pattern of the diode current which is like this and likewise for the
other diode too, you will see the pattern of the diode current which flows in this fashion
and jumps up and then goes like that. So, this is how the diode currents will flow and this
is what you would actually see. Let me remove this dotted portion and this is what you
would actually see on a scope for the diode currents.

So, this is how the push pull converter will operate. Now, you will see that it is very easy
to understand the half bridge and the full bridge. The secondary part, the whole of the
secondary part is exactly same there will not be any change in a secondary part of
converter, whether it is push pull, half bridge or full bridge. The operation is also exactly
same, this diode currents will be exactly same and the input output relationship, the
inductor currents and voltage across the inductor and frequency with which the dTs and
(1 – d)Ts that we say, the pole voltages will be very, very similar. What will change is the
primary part and that is what I am going to change and then point h the difference to you
and this will give an idea for the half bridge and the full bridge circuits will work.

195
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 20
Half and Full Bridge Converters

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

Now, this is a half bridge converter, now you see that the secondary portion remains
unchanged exactly same as the case of a push pull converter and only the primary portion
of the push pull converter has been changed. I have without loss of generality, changed
the BJTs into MOSFET. So, I will get an idea how to put MOSFET symbols into the
circuit. You can definitely use the BJT you can also use the IGBT. The MOSFET will
have internal body diodes inbuilt. So, it also has advantages in that leakage can be taken
care of. So, I have used the MOSFET here in a more generic sense. So, you have to
power semi conductor switches Q 1 and Q 2 and you have to capacitances C 1 and C 2.

Now these 2 capacitances can be outputs of your rectifier filter circuits. The rectifier
filter circuit has a C filter at the output and sometimes, the C filters are split equally like
this half and half and with some meter registers to stabilize the voltage and you can have
V in by across C1 and another V in by across C2. So, this can be part actually part of the
output portion of your rectifiers C filter cycle and you have 2 devices added as a bridge

196
and the transformer. The primary of the transformer is one single coil not two coil like in
the push pull connected across the bridge in this fashion.

So, such a bridge is called a half bridge, half bridge because you have instead of 4
switches in the case of full bridge you have half the number of bridges and therefore, the
half bridge. The half bridge is pretty simple. Now let us say Q1 is on. So, when Q1 is on
Q2 is off. You cannot have Q 1 and Q 2 simultaneously on because then that would be a
virtual short circuit or shoot through and your supply will go bad. So, therefore, either
Q1 is on or Q2 is on. They have to be mutual exclusive. So, I will take this citation and Q
1 is on when, the Q 1 is on V in comes to this point. So, the dot end is at V in the non dot
end is connected to the midpoint of the C1, C2 combination and therefore, this is a Vin /
2. So, you have Vin here; you have Vin / 2 and what voltage appears across the primary
is Vin by 2. Vin – (Vin / 2) = Vin / 2 and that is amplified n times to the secondary side.
So, n/2 comes here and therefore, the pole voltage is nVin / 2 and therefore, by deduction
Vo = ndVin / 2.

So, this will be the output input output relationship and this is the operation of the half
bridge converter during the time and Q1 is off and Q2 is on you will see that dot end is
pulled to the ground non dot end is at Vin /2. So, therefore, you have 0 minus Vin by 2
which is - Vin / 2 coming across the primary with non dot end positive more positive
with respect to the dot end, the non dot end being positive means that the green portion
of the secondary cycle gets activated and you have the current flow in this fraction.

Again you will see nVin / 2 appearing at pole and charges of the inductor operation
exactly similar to the push-pull secondary sides are exactly similar to the push pull
secondary configuration. So, this will be switching between +Vin / 2 and – Vin / 2 during
the time when Q1 and Q2 are off the inductor is prevailing. As in the cases of push pull
dividing the current equally between in the 2 half of the secondary and because was
canceled the voltage across the secondary 0 and therefore, the voltage because the flux is

d
not changing = 0 the voltage across the primary is also 0 and Q1 will be seeing Vin
dt
– (Vin / 2) = Vin / 2 during the off state and Vin / 2 during the time when both are off.

However you should not rate Q1 and Q2 for Vin / 2 because, when Q2 is on Q1 is seeing
for example, let us say Q2 is on this point is at 0 potential connected to the ground this

197
point is a Vin Q1 has to withstand Vin during the time of Q1 is on this point is that Vin
and this point is at ground. Therefore, Q2 should handle Vin. So, when you rate the
device they have to be rated for maximum at least V in it should be greater than Vin. So,
this is how the half bridge configuration or connector configuration works the full bridge
configuration is nothing, but this capacitors are replaced by 2 more switches.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:20)

So, let me show you that see here that the half bridge converter is now converted into a
full bridge converter by replacing the capacitor divider by 2 more extra switches Q3 and
Q4, so Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 now forms a full bridge converter. Always remember never to
give in such a way that Q1 and Q2 are simultaneously on. So, that there is no short
circuiting of the V in to ground likewise we should not give to Q3 and Q4 in such a way
that they simultaneously on again in order to avoiding short circuiting this supply Vin.

Now, what we will do is we will give the same gate signal to Q 1 and Q 4 meaning Q 1
and Q 4 are turned on simultaneously Q 3 and Q 2 are turned on simultaneously. So,
when Q 1 and Q 4 are turned on dot side is connected to Vin here the non dot end is
connected to ground. So, you see the full Vin coming across the primary what comes
across the secondary is n times Vin now, because of the dot end is positive this dot end is
positive, blue diode will conduct.

So, you have n times Vin coming to Vp during the time when Q 3 and Q 2 are on and Q
3 is on you see that non dot end is connected to Vin. Dot end is connected to the ground

198
and therefore, you see a minus Vin coming across here or the non dot end is having
positive Vin and on the secondary side. When Vin positive at the non dot end side. So,
the green portion of the circuit is activated and charges of the l exactly similar way like
we saw for the push pull secretary side operation.

