FLIGHT MECHANICS

UNIT 1: Aerodynamic and Propulsive forces

PART –3 : Introduction to Propulsion.

Turbojet, Turbofan, Propulsive
Efficiencies
SEPTEMBER 27TH 2012
OCTOBER 1st 2012

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 FLIGHT MECHANICS - UEM 2012

PROPULSION REVISION
Efficiencies and
Turbojets

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 BASIC PRINCIPLES In straight and level flight the aircraft flies at
Force Balance constant altitude and speed, so there are no
accelerations
In these conditions, all forces and moments
acting on the aircraft must be in equilibrium;
ΣFx = 0 -> Thrust=Drag
ΣFy = 0 -> Lift = Weight

Lift = 1/2ρv2CLS

LIFT DRAG
THRUST
Drag = 1/2ρv2CDS
WEIGHT

Thrust = f(air_density,
air_temperature, fuel_flow,
air_speed) Weight = m·g

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 INTERNAL ENERGY
Pressure Vessel
Total System
boundary

Internal pressure (due to

kinetic energy of particles)
constant and homogeneus
in all walls of the vessel
Average fluid velocity is zero

A vessel containing a gas (particles in motion) has an internal energy corresponding

to the sum of the kinetic energy of all the particles.
The center of mass of the total system (vessel + particles) is at rest, although the
particles are moving
The total kinetic energy of the particles is the internal energy of the system

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Action-Reaction

Removing one wall allows particles with velocities oriented towards this wall to
escape
An average fluid velocity appears, and therefore a reaction force on the vessel
The total center of mass of the system (vessel + particles) remains at rest but, as the
particles move towards the right, the vessel moves towards the left

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Action-Reaction Total System
boundary

There are no
external forces
acting on the
total system
boundary

d (M $ v) dv =
F= · =0 & 0
dt dt
As there are no external forces applied, the total momentum of the system remains
constant in time and the center of mass of the system remains at rest

d (mvessel $ vvessel + m particles $ v particles) d (mvessel $ vvessel) d (m particles $ v particles)

F= · =0 & =
dt dt dt

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Action-Reaction Vessel System
boundary

The particles
colliding against
F particles the vessel walls
generate a
THRUST force

d (mvessel $ vvessel)
Thrust = Fparticles = = mvessel $ avessel
dt
Taking the vessel as the system under observation, the particles exert a force
external to the system, which creates an acceleration
Therefore, the vessel starts moving (is unrestrained otherwise)

The force generating the vessel motion is called Thrust

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Combustion

HEAT
The fuel and oxidizer are chemical species
with great affinity fuel oxidizer

There is potential energy in the form of

chemical energy in the fuel
When combined in the combustion
chamber one or various new compounds
are produced and the molecules gain
kinetic energy increasing the pressure and
temperature in the combustion chamber
If a continuous flow of fuel and oxidizer is
pumped into the chamber, the reaction can
continue at a steady rate and a continuous
thrust is produced. Combustion chamber

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Newton’s Laws – Conservation of Momentum

d(mv)
Newton's second Law; F=
dt
Let us consider the system formed by a rocket and the exhaust gases
There are no external forces acting on this system, therefore

/F =0=
system
/
system
d (mv)
dt
d
& (mgases vgases) =
dt
d
dt
(Mrocket vrocket)

System boundary

mgases
Mrocket

Vrocket
Vgases

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 GENERATION OF THRUST
Thrust Power

Considering now the rocket as our system of interest:

The increase in exhaust velocity of the gases with respect to the
combustion chamber, which is now moving with the rocket, is constant
d (mrocket $ vrocket) d (mgases $ vgases)
Thrust = =
dt dt
• Power = force · velocity
• Thrust power = Thrust_Force · Rocket_velocity
Rocket System
boundary
Mrocket
(generated by
Vrocket Thrust force
the reaction of
the exhaust
gases)

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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES dm
mass flow = mo =
Power Balance dt
The chemical energy contained in the Fuel + Oxidizer is converted into
pressure and heat during the combustion
HV is the specific energy per unit mass (Heating Value) contained in the fuel
The pressure accelerates the exhaust gases and produces a thrust force and
useful mechanical power
Thermal loses