So, you will have nVin, ndVin will be the output Vo because this is a buck converter
operation. So, this is how the full bridge converter operates and during the period when
all switches are off you will see that the inductor will pre read as we have discussed
earlier to push pull case with half the current going into the blue winding another half
going into the green winding both an opposite magnetic sense. Therefore, will cancel and

d
the voltage generator will be is 0 because = 0 voltage here is also 0.
dt

During the time because this is 0 and you will see the other end is V in the voltages
across the switches are Vin and during the time when the opposite switches are on Q 3,
Q2 will be seeing Vin it should withstand Vin and during Q3, Q2 being on Q1 and Q4
should withstand Vin. So, the voltage ratings of all the switches should be greater than
Vin One thing that you can see is that the voltage that is applied across the primary is Vin
in the case of the half bridge it was Vin/2. So, for the same power rating and same Vin
you will see that double the current as to flow through the switches in order to get the
same power output because, Vin has become half here.

So, therefore, Iin, the primary current has to double to have the same power transfer to
the second in the case of the full bridge half the current corresponding to the half bridge
will be flowing in the switches and therefore, the full bridge is capable of handling
higher power compare to the half bridge for the same rating of the switches. So, this is
how the full bridge converter operates and you see that now in all the 3 converter the
push pull the full half bridge and the full bridge the secondary side is exactly identical in
the operation is similar.

199
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 21
Close Loop Operation of Converters

Till now we have been studying converters in open loops, we studied the buck boost,
buck converter, the boost converter, the buck boost converter, isolated converters like the
forward, fly back, the half bridge, full bridge, push pull and such converters where the
open loop operation was described. But the ultimate objective is to see that the output
voltage is well regulated, in the sense that if there is a variation in the input voltage,
variation of the temperature or even variation in the load the output voltage Vo has to be
regulated to remain on this constant value. This would be the objective that we would
like to put before ourselves for any kind of a power supply.

Now, to do that we need to have controller and feedback the output voltage and the
controller should take a decision based on the error and accordingly change the duty
cycle, which is actually the control input for most of the controllers, most of the DC-DC
converters. So, in order to do this regulation; Vo is fed back and compared with the
reference and passed on to a controller which could be a proportional or proportional
integral or a PID-Proportional Integral Derivative type of controller and the output of
which goes to a PWM modulator-Pulse Width Modulator and eventually to the gate drive
and the controllable switch which we have used till now in almost all of the open loop
DC-DC converters, so this would be the plan while closing the loop.

So in this section of the video lecture, I will try to focus on close looping the converters,
so I will take examples like the buck converter, the boost converter and try to close the
loop in a negative feedback way and then see how the controller works and then
probably we can look at some simulation examples so that you get some practice on how
to go about doing the close loop operation of DC-DC converters and same concept,
similar concept can be applied even to the isolated converters and other DC-DC open
loop converters which you may encounter in future.

200
(Refer Slide Time: 03:35)

Let us discuss the close loop operation of the buck converter; the process is similar even
if it is for any other type of converter. So, let us draw the buck converter circuit first, so
we have an input and let us say it is coming from the battery for now, it could come from
the output of the rectifier too and let us say I have a switch; now this switch which I am
showing as a BJT can as well be an IGBT or even a MOSFET and I have this diode
followed by the output filter circuit, which is the inductor and the capacitor combination.

You are now very well familiar with the buck converter circuit, now this is the buck
converter circuit, this is Ro and the voltage across that is Vo and let us say that we are
giving the gate drive to the base of the transistor and we will sense, we need to sense the
output voltage. So, this is what you call the sense variable and this is the control variable
or even control input, to the control input here is variation in D; variation in the duty
cycle, so let us sense the output pass it through appropriate circuitry.

So, let us say we sensed appropriately amplified or attenuated and bring it to a

comparator at difference amplifier. So, here let us set the Vo reference; This is what is
desired Vo reference, what is desired and we need to compare the feedback Vo feedback
value with the Vo reference value and the difference gives the error e and the error is
(Refer Time: 07:00)fed to the controller. Now this is the controller which can be P, PI or
a PID and in many cases it can be a proportional integral controller and the output of this
PI controller is compared with the triangle carrier.

201
Now, this is the triangle carrier which actually determines and defines the switching
frequency of the convertor and this Vc is the compare signal, let us say this is Vc control
voltage, is the compare signal for the triangle and which will produce the modulation;
PW modulation. So, this actually is your PWM circuitry, which will go through a gate
drive circuitry, gate or a base drive and given to the gate or base of the power
semiconductor switch.

So in a block schematic manner, this is how the closed loop system looks like so that
blue portion of the system here; on this page all this blue portion is the open loop system
and to that in the blue portion, we saw that you just gave control Vc as a constant
voltage, compared it with the ramp and that was the PW module; Compare and the PWM
generation gate drive and giving it as a switch on and off condition for the power
semiconductor switch and all the rest to the blue portion or the power circuit portion.

So, Vc constant and all these portion along with the power components form the open
loop system and now what we have added is a sense circuitry which should measure the
output voltage that needs to be controlled appropriately amplified or attenuated and then
filtered and then given to a comparator, which compares the feedback signal with a
reference signal, this is actually the set point; this is our desired value what the Vo should
eventually be, it is compared with that and an error signal is generated so the difference
between the set point reference value and the feedback value.

The error is given to the controller and the controller will generate a output, control
output which is Vc. This gets compared with triangular carrier, generates the PWM and
switches the transistor on and off in accordance with the error in such a way that the
error here is made zero, once the error here goes zero, then Vo feedback and Vo reference
are same and then we can say that the output is regulated constant here respective of
changes in Vin, changes in temperature or even changes in the load.