Combustion chamber

AIR
FUEL

Kinetic energy per unit time

Chemical energy per unit (mechanical power) of
time (chemical power) exhaust gases

oQ = DQ = Dm fuel HV 1 o + o
Dt Dt Powerexhaust = 2
(m fuel mair) $ v exhaust
2
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Main Types of Aircraft Propulsion Systems

Propeller + piston engine Turboprop

Turbofan Turbojet

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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES
Propulsive Efficiency

These two propulsive systems produce the same thrust by generating a “jump” in the
momentum (Δm·v) of the system

D (mv)
F= = Thrust = Dm $ Dv
Dt Dt

Large (Dm) $ Small(Dv) Small(Dm) $ Large (Dv)

Thrust = =
Dt Dt
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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES
Propulsive Efficiency

These two propulsive systems produce the same thrust by generating a “jump” in the
momentum (Δm·v) of the system
Mass or air moved in a second = 976 lb =
442.7Kg
Velocity change = 200 ft/s =
60.96 m/s
Kinetic Energy left in the air per second =
K= ½ m·v2 = 0.5 · 442.7 · 60.962 = 822 KJ

Mass or air moved in a second = 122 lb =

55.33 Kg
Velocity change = 1600 ft/s =
487.68 m/s
To generate the same Thrust, the jet engine leaves Kinetic Energy left in the air per second =
behind 8 times more energy in the air than the propeller
K= ½ m·v2 = 0.5 · 55.33 · 487.68 2 = 6579 KJ
engine (Remember that Energy-per-unit time is Power)
Propulsion systems with high exhaust velocities are
very ineficcient at low speeds

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Principles

The turbojet engine consists of four sections:

Compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section and exhaust.
The compressor section passes inlet air at a high pressure to the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion.
The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor,transferring the power required to compress the inlet air.
The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust. This is a basic
application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture, producing power to self-
sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for propulsion.
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Brayton Cycle

Volume
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Thrust Equation

d(mv)
Newton's second Law; F=
dt
dm = o
Thrust = F = dv m (Vs - V3)
dt

Increased kinetic
energy in the
slipstream

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Thrust Equation
Energy change in the control volume

= - + 1 2
- 1 2
Energyin mhs mh3 mV s mV3
2 2
Power change in the control volume

o o 1 o 1 o
2
Pin = mhs - mh3 + mV s - mV32
2 2

Powerin = mo ; hs - h3 + E
2 2
V - V s 3
2 2
Change in entalphy Change in kinetic energy
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Thrust Equation

We assume no change in enthalpy (internal energy + pV)

Powerin = mo ; E = (Vs - V3) (Vs + V3)

V V mos
2 2
3
-
2 2 2

TV
hp = 3 Propulsive efficiency
Pin

mo (Vs - V3) V3
2V3 = 1
hp = =
mo - + Vs + V3 (Vs - V3)
(V V3) (Vs V3) 1+
2 s 2V3

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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES
Propulsive Efficiency

The same thrust force can be obtained with;

-a small increase of velocity of a large mass of gas (case of a propeller)
-A large increase of velocity of a small mass of gas (a rocket or jet engine)

Large (Dm) $ Small (Dv) Small (Dm) $ Large (Dv)

Thrust = =
Dt Dt

However, the kinetic energy in the exhaust or propeller wake is

proportional to the square of the velocity. Therefore, for the same level of
thrust, it takes more mechanical energy to generate large velocity increases
in the exhaust gases
Generally it is more efficient to move a large mass of air at low speed
(propellers tend to have more propulsive efficiency at their optimum regime
of operation)

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Flight Regimes for Optimum Propulsive Efficiency

Propellers lose efficiency

when the blade tip velocity
reaches supersonic
speeds due to the drag
increase produced by
shock waves (consider
the vector sum of the
forward speed and the
rotational speed)
The propulsive
efficiency is always 0
at zero forward speed

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOFAN ENGINE
Engine Installation