So, this is our objective and this is how the control system would look like, later on
probably what you could do is; you could replace this blue portion of the power circuit
by different DC-DC converters, you could connect a boost converter, you could replace
this with a buck boost converter, but appropriately give the control input to the specific
power semiconductor device and it is specific position so that it will do the job of
switching on and off the particular converter and act as a single pole double throw switch

202
and likewise you could also give it to the isolated converters like the forward fly back
converters and the other types of the converters.

Now, let us just examine this controller aspect a bit more before we go to the simulation.
Now consider the controller and let us focus on these 3 variables e, Vc and the gain of
the controller, I have indicated PI; a proportional integral controller, but let me erase this
and replace it by a general gain k. So, let me put the value k here, so now this is the gain
of the controller and let us try to look at the play of these 3 variables e, k and Vc, e is the
error input to the controller, Vc is the control output voltage. So, they are related in this
following manner; e error is equal to Vc/ k, now straight forward relationship, now when
is e = 0, now this is a important question that we need to answer. Let us say when is e
equal to zero, now looking at the equation, e is 0 either first case, Vc = 0 or second case
k, tends to infinity.

Now, let us take the first case; if Vc = 0 what it means that I am grounding it at this
point, this point is grounded. Now the moment you ground that point, it means that there
is no meaning in putting all these controller, like in the open loop operation where we
had given a fixed value of voltage to Vc, this becomes a open loop operation, the whole
circuit is in open loop then what is the meaning of doing a close loop. So, close loop
operations cease to exist so we cannot make Vc as 0. So, let us go for the other option; k
tending to infinity, if k is infinity then whatever may be the value of Vc, Vc divided by
infinity will give me 0 error. So, in the case of PI controller, the PI controller has a gain
k; which is infinite as the system attends towards d c situation or a stabilized situation.

203
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

Let me take for example the first stage, in the case of a I, this is omega verses omega and
let us say this is dB, gain in dB; gain of the I in dB. So, let us first take I, what is I? I is a
integral, I is a integral and let us say nothing, but 1/ s, so 1/ s is nothing but a bode plot
which goes at -20 dB per decade and what is the value at ω = 0? At ω = 0; here the gain
is infinite. So if you to be integral, the gain is infinite at DC are at stable region, which
means that the error is 0. So, an integrator will provide you with the means to achieve 0
steady state error because of an infinite gain whatever may the value of Vc; error is equal
to 0 because Vc by infinity will be 0. So, if you put as scalar, scaling value Ki, then what
basically happens is depending upon the Ki is greater than 1 or less than 1 gain or
attenuation, you will be choosing different parallels which will change the band width.

So, if you have a measure of control on this speed of response, so Ki is one aspect. Then
let us say instead of allowing this to go in the fashion; like this at somewhere this point, I
tried to flatten it out; then in the high frequency of origins of the omega. I have a bit
more gain and this can improve my dynamics, which means if you have to flatten out the
curve, so my integral action is here, the integrator and at this point you want to wave
shape it, you want to shape the gain curve like this instead of allowing it to go at minus
20 dB per decade, you make it 0 dB per decade, what does it mean; you are putting a
zero here, you introduce a zero at this point. So, let us say that I introduce a proportional
part Kp and you add it to the integral part.

204
Now another this is e and this is Vc, so what is the transfer function between Vc and e?,
Now this is Kp + Ki / s, = Kp s + Ki, further simplifying I will say Kp s + Ki / (Kp / s).
So, just by introducing a proportional gain you have now introduced a zero, at s that is
equal to - Ki by Kp. So, at this Ki / Kp ratio corresponding s ω, you have a 0 and that has
flatten down this curve and then you have got additional high frequency gain advantage,
which will improve the transient response a better; bit better. So, this is the structure of
the PI controller when viewed from the frequency domain and you see that, the PI
controller has potential to have infinite value at DC or infinite steady state gain and
because of that infinite study state gain, the PI controller is capable of giving zero steady
state error.

You could add a D much higher, to improve the fraction response, but most of the time it
is not needed. So, you do not need to have a PID controller, most of the cases PI
controller suffices. When you added D be careful because you are increasing the gain and
you are introducing a derivative component in the highly noisy high frequency zone and
it can amplify noise. So, you have to be very very careful by introducing while
introducing D or the derivative, so this is the concept of the PI.

So, going back into the previous page, I will now erase this generic k now and say that I
would like to put a PI here because PI will give me a value of k is equal to infinity gain
of infinite value at DC, so therefore the steady state value of the error will be equal to 0.
So, therefore, it is a good practice to start off with a PI topology for most of the
controllers and then take it from there and tune it and take it from there.

205
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 22
Simulation examples

We shall now look at the simulation of buck converter in closed loop. What we will do,
like before we will go to this folder where I have now created the schematic and I am
naming it as buck closed .sch. And I have updated custom dots of file and there is a buck
closed dot cir and we will come to that later.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

So, let us open this buck closed dot sch which is the close loop schematic for a buck
converter. You can use the same approach for any other converter too, let me zoom in
yes. You must be able to recognize this portion, you see that this is DC source 12 volts,
and this is the power switch which we will be controlling through some duty cycle and
you have the buck converter portion l and the C which we used in the open loop
simulation and the inductor will free wave when the switch is off or switch is on in that
in that troll chart.

206
So, all those things you know and have some load of 5 volts stack which will give me
around somewhere around 1 amp of current. Now the changes that we have made are
here, in the control portion which ultimately is going to control the gate drive of the
switch. So, what is it that we have done? We had actually included the PWM in the open
loop itself and we had given a constant voltage here. Now instead of the constant voltage
we are now having a controller, the comparator and the feedback. Now the feedback is
given through this label and you see that when we discussed in theory we had connected
this directly to the output.