For a good engine installation and

Engine integration on the aircraft, the nacelle must
be carefully designed

Nacelle

The nacelle shall have

low friction drag and a
shape and area distribution
designed to adapt the flow
velocity to the inlet and
exhaust requirements

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
mo = tAV
Turbojet Thrust Equation

Nacelle
Drag

Uninstalled Thrust Additive Drag

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Uninstalled Thrust

Let F be the uninstalled Thrust

Increase in momentum of the exhaust
gases at the exhaust. Note that the
exhaust mass flow includes the fuel
mass flow

F = mo e Ve - mo i V3 + Ae (pe - p3)
If pe > pinf there will be an additional increase in
momentum of the exhaust gases as these expand in the
slipstream until the pressure of the slipstream is
equalised with the atmospheric pressure

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Static Thrust Equation

Uninstalled Thrust with zero forward speed. p e is

assumed equal to the far field pressure

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Static Thrust Equation

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
AFTERBURNER

To increase the thrust of military

turbojets fuel can be injected in
the exhaust
This produces a secondary
combustion using air not burnt in
the combustion chamber
The thrust increase is significant,
but the fuel consumption is very
large so the “afterburner” is only
switched on for special
maneouvres or tactics

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Additive Drag and Nacelle drag

Nacelle Drag, depends on

the shape, length and quality
Additive and nacelle drag are a consequence of the nacelle
of the forward speed
pi is > pinf -> this term of the additive drag is
caused by the energy spent in the
compression of the air captured by the engine

Additive_Drag = mo i (Vi - V3) + Ai (pi - p3)

Decrease in momentum of the air
captured by the inlet

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW. TOTAL PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE
If the fluid is incompressible or the fluid velocity is well below the speed
of sound (for air, below M0.4) Bernouilli equation applies
1
=
p0 p + tV2
2
Wheere p is the static pressure, p0 is the total pressure, ρ is the density and V the fluid velocity

The “total pressure” is a measure of the total internal energy including

internal energy in the static pressure and the kinetic energy of the flow
The total pressure is equal to the “stagnation pressure”, which is the
static pressure that would be measured at a “stagnation” point, i.e., a
point where a streamline with far field values of p, ρ and V stops at a
surface
p, ρ, V p0

Stagnation point

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW. TOTAL PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE
When the fluid is compressible, and practically for air when the
freestream speed is close to the speed of sound, the fluid gets
compressed by its inertia in the process of reaching a stagnation point
The applicable equation is derived from thermodynamics;
c

p0 = p;1 + $ t E
c-1 1 V 2 c-1

c 2 p
At the stagnation point the temperature is increased with respect to the
freestream temperature due to the compression process, assumed
adiabatic (no loss or addition of heat) and isentropic (no loses due to
internal fluid friction)
The equations for total pressure and total temperature are usually
expressed as a function of the flight Mach number as;
T =c +
M2 m
-c

c Mm
p c-1 2 c-1 c - 1 -1

= 1+ 1
p0 2 T0 2

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Additive Drag and engine inlet matching

Let us study the key engine parameters affecting the additive drag

Additive_Drag = mo i (Vi - V3) + Ai (pi - p3)

Using the definition of mass flow; mo = tVA

Dadd = Ai 6 ti ^Vi2 - Vi V3h + pi - p3 @

where Ai is the inlet area.
Introducing the state equation of an ideal gas;

p = tRT
Dadd = Ai 8 ^Vi - Vi V3h + pi - p3 B
pi 2
RTi

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Additive Drag and engine inlet matching

from the equation for the speed of sound (a) and the definition of Mach
number (M);

a = cRT Speed of Sound

= V Mach number
M
a
T3 + 1 m - E
Dadd = Ai p3 ;c c Mi2 - Mi M3
pi
1
p3 Ti c

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Additive Drag and engine inlet matching

Using the thermodynamic expressions for total conditions (pressure

and temperature)