But then instead of clattering up the schematic you recall that we had given a label here
called o and the same label if I copy it and put it here it is equivalent to saying that I have
made a physical connection between these two points. So, this output voltage is actually
now fed back to this point, so here you are having a difference amplifier plus and minus
to the plus and giving a reference voltage. The reference voltages as you see here is not a
constant I have given a kind of a pulse load disturbance so that we will actually see that
the output is tracking this pulse to decide disturbance. But however, in actual practice
you will see that this will be pure constant set point value.

Now, the difference between the set point and the red buck voltage the error is fed to the
PID controller. And the PID controller has some parameters Ki parameter for the
integrator, Kp parameter for the proportional, Kd for the differential I am not utilizing it I
am setting back to 0. There is a Lsat there is a lowest saturation limit set it to minus 10,
Usat the upper saturation limit setting it to plus 10. You have control on setting it to still
lower values too. Now this output is final effect to the PWM which will generate the
appropriate duty cycle pulse and give it to the power semi conductor switch here.

Now, this is the total closed loop circuit of the buck converter and this is the closed loop
portion and this in fact is the controller with these parameters. Now let us see what
happens when we simulate. All these things you know how to input the file and this is
the inclusion of the [Link]. Now before we go to the simulation, in the set that we
have added, we have this is 1 block, this new block that you would not have seen till now
and this is another block that you would not have seen till now; is nothing but summer.
This is one of this has been built using the analog behavioral model of ngSpice. Likewise

207
PID is also built using the analog behavioral model of ngSspice. I will just show you
how that model for that block has been incorporated in edt 01 dot sub.

Now, these two blocks are available in the A block library. So, in the A block library you
see add. This is the symbol and that is what we have pulled and kept it there the symbol
we will recognize that. Then the other file is the PID. This is the PID and this is what we
have used here. So, this is available in that A block folder of the library. Now let us save
all this.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:22)

And this schematic let us use our well known process which is first we go into that
directory and generate net list, so this is the net list command I think you recognize this
and using the buck close dot sch and generating the buck close dot net. So, let us
generate the net list and you would see here that the net list has been generated. And now
let us go and do ngSpice environment and call buck close dot cir. Now what is there in
cir? Cir is nothing but a drop tran statement. A (Refer Time: 07:19) statement with steps
of 10 microseconds and 15 mill seconds UIC, include the buck close dot.

208
(Refer Slide Time: 07:39)

So, going into ngSpice and doing the run command will execute the simulation. Now let
me do set color 0 equals white set color foreground as black. I want to plot the reference
and the output, just to see whether the output is tracking the reference.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:15)

209
So, let me put R and the output O. You see the red wave form is the reference wave form
and the blue wave form is the output wave form it is trying to track the reference wave
form. Of course, the tracking is not too good we may have to tune the PID parameters;
there is some measure of control you see that it is taking control between 5 and 6 volts.
Now what I would like to do is put down this environment, I will go and adjust these
parameters. Now Ki is the integral, constant Kp is the proportional constant and let me
change the proportional constants to larger value so that the dynamics is improved.

Now, you had to do all these thing step by step, but I am trying to do it in one big step
just so that we save some time, but you can play around with these parameters here. Now
let me save this and then let us go back and generate the net list and go into the ngSpice
environment along that and let me do these settings. And we can now see same wave
form Vr and Vo. So, you see much better, you see that the wave form is more closer in
tracking the dynamics are better, basically because you have improved the dynamic
response by the choice of Kp. Of course, I will leave it to you to play around with all the
different parameters and also the parameters of the buck converter L and C’s and just try
out to the end.

This pulse the kind of reference is just for this purpose of learning so that you see that
there is some affect the output is trying to track the input and output is coming to a
desired value. In practice it will be constant let us say you want to give an output of 5
volts your set point will just be 5 volts it will reach the set point 5 volts and continue to
stay here without all this jigly wigly wave shapes. So, this is just to show that the buck
converter output can be regulated.

210
(Refer Slide Time: 11:14)

So, this is the closed loop buck converter system that we saw and we discussed
previously. I would like to suggest a small improvement in the control structure so that
there is less strain on the controller here. At present in this type of topology you will see
that this controller has to handle the entire swing of Vo. For example, when we consider;
let me make some space here and let me have the axis that is a one axis like this and
another axis like this.

Now I just said(Refer Time: 12:07) here I just said this is the Vo axis. And let me explain
in the sense here let us say Vc or some function and I just put some function here I will
explain what the function is. Now let me take this up like that Vo versus f. Now let us say
the operating point is somewhere here, now this is Vo, this is f. This f would be it can
represent the Vc that we are talking of the controller voltage, so it is hovering at this
point. If you are talking of the error of the f can represent the error and you can say what
is the relationship between the Vo and Vc. So, Vo and f, f is a general equilibrium.

Now Vo is not a constant, Vo is actually; I will write it here Vo is composed of two parts
one is a constant part representing the operating point plus a very small signal part. This
is the variation which is called load disturbances load changes and all those things. And

211
this small Vo hat is the one which is making the system to deviate from it is operating
point Vo.

So, other entry there is a small zone as we say something like this, and I will call this
small zone as Vo hat. Now this leads to a deviation can be see Re variants, so I will say
this is f hat. So, the f is also composed of f which is operating point plus f hat. If it is Vc
that we are talking of the control voltage it is having Vc, so operating point value plus
variation of the neighborhood of the operating point.

Now, the point is in this particular topology as we are seeing it now the controller is
handling the entire large signals swing from 0 to the operating point and the
neighborhood of the variations in the neighborhood of the operating point. Whereas, if
we delegate through the controller a very small section and that section being only. If
variations and the neighborhood of the operating point, then the stress and the strain on
the controller will be less and not only that the controller can be quicker. So, you have a
stable operating point let us say we are able to take care of the stable operating point as a
feed forward component and take care of only the disturbances in the neighborhood of
the stable operating point with the help of a controller. Then such a controller will be
much simpler and it will also have less strain and it will also have better dynamics.

So, how do we implement such a controller? And generally that would lead to improved
control action and I will just in a short while redraw this and show you how to implement
that.

212
(Refer Slide Time: 16:45)

So, this is the controller as we know. First of all I will try to make some space here, so
this portion let me take it into the PWM. So, I will erase this portion here. Now think of
the open loop case. Now I am going to use the blue color to show the portions which
now I am going to introduce the differences. Now in the case of the open loop case at
this point we use to give let us say we are studied it is a voltage of around let us say 0
volts or minus 0.1 volt so that you have some 40 percent of duty cycle. Now, this used to
give open loop constant fixed duty cycle kind of a drive.

Now let us say we know the input output spec of the converter. Now one have to know
the input output spec of the converter, you know the input voltage nominal value and
what is the output voltage supposed to be regulated you know and that is why you are
setting the reference here. So, output voltage is known what you want input voltage
nominal value is known, so the nominal duty cycle would be Vo/ Vin nominal. So, if I
say that the duty cycle d is composed of two parts d plus d hat to components. Now d is
coming from Vo / Vin nominal value. This d will give you the point the value of the duty
cycle at operating point. V hat will be the variation of the duty cycle due to very
uncertainties, changes in the load changes in the input voltage and temperature so on.

213
So, let us set this VDC value here to voltage value which should correspond to the
nominal operating point duty cycle. Then let the Vc that is coming from here correspond
to d^. Then in such a case if I add these two I should get d + d ^ which is the d which is
expected by the transistor, so that is exactly what we want to do. So, I will do the
following change here, I will introduce a summer, let us say which is plus and it is also
plus and to this plus I am introducing a small voltage source or something which gives
you a constant and to that you are giving a V DC value which represents the nominal
operating point.

So, a voltage output which is coming from this and trying to modulate the PWM should
correspond this, will correspond, I am using correspond this is voltage which
corresponds to d plus d hat. Now this is what will modulate the triangle within the PWM
and generate the data. Now this term is called the feed forward term. So, this is called
feed forward term in our control literature. Now what is a controller doing, the job of the
controller has been simplified. So, under normal operating point or under normal
operation when there is no disturbance then the fix up feed forward term value here is
defining the d and then appropriate duty cycle is given and this is supposed to give the
output. (Refer Time: 21:26).

Now, suppose the output is not 5 volts it has deviated from 5 volts due to in the many
reasons; it could be due to temperature, it could be due to input output input fluctuation,
it could be the output loading and many of these reason. Let us say the output has
deviated. Now that deviated value has come in here you would hit this particular summer
difference comparator files of that there is a difference between these two there is an
error the error will give small value of a control voltage which corresponds to d hat these
two will get headed and the voltage are corresponds to d = d +d ^ and appropriately the
control action is taken. And in the steady state when everything is fine and when the
output is controlled and regulated and if this output is corresponding exactly to the
operating point then the error will able be 0.

So, this controller here is taking care of only the deviations about the nominal operating
point and therefore this controller will be faster and have less strain on other. So, that is
the concept that we have just introduced to improve this control topology. We shall just

214
see this in simulation also, how it is incorporated and that would give you kind of an
alternate controller which has better responses.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:32)

So, let us look at the simulation of this modified controller, I have here the same buck
closed circuit and I have done the corresponding modification that I have been discussing
with you. Now, here you see that. These of course is the same buck converter circuit we
have the PWM block here which is giving you the appropriate duty cycle and on this side
you have that reference and then you have the feedback coming from this o label here, o
label which is commented at this point, this is the error. Error is passed on to the PID
controller and the output of the PID controller corresponds to the deviation in the duty
cycle voltage corresponding to hat.

Now, here on the other terminal of the hat ladder you are having the DC voltage and here
I give minus 0.05 to correspond to 45 percent duty ratio. So, this is the nominal value or
the cooperating point value which I am giving it as a feed forward term and plus this will
be this control voltage and this is d plus d hat with even the variation that is coming due
to unwanted reasons and is coming from the controller is goes into the PWM and
controls the switch. This is this is how we had this feed forward term here. So, I would
also like to simulate it and then show it you this will not take not much time, I will put

215
back those numbers which I have put the last time during the simulation of the other
buck close circuit.

So, let me say it here. Now recognize that x hat is another new block which I have
included PID and x some you saw and x hat is also available in the A block, this is the
hat and you can use that and this is the sum which is used here. This is saved and we can
go to the folder here. Now here the buck close and dot cir and the edt 01. sub, I dint show
you what is there inside edt 01 dot sub you should understand that I have added some
things here I have added the t i d is sub circuit. This is again composed of all analog
behavioral module elements and these are well defined in ngSpice manual. And then I
have made a summer and that is also by the analog behavioral model, I have made a
ladder here and that is also ngSpice analog behavior model. I included here a multiplier
also, but of course we not using it anywhere which is kept it here for your reference. So,
you enforce this.

Now let us go to the terminal and let me go to the directory. C d to the directory and let
me generate the net list and how the net list generated here you see and ngSpice buck
close or cir. Now you are in to the and this part is environment, you run the program and
now let me set to the background color to white and set the floor ground color to black.
Now block I want to plot as usual the reference and the output. So, you see right it gives
you also similar kind of performance measures. You will also see what happens here and
what are the gate pulses which are given to the switch? You could probably see plot we
give which will give you the data signals.

216
(Refer Slide Time: 28:19)

So, this will be the gate pulse which are varying continuously as you see here, and you
could also see the inductor current plot IL along with Vo.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:43)

217
So, you see that because Vo is no longer constant you see that the induct current is also
having lot of variations, but you could see probably in this time span where it is constant
it would It will be like what we expect if I increase the amplitude.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:03)

You see this is what we would like expect when it is constant. So, you play around with
the wave forms and the values and if you should be trying to on a port inside into this
whole close loop system.