T =c +
M2 m
-c
c - 1 -1

= c1 + Mm
p c-1 2 c -1
1
p0 2 T0 2

T3 /T03 + 1 - E
Dadd = Ai p3 ;c c Mi2 - Mi M3 m 1
pi /p0
p3 /p03 Ti /Toi c

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

To obtain an insight into the engine thermal performance as a function

of engine parameters we shall study the termodynamic clycle followed by
the working fluid along a single shaft turbojet engine
Assumptions:
The fluid flow is isentropic (reversible). This is an ideal model
which assumes no losses due to generation of entropy (no internal
fluid or mechanical friction)
The working fluid is air (we ignore the products of combustion)

3 3

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The fluid is compressed from freestream conditions following a reversible

(no entropy losses) and adiabatic (no addition or loss of energy)
compression.

mo 8C p (T1 - T3) + (V12 - V32) B = mC

1 o p (T01 - T03) = 0
2
T01 = T03 = T3 c1 + M3 m
c-1 2
2
c

p01 = p03 = p3 c1 + M3 m
c-1 2 c-1

2
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The fluid is compressed by the compressor between stations 1 and 2 in

an (assumed) isentropic process (no losses)

c-1

T02 = T01 c m
p02 c

p01

p02
p02 = p01
p01

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis
Heat addition Heat addition

The fuel is injected and ignited at the combustion chamber

The combustion takes place at constant pressure (p03 = p02) and the
combustion gasses are expanded
The mass of fuel added is much smaller than the mass of air

mo e = mo i = mo
p03 = p02

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The combustion process takes place at an almost constant flow velocity,

thus V3 = V2
The heat added by the fuel (energy) is used to increase the total
temperature of the mass of working fluid at constant pressure
Specific heat coefficient at constant pressure
0

Qo 2 " 3 = mo 8C p (T3 - T2) + (V32 - V22) B = mC

1 o p (T03 - T02)
2
Heat added by the Total temperature
fuel per unit of increase
time

Qo 2 " 3
Heat addition Mass flow of working fluid

T03 = T02 + o
mC p

p03 = p02 Combustion at constant pressure

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

Part of the work generated by the expansion of the gas in the

turbine (3-4) is used for the compression of the air (1-2)

After the combustion chamber, the working fluid goes through the turbine
in an (assumed) isentropic expansion
c-1
T04 = c p04 m c

T03 p03
The turbine extracts some energy from the working fluid which is used
integrally (no loses, as an assumption) to compress the air in the
compressor. The turbine and the compressor are connected by a shaft
Wo 1 " 2 + Wo 3 " 4 = 0
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The nozzle is designed to allow an efficient expansion of the working

fluid after the turbine. This is an isentropic expansion.
c-1 c-1
T0e = c p0e m c T0e = c p0e m c
= 1+
c-1 2
Me
T04 p04 Te pe 2
In this phase, the flow is accelerated and the static pressure is reduced
In a nozzle well adapted to the cruise conditions, the static pressure at
the end of the exhaust is the same as the atmospheric pressure at the flight
altitude pe = p3
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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

Applying the first law of thermodynamics between the inlet of the

compressor and the outlet of the turbine;

Heat coefficient at
Power required by the compression in the compressor
constant pressure

Power extracted in the turbine

=
o p (T04 - T01) + Wo 1 " 2 + Wo 3 " 4 = Qo 2 " 3
mC
Mass flow per unit Chemical power added in
time of working fluid Total temperature increase the combustion chamber

o p (T0e - T04) = 0
mC o p (T04 - T01) + Wo 1 " 2 + Wo 3 " 4 = Qo 2 " 3
mC
and, likewise, between the turbine outlet to the exhaust;

o p (T0e - T04) = 0
mC
No heat added or lost, isentropic
and adiabatic expansion

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

from the previous equations, the conditions at the exhaust are;

Qo 2 " 3 2 =c p0e m - 1G
c-1
c
T0e = T04 = T01 + o M =2
mC p e
c - 1 p3

c c-1

c T04 m Te = T0e c m
c-1 p3 c
= =
p0e p04 p03 p0e
T03

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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES
Overall Propulsive efficiency

To generate motion we need to generate thrust

In Engineering, it is important to reduce the amount of energy used to
produce a desired effect (for example, generating thrust)
The efficiency of a propulsive system is measured by the “Overall Propulsive
Efficiency”, which should be as high as possible in order to save fuel

Overall propulsive efficiency η is the ratio of useful propulsive energy produced

by the propulsive system to the chemical energy contained in the propellant
thrust power
h=h
hTc hPp = Overall propulsive efficiency =
chemical power

where ηt is the thermodynamic cycle efficiency and ηp is the propulsive efficiency.

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 BASIC PROPULSION PRINCIPLES
Overall Propulsive efficiency
The cycle efficiency is the proportion of energy that can be derived from the energy
source that is converted to mechanical energy by the engine. In thermal engines there is
a loss of useful energy due to mechanical friction and wasted heat. On current jet
engines cycle efficiency ranges from 40% to 50%.

useful mechanical power

hc = cycle efficiency =
chemical power

The propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful mechanical energy that the engine
delivers to the actual propulsive power produced by the propulsion system. It is always
less than 1 due to friction losess and, very importantly, to kinetic energy lost in the
exhaust gases

thrust power
hc = propulsive efficiency =
useful mechanical power

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The “efficiency” of conversion of energy is the ratio of energy input to the

useful work output
The efficiencies in a turbojet are; Increase of kinetic
energy rate of the
working fluid

Thermal efficiency
mo (V e2 - V32) /2
hT = Chemical energy rate

Qo 2 " 3
provided by the fuel

Thrust power
FV
Propulsive efficiency hP = o 2 3 2
m (V e - V3) /2 Increase of kinetic
energy rate of the
working fluid

OVERALL FV
hO = o 3 = hT hP
Propulsive efficiency Q2 " 3

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The increase in kinetic energy rate of the working fluid provided by the
turbojet engine is, thus;

2=
c m c m c
mo m o T T c - 1 -1
p
(V e2 - V32) = Q2o 2 "cRT(1 -
3 M32
) e
= -
Qo M 1 - 1 + M 2
2 3
T02e T3 2 " 33 2 3
p

which, using the previous equations, can be expressed as;

= G
c-1

c m
M3 c m
mo o T3 o c-1 2 p01 -1
c
(V - V3) = Q2 " 3 (1 - ) = Q2 " 3 1 - 1 +
2 2
2 e T02 2 p02

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermal efficiency

and so, the thermal efficiency of a turbojet is;

The thermal efficiency
increases if the
T3
hT = 1 - temperature of the
combustion chamber is
T02 increased

this can be expressed also as; The thermal efficiency increases

with higher compression ratios:
“Overall Pressure Ratio”, OPR

c-1

c m c m
c-1 2 p01
-1
c
hT = 1 - 1 + M3
2 p02
The thermal efficiency increases
with higher flight Mach numbers

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thermal efficiency and OPR

Overall Pressure Ratio, OPR, is an important parameter for

turbojet/turbofan thermal efficiency
The historical trend is to increase the OPR as compressor technology
evolves. An upper limit exists related to the maximum turbine temperature
that the engine can tolerate

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Thrust and Specific Thrust

Assuming a matched condition (the exhaust gas has expanded fully and
thus the exhaust pressure pe is equal to the ambient pressure pinf), the
thrust can be expressed as a function of the thermodynamic variables as;

F = mo (V e - V 3) = mo cRT3 c Me
Te - m
M3
T3
The thrust force produced per unit of mass of working fluid per second is
called specific thrust;

* 2 =c p04 m c - 1 2 -1 G T03
- M3 4
c-1 c-1
F = -c m
p01 c1 + M3 m
c c
cRT
mo 3
c - 1 p03 p02 2 T3

The size and weight of jet engines grow with the mass flow that needs to
go through the system and therefore a high specific thrust is associated to
high thrust to weight ratios

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet Engine. Propulsive efficiency

In terms of the thermodynamic variables and Mach numbers, the

propulsive efficiency is;

2M3 = 2V3
hp =
Me Te /T3 + M3 Ve + V3

For high propulsive efficiency, the exhaust temperature and Mach

numbers should be as similar as possible to the ambient values (otherwise,
energy is left behind in the slipstream as heat and kinetic energy)