218
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 23
Multi-Output Converters

There is one more aspect that we need to talk of, discuss and that is on a multiple
outputs. How do we handle multiple outputs? Till now we have been studying a single
output voltage coming out of the dc-dc converter. But in practice you will see many
power supplies and most power supplies have 5 volts output, 3 point 3 volts output, 15
volts output, -15 volts output, + 12 so on and so forth. So, most of the commercial power
supplies that you have that are available will definitely have multiple outputs.

However if you look at the dc-dc converter that we have studied the control input is only
the duty cycle to the switches and there is only one duty cycle available for you to
control. In such a case with one control input which is the duty cycle, you can control
only one output. What to do with the other remaining multiple outputs? How to get
regulation out of that? Now that is an issue. So, that is the focus for discussion in this
particular video capsule I will discuss couple of methods with which you can address this
particular issue that I mentioned and how you can regulate the other outputs of the multi-
output converters.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:14)

219
So, let us discus multi-output converters. How do they look like? Take for example, the
Flyback Converter. The Flyback Converter; let me draw the schematic. It has the primary
winding and I place a switch, by this ground and it has the secondary winding. Now this
transformer which is acting like an inductor and let me put the dot polarities like this.
Now recall our earlier discussion of Flyback Converter and this is the Flyback Converter.
Now how do we regulate the output Vo? We can regulate this output v naught by means
of the closed loop control topology that we have just discussed and is as well applicable
to even isolated converts.

So, what we can do is let me change the colour. We can sense Vo and give it to a
controller. I am not going to put the controller in detail I am just going to say this is Vo
curve. Here this is Vo feedback, this goes to a controller. Its a, PI this is PWM and that
controls it and this is actually the feedback (Refer Time: 04:31) voltage. Now remember
that we did go to great lines to create isolation between the output side and the control
side, and moment you use a conductor to measure and sense and then give it back into
the control side the isolation is lost. So, therefore, in order to maintain the isolation
between this portion of the circuit and all the downstream portion and this portion of the
circuit, we would like to have an isolation barrier here even during sensing and normally
this is done with opto couplers.

So, how this is done; is as follows. So, let me now erase this portion of circuit and at this
point introduce an optocoupler. Now, what’s a optocoupler? you allow some current to
flow through the diode like this probably I could use a zener and I am not going to
connect it to this ground I am going to have a different circuit ground which is this. So, it
now appears that there is a current flow from this output it goes through this diode, zener
back again. So, it keeps circulating in this fashion. So, what is the correct value? So, in
order not to short circuit I will introduce a resistance here. So, let me now put a
resistance. So, now, if you look at the current that flows through here it will be equal to
Vo -Vz you see this is Vz minus any diode drop (Refer Time: 06:59) if you want to
incorporate the diode drop minus Vd, divided by R. Here R is the impedance in the series
path.

Now, this is the current that is flowing through this diode. Now suppose this diode was
part of optocoupler meaning when a current flow through the wire there is a light output.
Now this light output is connected to a control switch wire. Now this control switch let

220
us say I placed it in this fashion. You see that the control switch is having the ground
which is the same as the control portions of the circuit. All these have the same ground.
Now the optocoupler’s BJT part is having the same ground. So, what happens (Refer
Time: 08:13)in effect is that as the current flows through this there is a light on output
which is actually acting like a base drive for this BJT and tries to bring it or bias it to its
linear region and more the current more the bias and lesser the Vce drop across the
transistor. Lesser the current lesser the base bias, more towards the cut off and more is
the Vce drop occurrence across the transistor.

So, therefore, as the voltage here is changing which is what we want to sense and we did
that. The current here changes and the voltage drop across this also accordingly changes.
Now use that as a measure use the voltage drop Vce of this optocoupler output as a
measure about change in the output voltage and use this is what we declared appropriate.
Appropriately you can tap the voltage and the collector point or the emitter point to see
that the overall the close loop is negative feedback. That is important. So, therefore, now
we have a means of sensing the output voltage in an isolated manner. Now this portion
will be the optocoupler.

I have just indicated to you the optocoupler action and I have just drawn a line here to
this point, but there are other parts other circuits that will come in here and (Refer Time:
09:47) filters and the attenuators or probably even amplifiers that come in the picture
anyway. This is (Refer Time: 10:02) how you would feedback with incorporation of an
isolation and optoisolation in close loop in isolated converters.

Now the next important point I like you to see is that with one control topology circuit,
you can control one set of switches either this or in the case of the push pull full bridge
and half bridge circuits, you can control the other switch to the other set of switch
because the duty cycle are coupled in the sense that the same duty cycle can be applied to
the other side too. Only thing is that they are mutually exclusive. When this particular
one switch is on the other switch is off and when the other switch is on that this
particular-the first switch, would have been off.

So, therefore, still control input wise there is only one control input which is one single
duty cycle control which can control one output. So, one output of the multi-output

221
Flyback Converter can be taken care of in this controlled manner one above the others.
So, now, let us look at that particular point.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:35)

So, now assume that I have two more windings like this all wound on the same core. So,
this will become Vo1 this will become Vo2 and let us say for example I have one more
and that is Vo3 and all these are on the same winding and which means that they are all
coupled and I am indicating they’re coupled by these lines. Now you can put the dot
polarities too. So, let us say only one among the two are given back for feedback and let
me indicate the isolation sensing boundary-optocoupler boundary in this fashion. So, let
us say that you have used optocouplers to sense the output voltage and send it back on
control. So, Vo3 is regulated, but Vo1 and Vo2 are not regulated. What we will do?. So,
one very popular method which people use is to use linear regulators.

So, normally the highest power output, the output that is suppose to handle the maximum
power the large power is done is given by closed loop the other low power ones are
handled by small three terminal regulators called linear regulators. So, these there are
many linear regulators. You may already have heard of the 78xx series; which means
7812 means 12 volt regulators, 7815 means 15 volt regulator, 7808 are 8 volt regulators
so on and so forth. That is one such series, but there are many, many, three terminal
regulators.