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbofan Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

The Turbofan engine consists of a core (similar to a turbojet) and a fan

driven by a turbine

Bypass flow

Core flow

Bypass flow

The ratio of fan to core flow is called “Bypass ratio”

ob
m Mass flow of the bypass (fan)

Rb = o
mc Mass flow of the core

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbofan Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

Assuming reversible and ideal processes, the thermal efficiency of the

turbofan is given by the same equation as that of the pure turbojet

c-1

hT = 1 - c1 + M3 m c m
c - 1 2 -1 p01 c

2 p02

The thermal efficiency of an ideal turbofan does not depend on the fan flow
characteristics
The kinetic energy transferred by the fan to the airflow is extracted by the
turbine and since the process is lossless, the net energy balance is maintained

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbofan Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

In ideal conditions, both the core and bypass airflow undergo a full
expansion down to ambient pressure and thus the uninstalled thrust is;

F = mo c (Ve - V3) + mo b (Vb - V3)

Tb - mE
F = mo c cRT3 ; Me M3 + Rb c Mb
Te -
M3
T3 T3

The propulsive efficiency of the turbofan is therefore;

2FV 3
hP = o
mc (V e2 - V 32) + mo b (V b2 - V 32)

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbofan Engine. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis

Due to the large bypass mass flow which is given a small velocity
increase, the propulsive efficiency of turbofans is much higher than that for
pure turbojets at certain flight regimes, in particular at the typical cruise
speed of commercial aircraft (M 0.8)
2FV3
hP = o
mc (V e2 - V32 ) + mo b (V b2 - V32 )

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

The fuel burnt by the jet engine is used to generate thrust

The efficiency of this conversion can be represented by the ratio of fuel
mass flow to thrust force, called Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC);

mo fuel V3
SFC = =
T hT $ hP $ HV
HV = fuel Heating Value, measure of the heat addition potential of the fuel

SFC is normally expressed in Kg/Kgf/hour or lb/lbf/hour

Typical values of SFC for modern turbofan engines are in the order of

SFCtypical ≈ 0.5 Kg/Kgf/hour

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS Ki log rams_of_fuel
SFC =
Ki log rams_force_of_thrust $ hour
Specific Fuel Consumption - SFC
Specific Fuel Consumption is a very important parameter describing the efficiency of a propulsion
system
It is measured in Kilograms of fuel used to generate a kilogram-force of thrust during one hour
Kg/(Kgf · hour)

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Propulsive efficiency trends

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
SFC trends

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Specific Impulse
Specific impulse (Isp) is a way to describe
the efficiency of rocket and jet engines. It
represents the impulse (change in
momentum) per unit amount of propellant
used.
The higher the specific impulse, the less
propellant is needed to gain a given amount
of momentum.
Specific impulse is a useful value to
compare engines, a propulsion method with
a higher specific impulse is more propellant-
efficient.

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Engine Thrust Ratings
The engine rating is the level of thrust delivered
There are various types of ratings. The highest thrust levels are
associated to high turbine temperatures and are limited in time to
avoid damage.

Max take-off thrust: only used at take-off (5 to 10min max)

Max-continuous thrust: used in case of emergency (loss of one
engine). May require inspection of the engine after landing.
Max-climb thrust: maximum for normal operation in flight, usually used
for climb
Max-cruise thrust: maximum for normal cruise
Flight idle: min idle for descent
Ground idle: minimum thrust compatible with engine stable operation

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Engine Thrust Ratings

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOJET ENGINE
Turbojet/Turbofan Engine. Effect of Mach number

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOFAN ENGINE
Turbofan Thrust. Altitude and Mach effects

T=Thrust

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 PROPULSION SYSTEMS – TURBOFAN ENGINE
Turbofan Thrust. Altitude and Mach effects
The SFC for a typical turbofan has a minimum at a given airspeed which
is a function of the thrust rating and the altitude
It is important to match the lowest SFC point to the mission of the aircraft

Private & Confidential – RCL2012