222
Now, we also have nodes of low drop regulators. What is basically means is that you
now have a load here this is your Ro and the load is not connected here any longer and
what is the drop across this, V drop that is it V drop. Now V drop has to be compensated
by this dc-dc converter output and therefore, accordingly the windings of that particular
supply should be enhanced to take care of this V drop. So, in the low drop regulator this
V drop value is very small. So, typically V drop is of the order of this is the order of 3
volts in most of the normal regulators at minimum of 3 volts will drop here has to drop
across the regulator, which would basically means if your output spec here is Vo1 and the
spec at the output of the dc-dc converter here should be Vo1 plus V drop of the regulator.

So, if it is 3 volts there maybe not 1 plus 3 volts. Not only that we have to enhance the
power spec also because the windings will have to carry that extra power. So, if you have
a load current Io max which is flowing through Ro. Now Io into V drop is also the power
that this particular winding has to handle. So, Po one has to handle IoRo plus the extra
amount of Io into sorry. It would handle I2oRo + IoV drop.

Now this is the excess power that the DC-DC converter should be capable of handling to
take care of this V drop there. So, the current carrying capability and the size of the core
may slightly increase because of this. If one uses the low drop volt regulator V drop can
be as low as 0.5 volts and you will have a very less dissipation and drop out there. And
you will not lose much on the size of the transformer core. Likewise for the other
winding also, likewise for this other winding too you can put three terminal regulator and
accordingly adjust the output required or output requirement of the regulator, of the dc-
dc converter.

So, with the regulator what will change is only the Vo requirement and the power
requirement. Output power requirement for the regulator and other portions of the design
will still remain the same. You can still use the (Refer Time: 18:58)Octave mfile design
file to do the design of multi-output regulators and in fact I have put up the last weeks
this one and example of the Flyback with multi-output. You can now study that in this
context point we have just discussed now. So, this is one (Refer Time: 19:22) method in
which you address the regulation of all the outputs of a multi-output converter.

223
(Refer Slide Time: 19:32)

I shall now illustrate another method of tackling this regulation of multi-output

converters. So, let us say I will take the same example of Flyback, but you should
understand that you can apply these principles to any of the isolated converters not
necessary that it should be a Flyback. It could be a forward converter, it could be a push
pull converter, it could be a half bridge converter or even a full bridge converter. So,
now, let us say that we have these two outputs. I’ve just taken two without loss of
generality and let us say the bottom one I will feed it back through opto isolation barrier.
So, we are not disturbing the (Refer Time: 20:26) galvanic isolation that we have
achieved by use of transformer. Now with this we can regulate Vo of this. So, this is
regulated, but how to regulate this voltage.

So, in the general in the discussion that we just now had the previous method; we had
used the three terminal regulators a linear regulator. The problem with the linear
regulator is that it is dissipative and therefore, the efficiency comes down and size
becomes higher. So, therefore, the plan now is that we will try to use a non-isolated
converter here. So, this is an input to the converter. Now let us say you want to have a
buck operation I can use a buck converter like this.

And have an inductor, capacitance and a circuit something like this. Now driving this
device is better if you push this device on to the negative rail that is the return rail. So,
that you can drive with respect to its base if it is on the return rail or you want to keep it

224
on the upper rail, you can use a PNP transistor or P device. Now let me just show a
symbol blocks of the circuit, that all would be referred to this particular ground.

So, now let us say that I replace this BJT with a PNP type. So, we could have a BJT
something like this, PNP base. So, let us say we have a small resistor drive like this and
having that out. Now this gate drive can come from a standard modulator. Now standard
modulators are available in the market very very less expensive. For example, TL494 is a
typical modulator which is commonly available it is around 10 to 12 rupees and this will
generate PWM. You have to give it a supply and the supply and it should have a ground.
So, let us say I chose this as the ground and you refer it to that ground. So, you still there
is no link to the ground of the other side. (Refer Time: 24:16). Now the output of the
regulator itself can be the supply. The output of the dc-dc converter itself can be the
supply. Now you may ask a question the output of the dc-dc converter is not regulated.

So, then can it act as a supply for TL494 type of devices that is the PWM IC. You can
ask in the market for a PWM IC. Most of this type of a PWM IC's you also have another
name I can say SG 3524; this is also a PWM IC very much expensive they have very
large supply voltage range. If that TL 494 goes from 8 volts to 30 volts and likewise even
the SG 3524; which means that these PWM IC's can take unregulated voltage for their
Vcc.

So, this would give out a PWM which will drive this particular device on and off. And
most of the I C's they have inbuilt internal OpAmps too which can act as comparators
and deference amplifiers and also even P I controllers. You can use you can make a P I
controller with an op amp using a very simple circuit topology like this. So, let us I have
ground, this is a resistance, and let us say you have a capacitance across the output and
the main supply and you are having an error coming in through here. Now this is an
integrator.

So, this integrator is like I control and you can also make a PI controller by also
including a proportional part of the, for this controller. So, you have a proportional and
the integral controller. So, this would be a PI controller. So, with we have one OpAmp
there are normally 1 to 2 OpAmps available most of these PWM IC's. So, one OpAmp
can be a controller, one OpAmp can be a deference amplifier and things like that. So, you
feed in the voltage to the controller and to the appropriate pins make use of the internal

225
op amp's to make the difference out of that the error of that we need to the other op amps
think to make the PI controller and that output is fed to an internal PWM. So, there is
facility for setting the frequency of your switching frequency for this buck portion of the
converter with the help of timing resistors and capacitors.

So, these would be the Rt and Ct for the local PWM IC. Now this PWM IC is referred
this PWM IC any other ground is referred to this, output itself which is also same as that
of the input and input to this buck regulator and the output of the PWM is directly
controlling the switch and the output the PWM is coming out of the controller which is
within this and you are feeding this sensed output in here. So, if this portion this green
portion which I am showing here with the mouse is a full fledged (Refer Time: 28:37)
closed loop buck regulator that we discussed till now and even simulated.

Now instead of the linear regulator this buck regulator can replace that and then this will
definitely have a much better efficiency because this will not inter pose except for the on
state drops something like that one the efficiency of this will be much higher than the
linear regulator. So, you one can use one of these types of non-isolated regulators non-
isolated dc-dc converters to act as regulators in multi-output converters. So, that way all
the outputs of the multi-output converter will the regulated and give you proper and
expected outputs.

226
 Design and Simulation of DC-DC converters using open source tools
Prof. L. Umanand
Department of Electronics System Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture – 24
Concluding Remarks

In this course we have studied the rectifier filter circuit. We have simulated it. We know
how to design that, we have looked at the wave forms and that we sorted it up with a
discussion on non isolated converters, like the buck converter, the boost converter, the
buck boost converter. We have looked at the wave forms by input output relationship and
also how to design and simulate them and this was followed by a discussion on isolated
converters like the forward converter, the fly buck converter the derived converters. The
ones that where derived from the buck, the forward, the push pull the half bridge full
bridge and the buck boost derived converter which is the fly buck converter.

And then we discussed on the multi output converters topic and saw how we address that
issue. I tried to regulate all the outputs of the multi output control or multi output
converter. We have also looked at trying to do PI controller for single output of the DC-
DC converter, and we have also tried to look at the simulation results for our converter
which is in close loop and we have actually seen two topologies; one with feed forward
and one without feed forward.

And saw the theory behind these control topologies. So, I guess now that you would be
reasonably sensitized to the DC-DC converter and controllers topic. Simulation is an
excellent tool it is an excellent tool for learning. I specifically thought of introducing
open source tools in this particular course because, it is something that we need to
propagate and many of our students may not be having the means to pay for expensive
software. So, therefore, they should have some alternative and therefore, we choose this
topic of doing everything by open source tools. Of course, in windows you have lot of
tools which you can purchase and which you can definitely use like Matlab, Spice, caster
and other equivalent software for doing all those simulation and then the design work
that we went through and discussed in this course.

227
But the emphasis as far as this course was concerned was to do with on open source tools
simulation and using this open source tools or otherwise is very good it. In fact, gives
you lot of insight in to the circuit and it is a good learning platform. However, you must
be careful you must understand that nothing can replace actual hardware implementation
on the table that will give you the maximum insight in to the circuit. So, gradually I will
recommend and suggest that you should go more and more towards implementing on a
lab table.

There are lot of issues that even a simulation will not be able to take into account and,
the results that you will give are that you will get or kind of clinical and doctor. So,
therefore, I will say; for example, the EMI issues in the hardware, in the actual hardware
that are lot of small issue, small things like layout and routing there will be a small
circuit which is in a loop and then, there will be a current flowing through that loop and
because the current flowing through that loop. There will be an electromagnetic radiation
because the loop will act like an antenna and then this can couple in to a neighboring
circuit and this issue is very difficult to show on simulation or get reflected on a
simulation because the models may not be there.

And it is highly dependent on other parameters like layout and routing issues. Therefore,
you should consider all these things and have these things in mind. When you are doing
simulation and try to use the simulation with the pinch of salt in the sense that the results
that you get from the simulation will consolidate your concepts. It will say your design is
right it can handle so much current, this particular device can handle so much voltage,
can whithstand so much voltage and this is the path prevailing-is the path in which the
current will take for a particular circuit in a particular time instant, all these concepts can
be consolidated and understood and great insights can be got in this.

But the actual working during implementing in the hardware you will get lot of other
issues and disturbances and uncertainties. Which you would not have imagined of. Like
as I mentioned the EMI and the EMC issues. There could we wiring issues there could be
component layout issues there could be choice the component itself, there could be
handling of the gate, there will be protection issues voltage protection issues current
protection issues, integration of all these things.

228
So, many such small, small things will add up and then they can become a major
significant problem and more and more as you start doing on the lab table, you will start
getting more and more experience. And it is like an artist though we say all this design is
very systematic and has engineering precision in it, when you implement, there is some
element of art which comes in to it. So, it is not only engineering and science it is also art
when you are implementing the circuit's making PCB layouts and trying to get the results
out of that.

I hope that you have learnt something from this course and I hope that you are sensitized
to DC-DC converters both non isolated and isolated and you know, how to go about
simulating the circuit using open source tools and that would be the take away from this
particular course the method of getting insight and doing a circuit input, output
relationship and the way you would go about simulating the circuit using this, has a base
you should properly look at more literature and try to understand more. The play in to the
other topologies and much more different topologies which are available in the literature
and papers and then try to study the open up, open a particular broken or damaged piece
of SMPS; open them out and try to study what goes inside and things like that one.

That way you can try to investigate and get more insights to the DC-DC converters.
Another very, very important aspect that I have very briefly touched and sensitized you,
but not gone into very great depth is the part of magnetics. Magnetics is very crucial both
the inductor magnetic and the transformer magnetic and both these electrical and the
magnetic design is actually very pivotal to the proper working of DC-DC converters and
you have to master this art of designing the transformers and inductors and more and
more. You wind transformers more and more you take different types of cores put them
together and then, physically wind it with your hand and then insert clear gaps and then
check the inductance values keep doing that. Then you will get more confidence it
building the magnetic.

Because in most of the power electronics most the DC-DC converters. The central figure,
the central component is not the not only the power semiconductor device. But more; in
fact, the magnetic components that is the transformers and the inductor. So, you have to
pay lot of attention to the art and try to see if you can scale up your skills in trying to

229
make the transformers and these inductors, so with that I will close this topic, this course
and probably meet you in future again in some other course.

Thank you.

230
THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE

(044) 2257 5905/08 [Link] [Link]